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Lanolin paste containing indoleacetic acid, applied unilaterally to the elongating internodes of apple shoot, caused a marked change in its direction of growth. Measurements taken during autumn have shown that the treated internodes were not longer than those of control shoots. There was a short zone a few cm above the treated area with inhibited internodes and small leaves. Possibilities for practical application of the described method exist.

The attempt was made to cultivate horse-radish meristems taken from buds removed from roots. The lowest per cent of contamination was found after the buds had been soaiked in 80% ethanol for 6 minutes and then in 5%, 7.5% or 10% chloramine for 30, 30 or 15 minutes, respectively. Both agar media: Murashige-Skoog and Linsmaier-Skoog, were equally good, providing a moderate number of developing plants. The Linsmaier-Skoog medium was more satisfactory when solidified with agar; the results with liquid medium and filter-paper bridges were not as good.

Cuttings of apple rootstocks MM 106, Alnarp 2, M VII and M 26, of the ornamental plants Pyracantha coccinea Roem., Syringa Meyeri Schneid., and Weigela cv. Vanhouttei formed a larger numbers of adventitious roots with a mixture of naphthaleneacetic acid and the fungicide Captan than with auxin alone. Boric acid, vitamin B1 as well as pyrogallol and vanilic acid in rather high concentrations showed no effect on rooting when used separately or in a mixture with an auxin. Intermittent mist and bottom heat were used.

MH as a single spray in concentrations 700 -1500 mg/l was used in July to induce premature offshoots in nursery trees. The trees of pear, plum and of 3 apple cultivars showed little or no response to MH treatment Due to this treatment, however, the trees of 7 other apple cultivars formed 3-5 branches longer than 20 cm, possessing large crotch angles. The growth of the main axis was only temporarily inhibited by the MH treatment.

The lower shoots in horizontally placed apple trees exhibited much weaker development as well in light as darkness. Removing a narrow strip of bark along both sides of a horizontally placed apple tree improved markedly the growth of the lower buds. In poplars the same effect was received by surrounding the lower buds with semicircular incisions. The inhibition of the lower buds was also released by removing the apical bud and the upper ones. The presented results and those published earlier show that the mechanism responsible for inhibition of the lower buds acts in two steps: 1) gravity influences directly the system composed of a bud and the adjacent tissue of the stem. 2) the lower buds partly inhibited in the step "1" are further inhibited by a correlative mechanism which supresses all weaker buds. The second "step" reaction takes place also after a tree have been reverted back to the normal vertical position.

In most cases 2-year-old trees of 3 cultivars responded better to defoliants than 1-year-old ones. Spraying with defoliants on September 25 - 28 was more effective than spraying 10 days earlier. There was also more bark injury in the autumn, and more frost injury on trees defoliated on the ealier date. Mg(ClO3)2 seemed to be the best defoliant but markedly decreased the frost resistance of McIntosh trees. Defoliants investigated may be applied to limited extent to 2-year-old trees but not to 1-year-old ones.

Lanolin paste containing a mixture of gibberellin and cytokinin was smeared in February and March on the 8 buds chosen to form scaffold branches. The treated buds developed 5-10 days earlier than those smeared with lanolin alone. They formed shoots longer than those of the control trees. The applied growth regulators had no influence upon the crotch angles.

Growth correlations among axillary buds and young shoots in one-year-old apple trees were investigated. Darkening of every second bud for 3-5 days during bursting time resulted in the formation of mainly short shoots. Thinning of part of the buds caused a higher percentage of the remaining ones to form long shoots. High nutrition level favored the formation of long shoots. When no special treatment was given to the trees, the initial size of the buds played an important role in the determination of future shoot vigor. The medium-size and large buds, in most cases, showed an ability to accumulate more 32PO3-4 per unit of dry weight than did the smaller ones. This indicates that the initial differences among the buds are amplified by a positive feedback mechanism. In horizontally placed trees, the buds on the lower side showed inhibited phosphate uptake. Different growth regulators applied in very small amounts, in a droplet of water to every second bud or shoot tip, markedly changed the correlative interrelations among the developing shoots. The development of vascular connections between the main axis and the lateral buds and shoots of different sizes was investigated.

The cuttings taken at flowering time or earlier rooted much better than those taken after flowering. The apical cuttings rooted more aboundantly than those taken from medium or basal part of the shoots. Different auxins: NAA, IAA IBA and 2,4-D in optimal concentrations differed very little in their stimulatory effect or rooting. Several substances: indole, tannin, pyrogallol, thiamine, ascorbic acid, pyridoxine, ryboflavine, niacine, retardant SADH, abscisic acid, and boric acid promoted rooting of cuttings when used separately. Their combined effect with auxin was in most cases additive but sometimes synergistic. Three phases of rooting process were discerned.

The influence of 3 temperatures: 4°, 13°, and 22°C and of 3 humidities 50% r.h., 77% r.h. and 95% r.h. on the effectiveness of two defolians KJ and Mg(ClO3)2•6H2O was investigated in a phytotron. By changing day and night temperature and humidity the weather conditions encountered in nurseries in autumn were simulated. The influence of environment on defoliation depended markedly on the species of plant and on the defoliant. In several cases defoliation started earliest at 13° but over a longer period of time the temperature 4° stimulated markedly leaf shedding.

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) plants must be harvested during a short period of time because they bolt just after producing some edible leaves. Maleic hydrazide (MH) and its commercial preparation "Antyrost" were found to inhibit bolting very strongly. The preparation Off-shoot-O showed very weak activity in suppressing bolting but diminished markedly the resistance of spinach plants to fungus diseases. Triiodobenzoic acid stimulated bolting, and the retardant succinic acid-2-2-dimethylhydrazide (SADH) did not affect bolting. Application of MH to inhibit spinach bolting cannot be recommended in practice before investigating the residues of this compound in leaves.

Pyrogallol and salicylic acid used alone or in combination with auxin increased markedly the number of rooted cuttings, the number of roots per cutting and the total length of roots per cutting. The effect of phenolic substances was most visible when treatment was done in late summer, i.e. when natural ability to form roots was very low.

Background: Due to changes in guidelines and access to treatment, more children start combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) in infancy. With few studies examining the long-term effects of perinatal HIV infection and early ART on neurodevelopment, much is still unknown about brain maturation in the presence of HIV and ART. Follow-up studies of HIV infected (HIV+) children are important for monitoring brain development in the presence of HIV infection and ART.Methods: We use diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to examine white matter (WM) in 65 HIV+ and 46 control (HIV exposed uninfected (HEU) and HIV unexposed uninfected (HU)) 7-year-old children. This is a follow up of a cohort studied at 5 years, where we previously reported lower fractional anisotropy (FA) in corticospinal tract (CST) and mean diffusivity (MD) increases in inferior/superior longitudinal fasciculi (ILF/SLF), inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF) and uncinate fasciculus (UF) in HIV+ children compared to uninfected controls. In addition, we also found a difference in FA related to age at which ART was initiated.Results: At 7 years, we found two regions in the left IFOF and left ILF with lower FA in HIV+ children compared to controls. Higher MD was observed in a similar region in the IFOF, albeit bilaterally, as well as multiple clusters bilaterally in the superior corona radiata (SCR), the anterior thalamic radiation (ATR) and the right forceps minor. Unlike at 5 years, we found no impact on WM of ART initiation. In HEU children, we found a cluster in the right posterior corona radiata with higher FA compared to HU children, while bilateral regions in the CST demonstrated reduced MD.Conclusions: At age 7, despite early ART and viral load (VL) suppression, we continue to observe differences in WM integrity. WM damage observed at age 5 years persists, and new damage is evident. The continued observation of regions with lower FA and higher MD in HIV+ children point to disruptions in ongoing white matter development regardless of early ART. Lastly, in HEU children we find higher FA and lower MD in clusters in the CST tract suggesting that perinatal HIV/ART exposure has a long-term impact on WM development.

Anatomy and surface ultrastructure of the galls induced on oak leaves by the insects – Neuroterus numismalis (Ol.) and Cynips (Diplolepis) quercusfolii L. – were investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a light microscope (LM). The observations in SEM and in LM enabled a detailed description of these galls and comparison of their structure with that of the typical oak leaf. In N. numismalis gall, the external distal tissues were classified as similar to phellem (cork), phellogen, and phelloderm, and a lateral marginal tissue as parenchyma with the likely role of a storage tissue. In the young C. quercusfolii gall, the cells of internal, nutritive tissue, on which the larva is grazing, formed globules rising above the surface of larval chamber. Many of them seemed to be destroyed by the larval action. In the gall which attained half of its final size, the tissues near the larval chamber were already partly lignified. The microorganisms (mainly fungi) which live in the oak phyllosphere, occurred also on the galls. We believe that the deep changes in the morphogenetic program of a leaf, which are caused by the gall-forming insects, are impossible without the transfer and the integration of the insect genetic material with that of the host plant. We also postulate that a larva secrets as yet hypothetical substances, which redirect the nutrients transport from the leaf blade towards the gall and support its vital functions.

When decisions taken in the context of monetary price and monetary income are investigated, economists have naturally tended to focus their attention on the market activities of households. Consequently, a significant portion of the economic decisions that are taken in the non-market sphere have remained overlooked. Thus it has been recognised that it is necessary to take into account the production generated by households in the measurement of economic wealth. The aim of this paper is to analyse differences in the economic activity of selected Central and Eastern Europe societies. The use of traditional statistics and time-use data for this purpose made it possible to compare the conclusions that can be drawn using different sources of information. As the statistical material has been supplemented with time-use data, prior conclusions about creating the economic welfare of these societies needed to be modified. The different allocations of time in the individual societies and the different extents to which household production is substituted by market goods and services have an impact on the level of prosperity of households. The significant differences in terms of compensating for market work with household production which were observed when comparing the daily activity of unemployed men and women, turned out to be a common feature of the analysed populations.

gleby ryzosferowej jabłoni, wiśni i truskawki nawożonej kompostami przygotowanymi na bazie miału z węgla brunatnego z dodatkiem grzybni Basidiomycota, wyizolowano sześć szczepów bakterii względnie beztlenowych, przetrwalnikujących zdolnych do rozkładu celulozy. Na podstawie morfologii, cech biochemicznych i sekwencji 16S rRNA izolaty sklasyfikowano do gatunków z rodzaju Paenibacillus. W pożywkach wybiórczych z dodatkiem bibuły filtracyjnej (FP) i karboksymetylocelulozy (CMC) badane izolaty syntetyzowały enzymy, które hydrolizują celulozę amorficzną i krystaliczną. Badane izolaty w 14 i 28-dniowych hodowlach w pożywce z karboksymetylocelulzą (CMC) produkowały odpowiednio od 0 mU do 10,87 mU oraz od 10,73 do 21,13 mU CMCazy (karboksymetylocelulazy). Najwyższą aktywność enzymów scukrzających celulozę (FPazy) w pożywce z CMC wykazano w 14-dniowych hodowlach P. lautus EG_11 – 75,6 mU, Paenibacillus sp. EG_17 – 57,6 mU oraz P. woosongensis EG_15 – 38,9 mU. W pożywce z dodatkiem bibuły filtracyjnej (FP), najwyższą produkcję CMCazy i FPazy odnotowano w hodowlach P. lautus EG_11 – odpowiednio 79,85 i 118,83 mU.

Tomatillo is widely cultivated in Mexico but is little known in other countries. The chemical composition of fruit from field grown plants was investigated during several vegetative seasons. Tomatillo contained a relatively high percentage of dry matter (7-10%) and extract (6.6-7.4%). Its potassium content was lower than that of tomato growing in the same conditions. The content of iron was higher, and that of other elements was comparable, depending on the conditions during the given year. The total sugar content amounted to 2.8-5.7%, depending on the selected population. The percentage of glucose and fructose decreased during ripening and that of saccharose increased. The content of pectic substances was similar as in tomato but the proportions of particular fractions was different. Tomatillo contained more acids than tomato, and showed an especially high citric and malic acid content. The latter decreased drastically during ripening. The content of oxalic acid was 11-18 mg 100 g-1 in ripe fruit and up to 54 mg in unripe. The vitamin C content depended on the selected population and amounted to 8-21 mg 100 g-1, dehydroascorbic acid prevailing. The content of vitamin PP was 0.8-1.3 mg 100 g-1.

The fruit structure of tomatillo, a new vegetable crop in Poland, has not been yet investigated. The surface of the fruit as seen in SEM shows amorphous and cristalline wax-like deposits. Almost every fourth or fifth epidermal cell has a small appendix covered with cuticle and wax-like substance. No trichomes were found. The anatomical structure of the fruit is similar to that of several other Solanaceae species. The epidermis shows polygonal, tabular cells with a large nucleus. Subepidermis is composed of 1-4 layers of collenchyma-like cells, sometimes very flattened and compressed. The pericarp contains thin-walled round cells increasing in size toward the center. The cells originating from placentae are very large and elongated radially, frequently irregular. The vessels are situated centrally in the vascular boundle and are surrounded by parenchyma with the phloem strands at the periphery of it. Some fruits show microcracks extending from the epidermis throughout collenchyma-like layer.

Tomatillo (Physalis ixocarpa Brot.) is a newly introduced cultivated plant in Poland. Its anatomy was investigated in light and scanning electron microscopes. Tomatillo adult leaf had one layer of palisade parenchyma. The 1-2 cell layers of spongy parenchyma situated just below the palisade parenchyma showed large, tightly packed cells with great druses. The remaining spongy parenchyma was built of cells showing several extensions. Peculiarity of the sepals were the stomata situated on columns or hills formed of many cells. The petals had a very loose mesophyl. Their adaxial epidermis was composed of papillate cells. Such structure of the petal epidermis probably contributes to light dispersion and prevents glittering. There were several types of trichomes on the leaves, sepals and petals, some of them glandular and some simple. The large, very ramified, dendritic trichomes situated on the petals at the entry to the ovary might eventually protect it against excessive drying. The pollen grain was spherical, three-colpate. The style had a hollow channel inside. The stigma was of a wet, pa-pillate type. Sometimes thorny trichomes were found among papillae.

The growth of various vegetative parts of the husk tomato cv. `Rendidora' has been studied. The samples for dry mass determination were taken every 1-2 weeks. The life cycle of a plant was divided into 4 phases according to the developmental stages of the leaf area. The plants of cv. 'Rendidora' show 2 main types of growth: prostrated and erect. The plants of the last type showed a tendency to grow less and to initiate their senescence later.

The occurence of alkaloids, witanolides, saponosides and flavonoids was investigated in the fruits of tomatillo (Physalis ixocarpa Brot.) cv. Bujna and Rendidora. The tomatillo is commonly cultivated in Mexico and has been introduced on a small scale in Poland. The chromatographic analysis of alkaloids showed only trace amounts of compounds reacting with the Dragendorff reagent. In the fraction of quaternary alkaloids soluble in water, only choline was found. Witanolides were not detected in tomatillo fruits. The saponosides were found only in trace amounts and their hemolytic indexes as well as saponification numbers were very low. Flavonoids were represented by the derivatives of quercetine differring with their sugar moieties attached to the hydroxyl group at C-3. It is concluded that the toxic compounds which would be harmful to human health were not found in tomatillo fruits. The presence of choline in them, as well as of flavonoids belonging to the vitamin P group is advantageous for health.

The husk tomato (Physalis ixocarpa Brot.) is commonly cultivated in Central Mexico for its fruits. The plants of cv. 'Rendidora' show sympodial growth after forming 3-5 internodes in the main axis. From there on, each internode is terminated with a node having one flower bud, one leaf and 2 branches (dichasium type of branching). With the exclusion of the first 3 bifurcations which initiate 4 equal apparent main branches of the plant, each subsequent bifurcation has unequal ramifications: a stronger one which prolongs the apparent main branch, and a weaker one which serves as the origin of an apparent lateral branch. The apparent lateral branches form smaller internodes but these internodes require more time for their growth which is the reason that the plastochron lasts longer in the apparent lateral branches. By forming a smaller number of internodes in the same period of time, the apparent lateral branches reach a lower value of the plastochron index. All apparent lateral branches of a plant produce a greater total number of fruits, but a large proportion of them abscise. Due to this, the harvested fruits come principally from the apparent main branches. The phenology of the husk tomato plant is described. Its short period of development makes possible its cultivation in regions with a limited vegetative period.

Growth analysis of husk tomato plants cv. Rendidora was done applying classical methods. Quantities such as the Relative Growth Rate, Leaf Area Ratio, Unit Leaf Rate and others were calculated in order to describe the changes which occur in the Physalis ixocarpa plant during its development from emergence to death. The mentioned quantities comported differently in the four periods of the life of husk tomato, providing a good insight into the changing direction and intensity of the main physiological processes and their mutual balance. It is believed that such recognition of the properties of a plant may help breeders.

The evolution of such terms as growth, differentiation, development, morphogenesis etc. is discussed. It is proposed that the term (notion) development should be understood to comprise "growth", "differentiation" and even "abscission, abortion and necrosis". The term "development" is already used in such a way by some authors. The relations among the phenomena denoted by the above terms are presented in a graphic form to show that they partly overlap. The concept that growth and development represent quantitative and qualitative aspects (respectively) of plant augmentation is criticized. The newly introduced terms "development hormone" or "development regulator" seem more suitable than "growth hormone" and "growth regulator", however, these later ones are correct and may be used. The traditional term "phytohormone" and the newly introduced one "phytoregulator" seem convenient, but it must be kept in mind that such substances may transmit information both on a chemical basis as well as on a biophysical one. An example here can be auxin; a change in the wavy character of its transport may serve as information. In some cases a complex of two or more substances may play the role of a hormone, for instance ACC and ethylene, of which one is easily transportable but little active and the other is very active but exerts its action rather locally. Other combinations of activities may exist in other such pairs.

Abscission of leaves and reproductive parts of plants is presented in the form of a model which allows the reader to see the process as a whole. The process of abscission was divided into 2 parts: the first of which may be inhibited or reversed by auxin, and the second, which is mostly irreversible. Increased ethylene (ET) production links the earlier phases of senescence with abscission. ET has a double role in the initiation of the abscission process: (1) acting on the leaf blade, it withholds the export of auxin from a leaf, in consequence the abscission zone (AZ) is scarcely supplied with this hormone. When this state lasts sufficiently long, AZ tissues become sensitive to the second action of ET, (2) that is, to its dorect action on the AZ. When this occurs, the further stage of abscission is triggered. The possible roles of abscisic acid, tyloses and the influence of environmental factors are also discussed. During the further, mostly irreversible stage of abscission, marked stimulation of metabolic activity takes place in the AZ and its tissues attract nutrients. Sharp hormonal gradients appear in the AZ, leading probably to the precise localization of the "separation stratum" in the AZ where the detachment finally occurs. Further on, the detachment of the plant part may be accomplished in different ways, however, one "way" does not exclude the simultaneous participation of other(s). Thus, abscission may be accomplished by the enzymatic degradation of the middle lamella and primary cell wall, or by inducing cell divisions in the separation stratum with subsequent breaking of the newly formed cells. It can occur as well due to uneven augmentation of the cells belonging to the neighbouring cell layers which results in mechanical strain among them and in tearing apart. Separation may occur also due to a collapse of the cells of the AZ which leads to the formation of empty spaces. The problem of infallibility of physiological processes is briefly discussed.

The fruit tree. Cordia dodecandra DC.. which is partly domesticated in the region of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas (Mexico) is described from the horticultural and biological point of view. The fruit is up to 5 cm in diameter and its flesh contains 14-25%; of total lipids, 6-14%; of total protein and 5-15% of total sugars in dry mass. The fresh fruit does not have a very good flavor but cooked with sugar is very tasty. The plant shows marked variability which can be taken into consideration in the selection of better forms for vegetative propagation and breeding.

The development of the reproductive parts of husk tomato plants cv. 'Rendidora' was investigated and is presented in the form of curves based on regression equations or on the average data. The number of flower buds and flowers existing on a plant was highest at the 9th week after emergence (AE) and showed a second, lower pick toward the end of the experiment. These last flower buds and flowers did not have the opportunity to produce fruits of commercial size. The number of fruits reached its maximum at the 11th week AE but a great proportion of fruits smaller than 2 cm were shed. The plants with the prostrated type of growth showed the maximum yield earlier and tended to produce a larger yield than the erect ones.

In all three investigated cultivars, the thin part of the peduncle which originates from the inflorescence axes contained a continuous cylinder of vascular tissue interrupted only occasionally by the gaps accompanying the traces of already abscised ramifications of the inflorescence. In the cvs. Principe Negro and Fuerte, the most distal, "thick" part of the peduncle (where the tepal traces separate) contained the vascular cylinder transformed into a group of concentric or semicircular bundles. These bundles joined anew at the point where the peduncle united with the fruit, forming once more a continuous cylinder of vascular tissues. Within the fruit, the vascular cylinder divided into numerous bundles penetrating the pulp. In cv. Hass the vascular cylinder was continuous in a11 parts of the peduncle, and was interrupted only occasionally by gaps.

This paper presents results obtained for biconical tapered fibers surrounded/immersed in liquid crystal mixtures. The phenomenon of light propagating in the whole structure of a tapered fiber allows the creation of a sensor where the tapered region represents a core whereas the surrounding medium becomes a cladding. Created devices are very sensitive to changing refractive index value in a surrounding medium caused by modifying external environmental parameters like temperature, electric or magnetic field. For this reason, the properties of materials used as cladding should be easily modified. In this investigation, cells have been filled with two different nematic liquid crystals given as 1550* and 6CHBT (4-(trans-4-n-hexylcyclohexyl) isothiocyanatobenzoate), as well as with the same mixtures doped with 0.1 wt% gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Optical spectrum analysis for the wavelength range of 550−1150 nm and time-courses performed for a wavelength of 846 nm at the temperature range of T = 25−40 °C were provided. For all investigations, a steering voltage in the range of 0−200 V which allows establishing the dopes’ influence on transmitted power and time response at different temperatures was applied.