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A model was developed to describe release of two formulations of tetradecenyl acetates in Shin Etsu polyethylene tubing pheromone dispensers. Change in pheromone column length in the polyethylene tubing was modeled bydl/dt=l ... (a+bT)/dt (wherel is column length,t is time interval, andT is average temperature for that time interval). Regression of the natural log of relative change in liquid length against time interval and accumulated day degrees in orchards produced the coefficientsa andb. The model was validated by comparing predicted and actual liquid length remaining in field-aged dispensers, as well as measuring release rates by using gas chromatography. Mean daily orchard temperatures and measurement of column length of dispensers on a single date were used to accurately predict column length within 15%, after six months. Predictions of instantaneous release rate were also made from this model, and other possible model uses and limitations are discussed.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used during major invasive insect incursion responses in New Zealand since about 1999. The exchange of local mapping software enabled sharing of data that could be reviewed and analysed by researchers and programme response personnel across the country to help develop invasive species control and response plans quickly. Two examples include the New Zealand response to the Argentine ant and painted apple moth invasions. Advances in web services have globalised delivery of information, and Google Earth in particular has offered novel value that has been explored with co-operators in USDA. Here, data were converted from a excel spreadsheet to *.kml format, plotted in various pre-determined ways and saved as a *.kmz file that could be emailed. Lower than desired analytical functionality was met by better forward planning of analyses for mapping. The population expansion of the light brown apple moth in California is offered as a case study to indicate how rapidly evolving tools can help surveillance programmes, and contrasts with earlier surveillance information management methods used in New Zealand.

Corrigendum to ‘‘Chrysanthemyl 2-acetoxy-3-methylbutanoate: the sex pheromone of the citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae” [Tetrahedron Lett. 51 (2010) 1075] Ashraf M. El-Sayed *, C. Rikard Unelius , Andrew Twidle , Vanessa Mitchell , Lee-Anne Manning , Lyn Cole , David M. Suckling , M. Fernanda Flores , Tania Zaviezo , Jan Bergmann d a The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, (PFR) PB 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand b School of Pure and Applied Natural Sciences, University of Kalmar, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden PFR, Hawke’s Bay Research Centre, Havelock North, Hastings 4157, New Zealand d Instituto de Quimica, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso, Avda. Brasil 2950, Valparaiso, Chile e Facultad de Agronomia e Ingenieria Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Avda. Vicuna Mackenna 4860, Santiago, Chile

Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), in Coffea canephora var. robusta grown in New Caledonia, is controlled by applying endosulfan using vehicle-mounted mistblowers operating from roadsides. Spray deposit profiles across fields of shaded and unshaded coffee were measured by a surface fluorescence technique. In unshaded mature coffee plantations a small mistblower deposited 90% of the spray within the first 10 m from the roadside, whereas a large mistblower deposited 50% to 15 m and 90% to 30 m. The range of this large sprayer was reduced in shaded traditional plantations and was severely affected by windy conditions. Susceptible and resistant beetles, arranged in transects perpendicular to the roadside, were exposed to a standard application of endosulfan. Complete mortality of susceptible beetles occurred over the first 20 m for beetles contained in filter paper packets, compared with 10 m for beetles in green berries and 5 m for beetles in dry berries. Resistant beetles had significantly greater survival at all distances. Differential selection pressure, estimated by the differential mortality of resistant and susceptible beetles, was at maximum 6 m from the roadside. The correlation between the heaviest spray deposit and greatest selection for resistance near the point of application, is discussed.

Guava moth has now been recorded as far south as Auckland on fruit trees since first being detected in feijoa at Ahipara in 1997 The use of insecticides to control this internal fruit pest is not a viable option for growers To develop the basis for an alternative control tactic using mating disruption smallplot trials were carried out in a macadamia nut orchard using an existing polyethylene tubing pheromone dispenser used in Japan containing pheromone of the related Asian peach moth (Carposina sasakii) Male moths were significantly disrupted from locating pheromone traps (as a surrogate for female moths) using three pheromone dispensers in a single tree and also using one dispenser per tree in a plot of nine trees In a trial investigating the effect of height on trap catch the largest catch was at 3 m near the top of the canopy Aspects of guava moth biology were also investigated in the laboratory larval period in early fallen macadamia nuts pupa period at ambient autumn temperatures adult longevity with water or 10 honey solution compared to no food/water size range and sex ratio of male and female moths

The common wasp (Vespula vulgaris) is a major pest species in New Zealands forests and urban areas Attractants for wasps could enable new environmentallyfriendly management techniques against this invasive species Beech forest honeydew known to be attractive to vespid wasps was analysed using Solid Phase Micro Extraction Several volatile compounds were identified and two compounds (I and II) were tested for attraction in a Canterbury beech forest Four different lures (manuka honey; compound I; compound II; and a blend of compounds I and II) were placed in delta traps and the number of V vulgaris trapped recorded Compound II trapped significantly more V vulgaris than manuka honey and compound I and had significantly less honey bee (Apis mellifera) bycatch than the other three lures A controlled release experiment was carried out by placing 05 ml of compound II in vials with a 2 4 or 6 mm diameter hole or no hole in the lid The 4 mm treatment caught significantly more V vulgaris than the control no hole and 2 mm treatments A gravimetric release rate experiment on compound II in the laboratory showed a significant difference in weight loss between treatments These results suggest that compound II deserves further research as a wasp attractant

Disruption of lightbrown apple moth trapping was tested as a prelude to assessment of mating dis- ruption; polyethylene dispensers releasing the known sex pheromone components, (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (E,E)-9,ll-tetradecadien-l-yl acetate, at an estimated rate of 25 mg ha-' per hour in apple orchards in Nelson, New Zealand. A total of 2953 wild and 850 laboratory-reared males were marked and released at 16 sites in two pheromone-treated and two untreated blocks. No captures were recorded in sticky traps baited with virgin females or synthetic pheromones in pheromone-treated blocks, but 455 males were caught in untreated blocks, indicating complete prevention of trapping in the presence of the dispensers releasing synthetic pheromone. Individual dispensers released an estimated 4000-fold more pheromone per hour than females. Recapture of wild and laboratory-reared males averaged 28% and 31% respectively, in untreated blocks and surrounding traps. Removal of dispensers resulted in renewed capture inside previously treated blocks. Dispersal distances of wild and laboratory-reared males were not significantly different inside untreated blocks, but the mean time taken before recapture was twice as great for laboratory-reared moths (P

The effects of the 3 main wastewater discharges on the benthic fauna of the Manawatu River were studied between March 1979 and January 1980. At least 4 replicate Surber samples were taken from each of 6 sites, on 5 occasions during this period. Deleatidium sp. (Ephemeroptera), Hydora sp. (Coleoptera), and the Chironomidae were the most useful indicator organisms, according to a ranking system based on the occurrence of significant differences (P

The extent of azinphosmethyl resistance in light brown apple moth, Epiphyas Postvittana (Walker), in the Nelson region of New Zealand was determined in 1982. Light traps were used to capture females from which laboratory colonies were established for testing. Resistance was detected by spraying larvae directly with a Potter tower. In later resistance surveys (1983–85) topical application to pheromone-attracted males was used to assess resistance. Two populations (at Mariri and at the Moutere Bluffs) resistant to azinphosmethyl, but of confined distribution, were found. Resistant male moths were collected from apple orchards and nearby scrub areas and were more abundant outside orchards during the period of insecticide spray application. Subsequent reinvasion of orchards by moths from nearby scrub areas within the orchard area was indicated by the similarity in proportion of resistant individuals in the two habitats and by catches in pheromone-baited sticky traps from orchards and scrub areas. Two percent fruit damage occurred in an affected orchard in which the grower applied azinphosmethyl, compared with a normal level of ca. 0–0.2% damage elsewhere in the district.

Target site and metabolic enzyme studies were carried out on azinphosmethyl susceptible and resistant strains of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). Acetylcholinesterase from the two strains was inhibited in vitro to the same degree by azinphosmethyl oxon or by the carbamate eserine. There was also no difference between strains in the kinetics ( K m and V max ) of the reaction with acetylthiocholine iodide. The penetration and in vivo metabolism of topically applied [ 14 C]azinphosmethyl was greater by resistant moths after a 6-hr incubation. In vitro , metabolism of [ 14 C]azinphosmethyl was greater with homogenates of resistant moths and, for both strains, was influenced by the presence of glutathione but not NADPH. Assay for total nonspecific esterase activity showed significantly higher levels in resistant compared to susceptible strains for both field-collected and laboratory-reared samples. Electrophoretic analysis of esterases indicated that increased activity of many isoenzymes was involved. Assay for glutathione S -transferase activity, using 2,4-dichloronitrobenzene as substrate, also showed significantly higher levels in both field-collected and laboratory-reared resistant moths compared to the corresponding susceptibles. A kinetic study on laboratory-reared strains revealed that in the presence of independently varying concentrations of 2,4-dichloronitrobenzene and glutathione, the V max for both substrates was two fold higher in the resistant strain while the K m 's were similar to those of susceptible moths. High glutathione S -transferase activity in the resistant strain was, therefore, probably due to presence of a greater amount of the enzyme rather than due to a different form. In conclusion, modification of the target site was not a factor in resistance, but increased metabolism was involved.

The Potter tower direct spray technique was used to determine the susceptibility to endosulfan of 16 strains of Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) from the East and West Coasts of New Caledonia. Strains from the drier West Coast were susceptible, whereas susceptible and resistant strains were recorded from the wetter East Coast. This is the first record of resistance in H. hampei and Scolytidae. High levels of up to 1,000-fold endosulfan resistance were detected from five locations. These were associated with poor field control since 1986 and highly significant increases in berry infestation from 1985 to 1987. Detection of resistance follows 6 yr of lindane use and 10 yr of biannual endosulfan application.

To determine the distribution of azinphosmethyl-resistant Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) in an apple orchard district in New Zealand, female sex pheromone was used to collect males from different habitats in a 125-ha area. Dosage-mortality regressions generated by topical application experiments showed the greatest proportion of resistant moths to be in the center of the sprayed area. This method permits decisions on control tactics to be made once the problem areas are delineated.

Light-brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) has developed a low level of resistance to azinphos-methyl in two small areas of a major horticultural district in New Zealand. It is not known whether resistant individuals form isolated populations or are a part of a much larger population. Hence, it is uncertain whether this resistance has the potential to develop and spread. Models representing the range of possible situations are described and management options assessed by deducing the consequence they would have in each of the possible situations. It is concluded that the continued use of organophosphate insecticides incurs the risk of a development and spread of resistance. The best alternative is to use pyrethroids in the affected areas but such an option is not without its own costs.

Two related insecticide resistance management programmes are under way in New Zealand horticulture. The first aims to limit the spread and impact of azinphos-methyl resistant lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) in an applegrowing district. In the second, the introduction of pyrethroid (SP) resistance in organophosphate-resistant (OP) Typhlodromus pyri makes it possible to undertake biological control of the European red mite that is compatible with SP and OP control of orchard pests. In the LBAM programme the resistant zone, which includes alternative host-plant reservoirs, has been delineated by detailed resistance monitoring with topical application of males caught using female sex pheromone. In that zone, chlorpyrifos, to which the azinphos-methyl resistant LBAM has low cross-resistance, is used in the short term to control resistant moths, while alternative measures (e. g. other insecticides and mating disruption) are investigated. Recognition of the importance of immigration from alternative host plant reservoirs has led to specific tactics such as the application of pyrethroids to non-crop areas. This resulted in a significant decrease of the resistant population. So far, however, SPs have not been registered in apple orchards because they kill OP-resistant predatory mites which control the European red mite, and also because of the lack of residue tolerances for SPs in some overseas markets. Following the assessment of the potential value of pyrethroids in pipfruit, DSIR started field selection for pyrethroid resistance in predatory mites, which was later expanded to include laboratory selection. The successful development of pyrethroid-resistant predators which retain organophosphate resistance is permitting the introduction of biological control of European red mite compatible with the use of these two classes of insecticides for control of other pests. In future, the lepidopterous pests on New Zealand apples may be controlled by pyrethroids, scales and other minor pests by organophosphates, and European red mite by multi-resistant predatory mites.

Three insecticide application methods (topical application, direct spray, and diet incorporation) were used to estimate concentration-mortality regressions for azinphosmethyl resistant (R) and susceptible (S), and F1 Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) larvae. The three techniques yielded different estimates of dominance. Topical application of mid-instar F1 larvae gave a dominant response with a degree of dominance of +0.61. Direct spray of insecticide onto first instars gave intermediate responses for the F1 generation, with a degree of dominance of -0.09 and +0.14 in tests on the same strains two generations apart. Backcross and F2 larvae showed greater susceptibility than F1 larvae, although the resistance was too low to allow Mendelian analysis. Concentration-mortality lines were estimated for 8-d-old larvae exposed to azinphosmethyl in artificial diet for 3 wk: the degree of dominance was +0.31. Tethered virgin female moths from the susceptible laboratory strain were placed within apple orchards in which E. postvittana resistant to azinphosmethyl were present, and they were allowed to mate at will with local males. Larval offspring were exposed to diagnostic concentrations that cause 100% mortality of susceptible larvae to determine the phenotypic frequency of resistance. The resistance phenotype frequency was >85%, and gene flow between resistant and susceptible individuals was demonstrated to have occurred in the field. Males from five replicate strains yielding survivors were backcrossed to a susceptible strain, and the offspring were again selected on artificial diet containing azinphosmethyl. Selection and backcrossing for five or six generations did not result in a decrease in the resistance with either direct spray or diet incorporation techniques. Monogenic inheritance could not be proven from the data, although no conflict with this hypothesis was detected.

The responses of Epiphyas postvittana and Planotortrix excessana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larvae to insecticides were compared using three laboratory methods: topical application, direct application, and exposure to residues. The order of toxicity was fenvalerate > chlorpyrifos > azinphos-methyl > phosmet for topically applied insecticides on E. postvittana, and fenvalerate > azinphos-methyl for P. excessana. For technical grade insecticides applied to first instar E. postvittana larvae in a Potter tower, the order of toxicity was deltamethrin > cypermethrin > fenvalerate > permethrin > azinphos-methyl > triazophos > chlorpyrifos > azinphos-ethyl > phosmet > carbaryl > etrimphos > DDD. Against first-instar P. excessana larvae, with the same method, the order of toxicity was cypermethrin > fenvalerate > azinphos-methyl > chlorpyrifos > phosmet > carbaryl. After exposure of first-instar E. postvittana and P. excessana to residues, the order of toxicity was deltamethrin > chlorpyrifos > cypermethr...

Azinphosmethyl resistance in the light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) was confirmed with four methods: topical application of larvae, a Potter tower direct-spray method, and two residue exposure methods using middle instars and newly hatched larvae. The Mariri population exhibited a 140-fold resistance factor, using topical application of larvae. A 20-fold resistance factor was obtained by using a Potter tower to spray the insects directly. The first residue exposure method, using a Potter tower to treat apple leaf discs with the 50 WP formulation, produced a 13-fold resistance factor when third- and fourth-instar larvae were caged on the discs for 48 h. In the second residue exposure method, when first-instar larvae were caged onto leaf discs for 16 h, the resistance factor was 5-fold. The Potter tower, acetone-spray method was found to be the most satisfactory technique for evaluation of azinphosmethyl resistance in larvae. The application of this technique for monitoring resistance in the field is suggested.

Responses of resistant and susceptible strains of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), to azinphosmethyl varied significantly depending upon the diet that larvae consumed. Responses of resistant larvae reared on blackberry and susceptible larvae reared on artificial (general purpose) diet were similar. Susceptible larvae on artificial diet were significantly more tolerant compared with susceptible larvae fed any of the natural host plants, whereas resistant larvae reared on blackberry were significantly less resistant than resistant larvae reared on any other diet. Activity of nonspecific esterases of resistant larvae fed blackberry was significantly lower than activities in resistant larvae fed general purpose diet, gorse, apple, or broom, and not significantly different from nonspecific esterase activities of susceptible larvae reared on general purpose diet, gorse, apple, blackberry, or broom. In the presence of high glutathione S-transferase activity that characterized all resistant larvae regardless of diet, depressed nonspecific esterase activity may be responsible for increased toxicity of azinphosmethyl to resistant larvae on blackberry. In resistant strains of other polyphagous species, responses of individuals tested with pesticide may reflect metabolic effects related to the host plant rather than to the magnitude of genetically based resistance to the pesticide.

The Australian moth Teia anartoides Walker has been the target of a major eradication program in Auckland, New Zealand. Information on cold torpor and dispersal was needed to help interpret catches of sterile and wild males in female-baited delta traps operated in a grid of up to 1,696 traps at 500-m spacings across the city. Laboratory experiments indicated male flight was enabled at temperatures above 17 degrees C (confirmed by field trapping of wild and recaptured moths). Male survival in the field or in field cages was determined to be limited to approximately 4 d. Sterilization of males for dispersal studies was achieved by exposing male pupae to either 160 or 100 Gy by using 1.25 MeV gamma rays from a Cobalt source, before release as fluorescent-dyed emerged adults. Dispersal was determined by recapture of males in the trapping grid of 1,696 delta traps baited with virgin female moths and placed at spacings of 50-500 m. Irradiated sterile males dispersed up to a maximum recorded distance of 4,500 m (160 Gy) and 10,000 m (100 Gy). At 100 Gy, the median dispersal distance was 300 m, with 90% of males dispersing 1,600 m or less.

Mating disruption for leafrollers has been conducted on a commercial scale using a single multispecies pheromone dispenser on contiguous blocks of cherries in Central Otago for 4 years Pheromone trap and packhouse results were collected from isolated untreated (654 ha) and pheromonetreated cherry orchard areas (764 ha) in the Cromwell district In untreated cherry orchards catches of light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) were exceptionally high (38 males/trap/day) with lower catches of Planotortrix octo (025 males/ trap/day) Catches of both species were strongly disrupted in the treated areas reducing E postvittana to 00036 moths/trap/day and P octo to nil Trap catches of both species have increased steadily over 5 years (2008/09 to 20012/13) in blocks not using mating disruption Packhouse results showed that all of the fruit inspected from both treated and untreated areas were free of leafroller infestations in 2012/13 Insecticide use in the pheromonetreated areas was reduced by one application compared with the areas without pheromone