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The goal of physical education (PE) is to assist students in the development of physical activity habits that will last a lifetime. To achieve this, PE teachers must shift beyond only teaching sports and games during instructional periods. Strength and conditioning programming is one alternative available to PE teachers. This article provides an overview of the benefits of strength and conditioning for youth and an example of one high school implementing strength and conditioning as part of its PE program while following the guidelines laid out in the two position statements on youth resistance training.

We aimed to assess the test-retest reliability of five muscle strength and physical function tests in healthy children. Forty-one children (6--9 years) were tested three times 4-10 days apart. The test protocol included maximal isometric leg press, hand grip strength, squat jump, long jump, and a 30-sec sit-to-stand test (STST). When comparing test round 1 with 2 and 2 with 3, we found good-to-excellent retest reliability of leg press (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC = 0.87 and ICC = 0.94), hand grip (ICC = 0.90 and ICC = 0.94), and long jump (ICC = 0.86 and ICC = 0.87). Initially, there was a moderate reliability of squat jump (ICC = 0.71), which was improved to ICC = 0.82 (round 2-3). Similarly, reliability of STST was improved from low (ICC = 0.63) to moderate reliability (ICC = 0.78). We conclude that leg press, hand grip, squat jump, and long jump tests are reliable measurements of children's muscle strength and function, even without familiarization. Contrary, STST requires familiarization to ensure adequate reliability.

Purpose: To estimate temporal trends in broad jump performance for United States youth, a marker of muscular fitness and health. Method: Electronic databases, topical systematic reviews, and personal libraries were systematically searched for studies reporting descriptive standing broad jump data for apparently healthy United States youth (age 10-17 years). Temporal trends at the sex-age level were estimated using sample-weighted regression models associating the year of testing to mean jump performance, with national trends standardized to the year 1985 using a post-stratified population-weighting procedure. Results: Collectively, there was a small increase of 12.6 cm (95%CI: 12.5 to 12.7) or 7.9% (95%CI: 7.1 to 8.6) in 65,527 United States youth between 1911 and 1990. Increases were greater for girls (change in means [95% CI]: 17.1 cm [16.9 to 17.3]; 11.4% [10.7 to 12.2]) compared to boys (change in means [95% CI]: 8.5 cm [8.3 to 8.7]; 4.6% [3.8 to 5.4]), but did not differ between children (10-12 years) and adolescents (13-17 years). Increases in broad jump performance were not always uniform across time, with steady and progressive increases observed for boys and children, respectively, and a diminishing rate of increase observed for girls and adolescents. Conclusions: Muscular fitness is a good marker of health, so greater broad jump performance from 1911 to 1990 may reflect corresponding changes in health. Routine assessment of broad jump performance may be useful to monitor trends in health and muscular fitness of United States youth due to its practicality, scalability, and predictive utility.

Purpose: To analyze the contribution of physical measures and external load in the match-based internal load of elite soccer players. Methods: Twenty-three elite soccer players (n = 23, age 26.69 ± 3.93 years, body mass 78.04 ± 5.03 kg, height 178.04 ± 5.19 cm, body fat 10.98 ± 1.25%) from a first division soccer team of the Brazilian Championship were evaluated first with anthropometric and physical measures (flexibility and muscle power of lower limbs), and after 24 hrs they were asked to perform an incremental treadmill test (VO[subscript 2]max and ventilatory thresholds). Subsequently, athletes were monitored for 6 weeks during nine official matches of a regional championship. On match days, the external load data (e.g., player load) were collected by triaxial accelerometers with GPS systems and post 30 min after the end of the match the internal load was assessed with the Session Rating of Perceived Exertion method (Session-RPE). Results: Our main findings showed significant contributions of the Player Load (r = 0.62, p < 0.001; 42.3%) and Anaerobic Threshold (r = -0.199, p = 0.05, 17%) for the predictive model of Session-RPE. Conclusions: Physical measures and external load have a significant influence on the internal load in elite soccer players. Our findings suggest that sport scientists can use the Session-RPE as a low-cost method for prescribing and monitoring training loads, by the influence of physical measures and external load on the match-based internal load, in order to optimize athletes' performance.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare strength-endurance handgrip performance and muscle coactivation between judo athletes and untrained young males. Method: The sample was 38 judo athletes and 38 untrained young males, between 12 and 15 years-old. Maturational status was evaluated by age at peak height velocity. A maximal isometric handgrip test (three 5-s repetitions, with 90-s intervals) and an isometric strength-endurance handgrip test (ten 10-s all-out isometric handgrip repetitions, 20-s intervals) was conducted in dominant (D) and nondominant (ND) hands, using a dynamometer with EMG monitor to detect muscle activation. Results: ANCOVA analysis, controlling for maturational status, showed that judo athletes had higher values of maximal absolute (D = 33.6 ± 8.9 kgf vs 29.1 ± 9.0 kgf; ND = 33.8 ± 9.9 kgf vs 28.1 ± 8.1 kgf) and relative strength to body mass (D = 0.64 ± 0.12 kg/kgf vs 0.57 ± 0.13 kg/kgf; ND = 0.64 ± 0.16 kg/kgf vs 0.56 ± 0.14 kg/kgf). Moreover, judo athletes presented lower strength mean fatigue index (33.2 ± 6.9 % vs 37.9 ± 8.7 %) and muscle coactivation (48 ± 19.8 % vs 57.5 ± 22 %), only in the dominant hand, during the isometric strength-endurance handgrip test. During all repetitions of isometric endurance test there were no group or interaction between factors effects for absolute strength, relative strength and muscle coactivation. Conclusion: In summary, judo athletes present higher maximal absolute and relative strength and strength-endurance performance, concomitantly with decreased muscles co-activation (primary in dominant hand) during handgrip tests.

Health-related fitness (HRF) is theoretically defined as a multidimensional construct containing the components cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body composition. Given the range of field-based HRF tests available, health practitioners face a difficult task in selecting tests that best reflect the HRF construct as defined in the literature. This study aimed to investigate the underlying factor structure of the theoretical HRF construct with a view to identifying field-based tests representative of HRF in youth. Participants were 261 children (53% female, 47% male; mean age 12.22 ± 0.48 years). Indicators of four fitness components (20m shuttle run, curl-ups, push-ups, horizontal jump, vertical jump, handgrip, and modified back-saver sit-and-reach) were measured. Confirmatory factor analysis of the four-component model revealed a low contribution of flexibility (0.10) to the overall model, leading to its removal. The subsequent three-component model showed better fit across all fit statistics (NFI, TLI, CFI, RMSEA, SRMR). Analysis of indicator loadings led to the removal of handgrip (0.37), further improving model fit. The reduced three-component model was re-specified as a first-order model containing five indicators, and showed the best fit (NFI, CFI, SRMR). These findings suggest that a fitness construct in youth is adequately represented by three HRF components included in the theoretical definition (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance). These components load onto the same construct and can be tested using five tests (20m shuttle run, curl-ups, push-ups, horizontal jump, vertical jump) suitable for field-based research.

The association between physical fitness and age-related differences in cognition and brain structure has been studied fairly extensively during development and aging, yet comparatively less in young adulthood. The current study examined 1,195 young adults aged 22 to 36 (54% female; 67% Caucasian) to better understand associations between physical fitness--grip strength and submaximal cardiovascular endurance--and age-related differences in executive function (EF), memory, and average cortical thickness. EF, memory, and cortical thickness were negatively associated with age, and higher endurance was positively associated with EF and memory. Neither physical fitness measure associated with cortical thinning. To follow-up on these analyses, data from monozygotic (n = 149 pairs) and dizygotic (n = 93 pairs) twins were used to estimate the degree to which heritability versus environment might contribute to the observed associations between cognition and endurance. Environmental effects shared by monozygotic and dizygotic twins alike were estimated to account for roughly 50% of the correlation between endurance and cognition (EF and memory). Heritability and nonshared environmental effects were inconsistent across EF and memory. Overall, these findings suggest an association between cardiovascular endurance and age-related differences in cognition in young adulthood and that these associations may be independent of cortical thinning. Whereas there was consistent evidence for a moderate contribution of the shared environment, there was limited and inconsistent evidence for a role of heritability.

Musculoskeletal fitness is important for adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) to maintain cardiovascular fitness, functional independence, and work task performance, and to reduce the risk of chronic diseases and other disabilities. However, adults with ID typically have significantly lower musculoskeletal fitness compared with their peers without a disability. Appropriate instructional strategies are needed to facilitate their acquisition and maintenance of musculoskeletal fitness. In this study, three adults with moderate ID, aged 19-20 years, were selected to evaluate the effects of a multi-component treatment package that included a video-enhanced system of least-to-most prompts (LMP) on their acquisition of two muscle-strengthening machine exercises. Results from a multiple-baseline-across-participants single-subject design show substantive gains in correct and independent performance of steps in the two exercises during the treatment condition. The improved performance in both exercises was maintained 1 week and 2 weeks after the last treatment session and appeared to have extended to a large fitness room. The study suggests that use of the video-enhanced system of LMP as an additional or alternate type of instruction can lead to improved acquisition and maintenance of muscle-strengthening exercises by young adults with moderate ID.

Several motor disabilities accompanied with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are widely known despite limited reports of underlying neural mechanisms. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels in the motor-related cortical areas modulate several motor performances in healthy participants. We hypothesized that abnormal GABA concentrations in the primary motor area (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) associate with different motor difficulties for ASD adolescents/adults. We found that increased GABA concentrations in M1 measured using 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy exhibited lower motor performance in tasks requiring increased muscle strength while lower GABA concentrations in SMA were associated with lower scores in tests measuring body coordination. The degrees of neural inhibition in the M1 and SMA regions would contribute to different dimensions of motor disabilities in autism.

Background: The cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is high in adults with intellectual disabilities. This CVD risk can potentially be decreased with a resistance training (RT) programme at vigorous intensity, following previous research on successful High-Intensity Training programmes. Our aim was to explore the feasibility of a vigorous RT-programme for adults with intellectual disabilities with CVD risk factors. Method: Twenty-four adults with intellectual disabilities with at least one CVD risk factor participated in a 24-week RT-programme. The training intensity was increased from novice (50%1RM) to vigorous (75%-80%1RM). Feasibility was based on the achieved training intensity at the end of the RT-programme. Results: Nineteen participants finished the RT-programme. Feasibility was good as 58% (11 out of 19) of the participants worked out at vigorous intensity at the end of the programme. Conclusions: It is feasible for the majority of adults with intellectual disabilities with CVD risk factors to exercise at vigorous intensity.

Due to COVID-19, children have not been able to go to school and move enough since March 2020. In this process, the measures taken such as the prolongation of the stay at home, social isolation, and quarantine caused children to delay their physical activities and stay away from these activities. As a result, this may have caused weakness in the musculoskeletal system of the children. Therefore, children can be given simple and applicable core exercises to increase their trunk-muscle endurance and improve mobility and flexibility, in online education at home or in physical education classes at school. These exercise drills will be beneficial for protecting children's health, preventing injuries, and strengthening the core. Moreover, many of these drills do not require any extra equipment. In conclusion, the purpose of this article is to provide practical ideas about how to apply core training exercises for children at home.

The aim of this study consists of the analysis of certain differences in motor skills of male children who are sedentary and in the age group of 9-14, in relation to the biological maturity. 522 sedentary male children from various parts of Turkey participated in this study. Body height and body weight measurements were taken from the participants in order to determine their body mass indexes while finger grip strength, hand grip strength, standing long jump test, med ball throwing test, flexibility test (sit-reach), active jump test, anaerobic power test, 20 meter sprint, pro-agility test and 20 meter shuttle run tests were applied in order to determine certain motor skill levels of the participants. The motor skill levels of the participants were noticed to show significant differences generally based on the age groups (p<0.05). The biological maturity levels of the participants were determined to be a factor which significantly affected the performances of the participants in aerobic durability, right and left hand grip strength, right and left finger grip strength, flexibility, med ball throwing, standing long jump and sargent jump (p<0.05). On the other hand, the findings regarding the speed performances were observed to show conflicting results, therefore biological maturity was found not to be a determinant over the 20 meter speed performance. As a result, certain motor skill differences in relation with biological maturity were observed in the sedentary male students of the 9-14 age group. Therefore, it can be stated that in order to reach reliable results, considering the biological maturity levels of the students along with the obtained test scores in sports skills qualification tests can be beneficial.

Problem Statement: Student candidates who want to be a Physical Education Teacher in Turkey should take special ability exams of Physical Education and Sports Schools. In this exam, it is required to have a high physical capability apart from a high level of special branch skills. For this reason, the students who pass and start their education at physical education and sports schools either have a good history of sports or they are active sportsmen or they have passed through a good training period. In other terms, they have high levels of physical and physiological capacity. But, the density of the curriculum at physical education teaching departments at Physical Education and Sports Schools, redundancy of theoretical courses which are defined and forced by Higher Education Council in Turkey to all the Physical Education and Sports Schools and from time to time the obligation to make a choice between school and active sportsmanship pull students away from active sportsmanship and regular training. After a dense curriculum program, the majority of students prefer education instead of sport activities and thus, when they reach their final year, they turn into sedentary people. This contradiction in the education of physical education teachers which is a model for the community and carries the task of selecting gifted people and directing people to sports for sustaining a healthy and quality life is thought-provoking. Purpose of Study: In this study, it is aimed to measure and evaluate some physical and physiological parameters of students attending physical education and sports schools from the first year on until the fourth year by taking the arguments given above. Methods: 70 male, 50 female and in total 120 students attending to Afyon Kocatepe University School of Physical Education and Sports took part in this study. Some physical and physiological parameters of the students were measured for three years in the Fall semester in November beginning from the first year on and in their final year, the measurements were made in the Spring term in May. Their weights, heights, body fat percentages, body mass indices and flexibilities, vertical jumps, anaerobic powers and aerobic capacities were identified with these measurements. Repeated measures analysis was used for statistical evaluation. The results were evaluated between 0,01 and 0,05 levels. Findings and Results: Body weights, BMIs, body fat percentages, flexibility levels, anaerobic powers and aerobic capacities of students who go through an intense and difficult exam to matriculate School of Physical Education and Sports are at levels of sportsmen. These performance levels of students decrease each passing year. These traits decline even to the levels of sedentary people in the fourth year. Conclusions and Recommendations: The students of School of Physical Education and Sports have an intense syllabus and the excess of theoretical courses prevent from regular training. Also, students in our country have to prepare for a tough theoretical exam after graduating university in order to be a teacher. This obligation moves them away from sporting activities in their free times remaining form school. In the light of this result, it is necessary to revise curriculums of Physical Education and Sports Schools in our country which train students to be teachers both for students, sportsmen and teaching staff.

In this study, it's aimed to evaluate the relation between dominant and non-dominant hand perimeters and handgrip strength of basketball, volleyball, badminton and handball athletes. Totally 101 active athletes (49 females, 52 male), of the average age in female 20±1.42 years, in male 21±1.99 years, joined to this study. Height, body weight, BMI (Body Mass Index) and handgrip strength of all the athletes were measured according to international standards. Hand perimeters were measured at a certain standard with digital camera and was calculated with the software developed. The data was analyzed by SPSS 22 programme and Student t test, Pearson Correlation test and One Way Anova was applied. A significance level of p <0.05 was adopted in the analysis. Results of the analysis showed that dominant and non-dominant handgrips of athletes in all disciplines and gender are significantly different and hand and finger perimeters developing different depending on the way they use the ball or racket grip.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks plyometric training on anaerobic power, counter movement jumping and isokinetic strength in 15-18 years aged basketball players. This study was including 30 male Basketball players. The subjects were divided into two groups as: the experimental group (n = 15) and the control group (n = 15). The combine training (The plyometric training and techniques-tactics) was performed by the experimental group for eight weeks. The control group was performed only techniques-tactics basketball training for eight weeks. Performance measurement; WAnT anaerobic power test, 60° and 180° s-1 isokinetic leg strength: for right and left legs, multiple jumping and vertical jumping test were performed by the subject pre and post training. Within statistical analysis, the significance of differences between these groups was tested. The arithmetic mean and standard deviation were used as descriptive statistics and Shapiro-Wilk test was used for normality distribution. While comparing paired groups Wilcoxon signed rank test was performed, Mann-Whitney U test was used for comparing independent groups. Statistical significance was taken as 0.05. According to the result of comparison between groups; It was found that exercise had significantly effect on Peak Power (w/kg), Average Power (w), Average Power (w/kg) and Power Drop (w/kg) in experimental group (p < 0,05). While significant difference was found in Right leg 60° Hamstring and Quadriceps peak torch of experimental group (p < 0,05), there was no significant difference in pre- and post-training in Isokinetic leg power parameters of control group (p>0.05). In addition, significantly differences were found in free jump, 120° Squat jump and Active jump values of Vertical jump parameters for experimental group (p < 0,05).

The aim of this study was determine the effects of different environment temperatures on motor characteristics and muscle strength. 15 athletes participated to study. Flexibility, vertical jump, hand grip-leg strength, 30m sprint, 20-meter shuttle run and coordination-agility tests were measured in five different environment temperatures. (22°C, 10,5°C, 0°C, -5,5°C ,-11°C). Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine whether the data showed normal distribution. ANOVA was used to compare the data for normal distribution and Kruskal-Wallis-H test was used for showing not normal distribution. Additionally, Tukey test and Mann-Whitney U test were used for meaningful difference. The significance levels were taken as 0.01 and 0.05. Significant changes were found all measured parameters compared to cold environment and Significant differences were found in all motor scores except anaerobic capacity (p <0.05). In all sport activities done in hot environment, higher efficiency is obtained compared to those done in cold environment and therefore, performances of athletes increase depending on the environment temperature.

The aim of this study was to examine muscle strength and flexibility of judoka with and without visual impairments. A total of 32 male national judoka volunteered to participate in this study. There were 20 male judoka without visual impairments (mean ± SD; age: 19.20 ± 5.76 years, body weight: 66.45 ± 11.09 kg, height: 169.60 ± 7.98 cm, sport age: 6.20 ± 1.15 years). There were 12 male judoka with visual impairments (mean ± SD; age: 24.50 ± 4.06 years, body weight: 75.58 ± 22.49 kg, height: 173.50 ± 7.23 cm, sport age: 8.08 ± 1.44 years). Judoka were also assessed on several strength measurements including standing long jump, right hand grip, left hand grip, vertical jump, leg strength, sit-up and push up, and flexibility with sit and reach. We found significant differences between with and without visual impairments in leg strength, left and right hand grip and push-up (p<0.05). On the other hand, there was no significant difference between with visual and without impairments in vertical jump, sit-up, flexibility, and standing long jump (p>0.05). In conclusion, it is considered that visual impairment issue does not have negative effects on physical development and muscle power performance levels for ones doing judo sport because elite active athletes' training levels are close to each other.

In this study, it's to aim for comparison of some physical and physiological parameters of footballers at "The Erenler Sport Team" and "Didim Municipality Sport Team". Thirty volunteers sportsman from each two teams joined to this research. It measured the values of age, weight, length, flexibility, balance, power of left-right hand-grasping, power of back, power of leg and vital capacity of sportsman at this research. The diversity between findings were evaluated by using with ''T Test'' on computer with program SPSS 20. At measurement, each physiological factor was evaluated statically at the level meaninfulness p<0.05 and p<0.01. In conclusion, when it's found the meaningful difference on the level of age, flexibility, balance, power of left-right hand-grasping, power of back, power of leg and vital capacity among footballers, it's not obtained the difference on level of length and kilos.

Objective: To explore the anaerobic power and surface EMG (sEMG) of quardrocep muscle in lower extremities after single vibration training intervention. Methods: 8 excellent male long jumpers voluntarily participated in this study. Four intervention modes were devised, including high frequency high amplitude (HFHA,30Hz,6mm), low frequency low amplitude (LFLA,15Hz,3mm), high frequency low amplitude (HFLA,30Hz,3mm), and non-vibration (CON). All subjects received a knee extensor maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) test before the vibration. After the test, a 5×1 min. vibration would be carried out and the subjects were asked to pedal. Results: Peak power and average power output of the four vibration treatment methods did not reach obvious level. There was no obvious difference in root-mean-square (RMS) EMG of the dominant leg among the four treatments. The RMS EMG of the non-dominant leg of HFLA method during peak power output was much higher than that of HFHA and CON. The quotient between root-mean-square and peak power of the four groups did not reach significant level. Conclusion: Single vibration could not improve the anaerobic performance of long jumpers and HFLA might decrease the work efficiency of the non-dominant leg muscle of excellent long jumpers participating anaerobic test.

Background: Although children with intellectual disabilities (ID) are at greater risk of falls from poorer balance ability than typically developing children, reliable information about which types of physical intervention are most effective is scarce. Objective: A meta-analysis was used to examine the most effective programs on balance ability in children with ID. Method: 77 effect sizes from 10 studies and the standardised mean differences in effect size were calculated using the random effects model. Results: Fitness exercise, combined strength and proprioceptive training, dual-task functional exercises, trampoline exercise, hippotherapy, and core strength training were effective interventions. Duration of exercises should be less than or equal to 10 weeks. Exercises performed three times per week and sustained for 45-60 min had the largest effect. Balance ability of 5-13-year-old children could be improved by a larger margin through physical exercise than 14-18-year-old children. Conclusions: Six intervention programs proved to be effective on balance and feasible for physical education in schools. Attractive and integrated sports programs were highly recommended.

Background: Limited research has examined health and fitness indicators among individuals with different categories of intellectual disabilities (ID). The purpose of this brief report was to examine differences in health and physical fitness indicators among individuals with different levels of ID. Method: Individuals (n = 203) with mild, moderate, and severe ID completed a health and fitness screening. The health screening included blood pressure and lung capacity. Fitness measures were body composition, balance, and strength. We conducted multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) to examine level differences, controlling for age and gender. Results: Individuals with severe ID had significantly lower lung capacity than those with moderate ID, who had lower than those with mild ID. Individuals with mild ID had significantly higher handgrip strength than those with moderate ID, who had higher strength than those with severe ID. Conclusions: Lung capacity and handgrip strength are sensitive health and physical fitness risk markers for ID levels in China.

Background: Despite the known benefits of physical fitness in adolescence, the growing and at-risk homeschool adolescent population has been largely overlooked in current research. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare health-related fitness including body mass index (BMI), cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscular fitness between homeschool and public school adolescents. Methods: Homeschool adolescents ages 12-17 years (n = 66) completed the Progressive Aerobic Capacity Endurance Run (PACER), curl-up, and 90° push-up portions of the FitnessGram® to assess cardiorespiratory fitness as well as abdominal and upper body strength and endurance. T-tests and chi-square tests were used to compare results to public school children (n = 66). Results: There was no significant difference in BMI between groups. Homeschool adolescents had significantly lower cardiorespiratory fitness and abdominal, but not upper body, strength and endurance. They also showed significantly lower health classification rankings in cardiorespiratory fitness and upper body, but not abdominal, strength and endurance. Discussion: Homeschool adolescents showed significant deficits in health-related fitness that could negatively impact both current and future health. Translation to Health Education Practice: The homeschool community has a need for health education to address deficits in health-related fitness. This study can aid health educators in planning and implementing targeted, effective interventions in the future.

The Project Fit America (PFA) curriculum was initiated in 1990 with a mission to create and provide quality opportunities for American school children to be active, healthy, and fit. This study assessed the effect of the PFA curriculum and outdoor fitness equipment on fitness testing scores of elementary school students. Participants were 4th- and 5th-grade students including 62 females and 54 males. Students were divided into one of four groups: males experiencing (EM) or not experiencing (NEM) the PFA curriculum and females experiencing (EF) and not experiencing (NEF) the PFA curriculum. Students were tested once in the fall and once in the spring for the following activities: cadence push-ups, cadence curl-ups, sit-and-reach, and the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test. EM and EF groups showed significant increases in their pushup, t(33) = -2.088, p = 0.045, and t(28) = -2.783, p = 0.010, and curl-up, t(33) = -2.866, p = 0.007, and t(28) = -3.08, p = 0.005, posttesting scores. Additionally, NEM showed significant increases in their PACER, t(19) = -2.202, p = 0.04, posttesting score. The results of this study indicate the implementation of the PFA curriculum may assist in increasing elementary student muscular strength and endurance fitness testing scores.

Physical educators play a key role in role modeling to students within the school context. Therefore, there is a need to understand whether current physical education teacher education (PETE) provides sufficient knowledge and practice to prepare preservice educators to be successful. Thirty PETE preservice teachers (23 males, 7 females, aged 19-26) participated in this study. Participants performed tests in physical fitness and motor performance and completed an online questionnaire about cognitive factors (e.g., knowledge and understanding). In addition, a 7-day walking step total was recorded as daily activity in accordance with the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy testing battery. Each participant's performance was compared with the achievement level of a 12-year-old child. Participants had significantly better performance in muscular strength (measured as handgrip test) and flexibility (measured as sit-and-reach test) than a 12-year-old. However, participants had significantly poorer performance in aerobic fitness (measured as PACER), motor performance (measured as obstacle course test), and muscular endurance (measured as plank test) than a 12-year-old. In addition, participants had significantly lower knowledge and understanding of health and physical activity than a 12-year-old. A positive relationship between physical competence (i.e., overall performance in physical fitness and motor performance) and cognitive factor was shown among participants. Growth and maturation may explain participants' better performance in muscular strength and flexibility. Excessive weight status and low level of knowledge may have contributed to their poor performance in the physical competence domain. The positive relationship may indicate that cognitive factors are a strong predictor of the performance of physical fitness and motor performance. Therefore, for physical educators to promote a healthy lifestyle in education settings, the current PETE curriculum needs to be reviewed and relevant information delivered to promote physical literacy in PETE preservice teachers.

In the process of educating physically literate individuals, physical educators are tasked with assessing health-related fitness of their students. It is essential to identify or develop appropriate field tests of muscular power for use in physical education settings. This study assessed jumping power in a sample of fourth, sixth, and eighth graders via a novel calculation method and compared different field tests and calculations for assessing muscular power. Participants (n = 99), aged 9 to 14 years, were recruited from fourth-, sixth-, and eighth-grade physical education classes in one K-8 school. Three jump measurements were taken within the context of a physical education class: vertical jump (VJ) via a Vertec device, counter movement jump (CMJ) based on flight time via MyJump iOS app, and standing long jump. Vertical jump scores assessed via the Vertec device were significantly greater than those for the CMJ. The mean power for participants in this study was 873 W for a CMJ and 1544 W for a VJ. Standing long jump only had a moderate correlation with power calculated from a CMJ (r = 0.41). Results confirmed that calculations of power that factor in VJ and body weight provide a better indication of power than does jump performance alone. The equation used to calculate jumping power offers a novel approach for physical education that is accurate and feasible.

Sport involvement may offer physical and psychological benefits to early adolescents beyond those accrued through physical activity (PA). Those benefits, though, may be moderated by gender. The purpose of this study was to examine these potential benefits in a middle school population. The sample consisted of 629 sixth graders enrolled in a physical education (PE) course. Students completed self-report measures on sport involvement, PA self-efficacy, and physical self-concept. During PE, students completed FitnessGram testing, which provided measurements of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), muscular strength and flexibility, and body composition. MANCOVA analyses were used to examine the interaction between sport involvement and gender in relation to the psychological and physical outcomes. Multivariate analyses demonstrated no Sport x Gender interactions for any outcome; sport involvement, however, was related significantly to improvements in CRF, muscular strength, PA self-efficacy, and physical self-concept (aerobic endurance and muscular strength). The findings suggest that sport involvement, above what may be attained through standardized, school-based PE experiences, uniquely provides physical and psychological benefits for early adolescents.

Purpose: The current study investigated the role of quadriceps and gastrocnemii size and "vastus lateralis" and "gastrocnemius medialis" muscle architecture in peak-power and time-to-peak-power exerted in an all-out Wingate test. Twenty-one amateur cyclists were recruited. Methods: Quadriceps and gastrocnemii anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSA), and "vastus lateralis" and "gastrocnemius medialis" pennation angle and fascicle length were measured using ultrasound. Relative peak-power (normalized per body mass) and time-to-peak-power were measured during a 30s all-out test. Results: Relative peak-power was correlated with quadriceps ACSA (r = 0.896, p < 0.001), gastrocnemii ACSA (r = 0.811, p < 0.001), "vastus lateralis" (r = 0.787, p < 0.001) and "gastrocnemius medialis" pennation angle (r = 0.638, p < 0.003). Multiple regression revealed that quadriceps and gastrocnemii ACSA accounted for 85% (R[superscript 2]= 0.85) of peak-power variance. Time-to-peak-power showed "very large" (r = -0.868, p < 0.001) and "large" correlation (r = -0.680, p = 0.001) with VL and GM fascicle length, respectively. Multiple regression analysis revealed that VL fascicle length explained 75% (R[superscript 2]= 0.75) of the time-to-peak-power variance. Conclusions: Quadriceps and gastrocnemii ACSA largely explained relative peak-power in an all-out Wingate test. "Vastus lateralis" fascicle length was the main predictor of the time-to-peak-power. Muscle architecture characteristics seem to be involved in the power generating capacity.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) combined with a motor control exercises program for the lumbopelvic region. Method: Forty-five asymptomatic individuals were randomized into three groups: MI (n = 15), AO (n = 15) or control group (CG) (n = 15). The outcome measures included lumbopelvic motor control measured with a stabilizer pressure biofeedback, trunk muscle strength using a dynamometer and the perceived fatigue using a visual analogue scale. Participants were assessed at pre-intervention, at first week of intervention (mid) and post-intervention. Results: Regarding lumbopelvic motor control, we observed significant within-group differences between pre- and the mid and post-intervention assessment in AO group (p < 0.001, d > 0.80). MI and CG groups showed significant differences between pre- and post-intervention assessment (p < 0.05, d > 0.80). Regarding the direct comparison in the [delta]Mid-Pre differences between groups, only the AO group was superior to the CG with a large effect size (d > 0.80). Regarding trunk muscle strength, significant within-group differences between pre- and post-intervention assessments were observed in AO (p < 0.001, d = -1.25) and MI (p < 0.05, d = -1.00) groups. In relation to the perceived fatigue, statistically significant within-group differences were found in all groups (p < 0.05, d > 0.60). Conclusion: AO training caused faster changes in lumbopelvic motor control compared with the CG group. The AO strategy could be used as a guideline for teaching lumbopelvic motor control exercises.

Purpose: The study aimed to test whether improvement in fitness components, mediates the changes in Health-related Quality of Life (HRQoL) after exercise intervention in overweight and obese children. Methods and design: 170 obese and overweight children (121 exercise group and 49 control group) participated in a public exercise program based on sports practice for 6 months, 2 h per week. Anthropometry, physical fitness, and HRQoL were measured. Magnitude-based inferences and Cohen's effect size were performed to analyze the program effect. To know which physical fitness components mediated the improvement on children's HRQoL, multiple mediation analyses were performed. Results: the analysis showed a moderate effect on some fitness components and a moderate and small effect on HRQoL. The improvement of agility or cardiorespiratory fitness showed a significant indirect effect on the enhancements in some HRQoL dimensions. Conclusion: after a 6-months exercise program in overweight and obese children, all physical fitness components improved, being responsible for the improvement of the HRQoL, agility and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Background: Over half of all firefighter deaths are due to heart attacks. Physical activity (PA) is a protective factor against cardiovascular disease, but most firefighters do not meet recommended PA levels. Volunteer firefighters (VFFs), particularly in rural areas, may have unique reasons for not meeting recommendations. Purpose: To examine VFFs' PA intention and factors that might influence it, using the Theory of Planned Behavior. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we surveyed 123 North Carolina VFFs. Results: Most VFFs were overweight (35.9%) or obese (44.4%), and many did not participate in any moderate-intensity cardiovascular (14.4%), vigorous-intensity cardiovascular (40.8%), or strength training (45.2%) exercise in the prior 7 days. On average, participants did not perceive themselves at high risk for heart disease. Regression analyses found that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and past PA behavior accounted for 57.9% of the variance in PA intention (p = 0.031). Discussion: Many firefighters in this study were not meeting recommended PA guidelines and did not perceive themselves at high risk for heart disease. Relationships among variables should be explored more fully by quantitative and qualitative methods. Translation to Health Education Practice: Findings from this study have implications for future PA intervention development aimed at VFF populations.

Several schoolwide initiatives have been created to combat the rate of obesity in adolescents. However, despite programs showing an ability to advance health-related fitness during the academic year, the summer months contribute to the most accelerated weight gain and health-related fitness (HRF) losses in school aged youth. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of a residential summer camp on health-related fitness markers in adolescents. The participants were 100 male campers aged 10-14. Campers performed body mass index (BMI) and various physical activity assessments aimed to evaluate health-related fitness levels prior to and following their participation in summer camp. Physical activity levels were assessed throughout the summer using pedometers. MANCOVA results revealed significant pretest to post-test improvements on health-related fitness areas of BMI, aerobic fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. The results of this study offer preliminary indications that participation in summer camp programing can promote and maintain health-related fitness levels in adolescents over the summer.

This study aimed to investigate whether or not gymnastics is effective to develop 60-72-month-old children's motor skills. The participants were selected from two different preschools in the same district of Ankara, Turkey. While half of the children participated in regular gymnastic activities in their schools, the remaining part of them did not participate in any kind of sportive activities. As a data gathering instrument, the Bruininks-Oseretsky motor proficiency test was used to measure the participants' motor skills. The test consists of eight sub-tests in original, which are running speed and agility, balance, bilateral coordination, strength, upper-limb coordination, response speed, visual-motor control, upper-limb speed, and dexterity. The results revealed that children participating in gymnastic programme achieved higher scores on speed and agility, balance, bilateral coordination, strength, upper-limb coordination, response speed, and visual-motor control than the non-sportive group of children.

Developing students who are physically literate is one of the most important aspects of physical education (PE). As teachers, we introduce students to the concepts of health and fundamental movement skills like throwing, catching and using implements to allow them the skill proficiency to pursue an active lifestyle. This article focuses on the classic hip-hinge move: the deadlift. It not only validates the methods but acts as a guide for physical educators to incorporate fundamental movement concepts using an implement into their curriculum.

This study compared the training effects of split-style Olympic lifts (SP-L) with those of squat-style olympic lifts (SQ-L). In the study, the participants (n = 33 collegiate female volleyball players) were sorted on a random basis into the SP-L group (age = 15.80 ± 1.03 years; height = 164.50 ± 3.96 cm; body weight = 60.88 ± 8.26 kg), SQ-L group (age = 15.22 ± 1.2 years; height = 167.78 ± 3.53 cm, body weight = 62.02 ± 7.20 kg), and control group (CG; age = 15.14 ± 0.38 years; height = 165.29 ± 5.25 cm; body weight = 61.32 ± 5.89 kg). The groups performed split and squat snatch and clean and jerk twice a week for 6 weeks. Analysis of variance and magnitude-based inferences determined whether there was a significant difference in the measured variables among groups. In the groups, compared with the pretraining values, a significant and positive improvement was noted in posttraining leg stiffness and time to 5-m and 20-m sprint. However, for the time to 5-m sprint, the gains in the SP-L group were better (large/d = 1.79). In addition, an increase to spike jump and change of direction in the SP-L group alone was significant for the main effect of time (p < 0.05). The results of this study indicate that SP-L are more effective for spike jump, change of direction, and time to 5-m sprint. Although the results of the study provide insights regarding the beneficial effects of training with SP-L rather than SQ-L, consolidation of the study results with the results of future studies is warranted.

Purpose: Inducing a negative stereotype toward women usually leads to a decrease in women performance and an increase in men performance. These effects were observed during technical tasks. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of this sex stereotype during a non-technical muscular endurance task. The perception of effort, closely related to endurance performance, was also recorded. Based on the type of task and the mere effort account, we predicted that both men and women in the negative stereotype toward women condition would perform better than participants in the two other groups. Method: Seventy-seven participants (38 women and 39 men) were randomly assigned to a negative stereotype toward women, a nullified-stereotype, or a control condition. Then, they performed a submaximal handgrip task until exhaustion at 50% of their maximal strength. Results: This study showed that performance at T2 was reduced for men and women in the nullified-stereotype and control conditions, but not in the negative stereotype toward women condition, revealing that participants in the negative stereotype toward women condition performed better than participants in the other conditions. No significant difference was observed concerning the perception of effort according to the conditions. Conclusion: As compared to technical tasks, inducing a negative stereotype toward women increased women's performance. The perception of effort could be responsible for this performance improvement. However, more research is needed to investigate the mechanisms involved. Concerning men, in line with the stereotype lift phenomenon, a performance increase was observed in this same condition.

It was sought to the association between muscle dysmorphia and childhood abuse and neglect in male recreational bodybuilders between 18 and 53 years old (M[subscript age] = 28.17 years, SD = 8.66) were recruited from two different gyms in age Ankara, Turkey. All participants completed a demographic questionnaire in addition to the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. A significant correlation was found between Emotional Abuse and Functional Impairment (r=0.24, p<0.05), Appearance Intolerance (r=0.19, p<0.05), Muscle Dysmorphia (r=0.24, p<0.05). In addition, there was a significant correlation between Emotional Neglect and Appearance Intolerance (r=0.22, p<0.05), Muscle Dysmorphia (r=0.23, p<0.05). Childhood abuse and neglect were correlated with Functional Impairment (r=0.21, p<.05), Appearance Intolerance (r=0.17, p<0.05), and Muscle Dysmorphia (r=0.18, p<0.05). Consequently, there is a positive correlation between muscle dysmorphia and childhood abuse and neglect in male recreational bodybuilders.

Purpose: To determine the individual contributions of chronological age, somatic maturation, body size and composition, and training experience as indicators of performance in neuromuscular and judo-specific assessments in young athletes. Methods: Sixty-six youth judo athletes performed anthropometric measurements, neuromuscular tests--standing long jump test (SLJ), medicine ball throw test (MBT), handgrip strength test (HGS), and judo-specific tests--Special Judo Fitness test (SJFT) and Judogi Grip Isometric Strength Test (JGST[subscript ISO]). A multiple linear regression was used with the level of significance set at 5%. Results: The main results showed age-peak height velocity (PHV), body fat and training experience explained close to 20% of SJFT performance. Chronological age, age-PHV, height, body mass and body fat accounted for 42% of variance in JGST[subscript ISO]. Chronological age, body fat and training experience explained 35% of the variance in SLJ, while chronological age, body mass and body fat explained 53% of the variance in MBT. Finally, age-PHV, body mass and height explained 54% of the variance in HGS. Conclusion: Estimated age-PHV and growth variables explained moderate to large proportions of the variance in neuromuscular tests (with exception of SLJ), while both estimated age-PHV, training and growth variables were predictors of judo-specific performance.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a growing epidemic related with higher values of blood pressure (BP) and autonomic dysfunction. Scientific evidence has been indicating that functional resistance training (FRT) is superior over conventional (CRT) for muscle fatigue and pain, yet its effects on autonomic modulation (AM), BP and heart rate in MetS are unclear. We theorized that FRT can be superior to CRT in MetS patients because of larger muscle activation. This study compares FRT and CRT on AM, blood pressure, heart rate and muscle strength. Thirty-eight sex and age matched individuals (40 to 60 years) were randomized for FRT or CRT, with training intensity varying gradually from 30%-100% of one maximal repetition test (1MR), 3 times/week for 30 sessions. All outcomes were evaluated at baseline and post training. AM was assessed by heart rate variability (mean RR, RMSSD, SDNN, LF, HF, TINN, RRtri, SD1 and SD2). BP (mmHg) was obtained by cuff measures. Muscle strength was assessed by 1MR. An increase in cardiac parasympathetic activity was observed in individuals allocated to FRT in comparison to CRT group (RMSSD [delta]40%; SD1 [delta]39%; and HF [subscript ms][superscript 2] [delta]80%). Moreover, just FRT was capable of reducing BP post intervention (SBP from 129.21 ± 19.02 to 118.94 ± 14.14 mmHg, p < 0.009,/d/ = 0.49; DBP from 85.26 ± 11.48 to 77.76 ± 8.93 mmHg, p < 0.01,/d/ = 0.51). Both groups had a similar increase in muscle strength and no changes between HR. Progressive FRT was more beneficial to CRT regarding AM, increasing vagal activity, and reducing blood pressure in MetS individuals.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to identify the skills, knowledge, and experiences differentiating expert and competent strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches. Method: The participants were 87 elite-level head S&C coaches with an average of over 18 years of coaching experience. These coaches were employed by teams from the MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL, NCAA Division 1 FBS "Power Five" Conferences, United States National Teams, and the Australian Football League. This study used both a qualitative and quantitative research design through the use of the Delphi method, which incorporated three rounds of surveys. The first-round survey asked the participants to identify at least one important skill, knowledge area, and experience that should be possessed by an expert and competent S&C coach respectively. The characteristics generated from the first round were placed on a second-round survey and rated on their level of importance using a five-point Likert scale. If a characteristic received a suggestion for rephrasing, and did not reach a level of consensus, or an entirely new characteristic was suggested, then it was placed on the final-round survey to be rated again. Characteristics that reached a level of consensus were placed on the final list of characteristics. Results: A total of 46 characteristics reached a level of consensus and were placed on the final list of characteristics. Conclusion: There now exists an empirically validated list of characteristics differentiating expert and competent S&C coaches. This list can aid in the selection, evaluation, and development of S&C coaches.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the changes in neuromuscular contractile properties in elite cyclists associated to the peripheral fatigue produced in a maximal incremental test in cycle ergometer. Methods: Forty-eight volunteers' well-trained male cyclists were evaluated during the competition season within a recovery microcycle. Tensiomyography was used before and after performing an incremental test until exhaustion in cycle ergometer to measure the radial muscle belly displacement of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and biceps femoris (BF) on the dominant leg. Maximum radial muscle belly displacement (Dm), contraction time (Tc), delay time (Td), sustain time (Ts), and radial displacement velocity (Vrd) were measured. Mixed-design factorial analysis of variance was used to detect changes in the mechanical and neuromuscular characteristics after a maximal incremental exercise test. Results: The results show in the evaluated muscles a moderate-large decrease (p < 0.01, [eta]2 = 0.06-0.51) in Tc, Td, Dm, Ts, and Vrd. This decrease occurs more sharply in the BF than in RF or VL. Conclusion: An incremental effort until exhaustion produces peripheral fatigue associated with a decrease in Dm, Tc, Td, Ts, and Vrd, being more pronounced in biceps femoris than in vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Coaches can use these changes found in the contractile properties as a reference to detect the muscle fatigue degree that certain training models pose for the cyclist.

Physical fitness is one of the key factors in healthy aging. Although physical fitness is widely recognized to decline with age, age-related decreases in the individual dimensions of physical fitness in later life are less clear. Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to describe the age-related changes in six fitness components covering a variety of motor dimensions in men and women through a 12-year longitudinal epidemiological study. Method: Participants were randomly selected community-living men (n = 1,139) and women (n = 1,128) aged 40 to 79 years at baseline who were repeatedly tested over a mean (standard deviation) follow-up period of 9.8 (3.4) years with a mean of 4.9 (2.3) examinations. The six physical fitness tests were sit-and-reach, grip strength, sit-ups, one-leg standing, reaction time and leg extension power. The effect of age on each physical fitness task was analyzed using a mixed-effects model controlling for habitual physical activity level. Results: The fixed effect of the interaction of age and time in all fitness tests was significant in men. Higher age at baseline was significantly associated with a greater decrease over time except in one-leg standing. In women, no significant interaction effect of age and time was found in grip strength or reaction time. Age-related changes in grip strength and reaction time were constant with increasing age. Conclusion: Twelve-year longitudinal data showed that the age-related decrease in physical fitness over time, especially musculoskeletal fitness in men, was pronounced, whereas in women, the decrease was less pronounced.

Purpose: To compare the effects of a single bout of eccentric cycling (ECC) and eccentric cycling with blood flow restriction (ECC[subscript BFR]) on the changes in cardio-metabolic demand and indirect markers of muscle damage in healthy men. Method: Twenty-one young men (24.0 ± 3.2 y) were randomly allocated in two groups to perform a 30-min eccentric cycling bout with or without blood flow restriction. Oxygen consumption, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion and mean arterial blood pressure were monitored during cycling. Blood lactate was measured before and after cycling. Maximal voluntary isometric knee extensor strength and muscle damage were measured before, immediately after and 1-4 days after each eccentric cycling bout. Results: Oxygen consumption, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion and mean arterial blood pressure were similar between bouts. Blood lactate concentrations increased in both groups (p < 0.01), with ECC[subscript BFR] showing 60% greater blood lactate concentration than eccentric cycling (p < 0.01). Maximal voluntary isometric knee extensor strength decreased 19-7% until 48 h and decreased 16-7% until 72 h after ECC and ECC[subscript BFR], respectively. Muscle soreness and pressure pain threshold remained elevated until 72 h after ECC and until 96 h after ECC[subscript BFR]. Conclusion: These results show that ECC[subscript BFR] induces similar cardiovascular stress, greater lactate production and longer time to recover than ECC alone. Thus, BFR can be safely implemented with eccentric cycling.

This research examined the effects of instruction on experiential knowledge, fitness, self-efficacy, and adherence to strength training of a university weight lifting activity course. Participants (n = 35) were enrolled in two introductory-level university strength training activity courses, which met for 85 min twice a week for 15 weeks. The intervention group was exposed to student-centered instructional strategies based on the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), which included personalized feedback on each student's individualized fitness plan. The control group experienced traditional activity course instruction with direct instruction to the whole group. Pre- and posttest assessments were collected and statistical analyses were conducted (p < 0.05). One-way repeated-measures ANOVA tests revealed univariate statistical differences in fitness measures (push-up, curl-up, and flexed-arm hang), perceived knowledge scores, and the weight management motivation factor of the Exercise Motive and Gains Inventory. Additional differences were observed between groups; however, due to the low number of participants, these differences were not statistically significant. The findings suggest that student-centered instruction in a strength training activity course can benefit student knowledge, fitness, and adherence to a strength training plan. Further research in this area should replicate this study with a greater sample size to determine if the observed differences are statistically significant within a larger research population.

Purpose: This study compared the acute effects of two different resistance training methods on heart rate variability, blood pressure, and rating of perceived exertion in patients with liver cirrhosis. Methods: Ten patients with Child-Pugh A (seven women and three men) participated in two experimental sessions, in random order: The traditional set condition consisted of three sets of six exercises performed in a sequential manner, while the paired set condition consisted of alternating sets between two exercises (three pairs of exercises). Ten repetitions were performed for each set with 70% of a 10 repetition maximum load and with 2 min rest between sets. Blood pressure and heart rate variability were assessed pre-workout and for 60 min post-workout. The rating of perceived exertion was assessed at the end of the third set for each exercise. Results: Significant alterations in heart rate variability were observed when considering the lowest value obtained during recovery, in which the SDNN was reduced in both the traditional set and paired set conditions, as well as the root mean square of standard deviation for the traditional set condition (p < 0.05). Additionally, for the paired set condition, there was a significant reduction in the HFnu band and a significant increase in the LFnu band (p < 0.05). Effect size showed reductions in diastolic and mean blood pressure until 30 min in a small magnitude for traditional sets. Conclusion: Similar cardiovascular responses were observed between methods eliciting normal physiological responses within safe limits for patients with liver cirrhosis.

Objective: To explore the relationship between physical fitness and wellness in order to determine if perceptions of wellness can be predicted by physical fitness level. Participants: Sixty-seven college students (41 females; M 1/4 20.86 years, SD 1/4 4.23 years) were recruited from a large southeastern university during March-May 2018. Methods: Baseline measures for skin conductance and heart rate variability were obtained. Participants completed a wellness questionnaire and a series of tests (body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, and muscular fitness) designed to determine physical fitness levels. Correlation and regression analyses were run to explore relationships between physical fitness and wellness measures. Results: Muscular fitness and composite physical fitness significantly predicted perceived wellness. Heart rate variability was significantly related to physical fitness components. Conclusion: College students endorse muscular fitness as representative of health status; suggesting that by remaining physically active, in particular through muscular fitness, college student quality of life and cardiovascular health can be improved.

Auditory feedback has been successfully used to enhance performance in several sports such as golf and dance. The current study used auditory feedback procedures (i.e., a clicker) to improve the performance of 3 students performing a handstand. Handstands are part of a discipline called "body weight training," that uses only the weight of an individual's own body to gain strength and body control. A multiple baseline design across four components was used to evaluate the effectiveness of auditory feedback. The results showed that auditory feedback was effective. The students and the trainer were highly satisfied with the auditory feedback procedure. Implications for future research are discussed.

Many professionals use the handheld dynamometers (HHDs) to assess isometric strength. This study aimed to evaluate the validity, reliability, and sensitivity to change of a DiCI (a new HHD) for the strength measurement of knee and hip muscles and their ratios. Thirty-five recreational athletes completed quadriceps, hamstring, and hip adductors and abductors strength tests in two identical sessions with 1-week interval between them. A fatigue test was carried out for the quadriceps and hamstring. Consistency between DiCI and MicroFet2 was excellent (r > 0.939) for all strength tests. Relative reliability analysis showed good to excellent ICCs (ICC's isolated muscle range = 0.93 to 0.96 and ICC's ratios range = 0.70 to 0.82). Sensitivity to change showed large change magnitudes for quadriceps and hamstring fatigue (-1.89 and -1.26, respectively). DiCI is valid and reliable to assess knee and hip strength and sensitive to fatigue change.

Due to lack of time in physical education class as well as the decreased amount of physical education class students have a week, students are not receiving adequate amounts of daily physical activity. This article describes a solution to this problem, by describing an after-school weightlifting program where students can learn how to do resistance training movements. Resistance training can be greatly beneficial for adolescents by increasing bone density and strength, reducing risk of injury, and improving overall body composition. It also improves muscular strength and endurance. The article discusses how to implement an after-school program at a school, while also giving an example of an after-school weightlifting program, Lift for Life Gym.

The perception of body ownership creates a sense of embodiment, which can be a powerful learning tool. Embodied learning can occur by watching an individual's body movement and also via human-computer interactions, such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). In this article, we designed and implemented a novel virtual body-ownership AR/VR tool for human anatomy--the human muscular arm avatar (HMAA). HMAA utilizes embodiment-based body ownership to explore the human hand/forearm musculature. The HMAA was trialed with medical students to explore the extent to which it could be used to aid student learning. The key findings of the usability study suggest that 98% (N = 100) of students found the tool extremely useful; 83% reported that the tool allowed them to engage with the learning materials, peers, and content effectively. Also, 10% of students mentioned that the HMAA fostered an embodied learning experience. This triggered an intentional exploration of instances suggesting embodiment in the data. HMAA is believed to have allowed individuals to visualize and conceptualize abstract ideas that would have been otherwise challenging using static models. The outcomes of this article indicate the significant potential of body-ownership-based self-learning tools for anatomy. However, further studies using learning outcomes are needed to investigate the potential advantages of body-ownership-based tools compared to current learning techniques.