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The implementation of efficient and sustainable biorefineries to substitute the petroleum-based economy is dependent on coupling the manufacturing of high-value biobased chemicals. Furfuryl alcohol (FFA) is a versatile and valuable intermediate for the manufacturing of vitamin C, fruit acids, lysine, plasticizers, dispersing agents, lubricants, resins, additives and biofuels. This work provided a cascade catalysis of biomass to FFA via a hybrid approach. Co-catalysis of corncob (75.0 g/L) with formic acid (1.0 wt%) and solid acid Sn-MMT (2.0 wt%) could produce 77.8 mM furfural at 180 ℃ for 10 min under microwave (600 W), and then the formed furfural was biologically transformed into FFA with recombinant E. coli CF harboring formate dehydrogenase and aldehyde reductase in the furfural liquor containing formate as cosubstrate at pH 6.5 and 35 ℃. This established hybrid strategy could efficiently valorize corncob into FFA in the presence of formate, with the productivity of 0.296 g FFA/(g xylan in corncob). Consequently, one-pot cascade reaction that combines non-enzymatic and biocatalytic conversion provides a sustainable way to effectively valorize the biomass into high-value chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research aimed to study the production, consumption, and determinants of the food balance of wheat, to study the most important factors affecting wheat consumption, and to study the most important means of narrowing the wheat gap in Egypt. The results show an increase in both the area of wheat and wheat production, the price of farmed wheat in Egypt increased annually, statistically, by an amount of about 52.61 thousand faddans, 128.81 thousand tons, and 196.33 pounds per ton, respectively, the results of estimating each crop available for consumption are shown, wheat, the wheat gap, and the average per capita share increased during the study period by a statistically significant annual amount of 0.55, 0.4 thousand tons, and 1.1 kilograms per year, respectively, a statistically significant decrease was found in the annual self-sufficiency ratio, which amounted to about 0.94. The results show that an increase in the population, per capita income, and consumer price by 10% leads to an increase in the consumed quantities of wheat by about 5.9%, 1.7%, and 1.8%, respectively. It turned out that the most important means of reducing the wheat gap in Egypt is to follow a stimulating price policy for farms that works to increase the cultivated area of wheat, and to make silage from an area of 500 thousand acres of maize without cobs, it is possible to dispense with 635 thousand acres of alfalfa area, and thus lies the increase in the total output of wheat is about 1.6 million tons, which fills about 22% of the average size of the wheat gap in Egypt during the period (2000-2020), which is about 7.394 million tons. Estimating the amount of wheat lost, it was found that the average amount of loss amounted to 2.794 million tons during the period (2015-2020), with an estimated value of about 9748.796 million pounds, and that the average amount of lost wheat was produced from an area estimated at 1,085 thousand faddans, and that this the area consumed an amount of irrigation water amounting to about 1574.623 million m3, and it is clear that the average amount of wheat lost could have been sufficient to feed about 10.28 million people of Egypt's population. Based on the results, the research recommends the necessity of: Work to reduce waste by using modern technology in harvesting, transportation, storage and manufacturing. Adopting a stimulating price policy for farms that works to increase the cultivated area of wheat. Working to spread the technology of making silage from maize without cobs to preserve corn grains and reduce the area of alfalfa [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Corncob is a cheap source for biochar in developing countries. No studies reported on use of biochar as sheep fattening supplement. Objectives: The goal of this study is to determine the effect of corncob biochar supplementation on growth performance and carcass characteristics of sheep. Methods: Twenty‐four Horro yearling rams (18.6 ± 0.938 kg live weight) were randomly distributed to four groups, control (300 g/day concentrate + local hay ad libitum), BC1.5 (control +1.5 g/day biochar), BC3 (control +3 g/day biochar) and BC4.5 (control +4.5/day biochar). The experimental concentrate consisted of 200 g/day wheat bran and 100 g/day Noug cake. The study consisted of a growth trial of 111 days followed by a digestibility trial of 10 days. Carcass characteristics for all rams were recorded at the end of the trial. Results: Dry matter intake, crude protein intake, dry matter digestibility and acid detergent fibre digestibility of BC1.5 were significantly higher than the control. Corncob biochar supplementation significantly improved daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio of the rams. Supplementation sheep with corncob biochar improved significantly dressing percentage, hindquarters weight, forequarters weight, ribs weight, brisket weigh and rib eye muscle area. There was a significant effect of the dietary treatment on weight of internal organs; however, they were all within the normal range of sheep. Conclusions: Corncob biochar supplementation would be recommended at a level of 1.5 g/day to improve growth performance and carcass characteristics of sheep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, Chinese corn grain harvesters lack cleaning loss monitoring. Cleaning parameters cannot be automatically adjusted, and the loss rate is high. In view of the above problems, a cleaning loss monitoring sensor is designed, composed of a metal impact plate, piezoelectric ceramic and signal processing circuit. The factors affecting the characteristics of vibration signals are analyzed from the material, size and other aspects. The sensitive plate is composed of a 304 stainless steel impact plate and piezoelectric ceramic. The sensitive plate can convert the vibration signal of the impact plate into a voltage signal, and the output voltage range can reach ±3 V or more. The signal generated by the collision of corn kernel and damaged corn cob with the sensitive plate was analyzed.It was found that the frequency domain range of corn grains was wider, with signals above 6 kHz, but broken corncobs did not have such signals. Based on the frequency distribution, a signal processing circuit is designed, which consists of high-pass filter circuit, an envelope detection circuit, and a voltage comparison circuit. The circuit can convert analog signals into pulse signals, which facilitates the counting process by the microprocessor. In order to obtain the monitoring accuracy and installation parameters of the integrated corn cleaning loss monitoring sensor, a Central Composite Design was carried out with the installation height and angle of the sensitive plate as the test factors and monitoring accuracy as the test index. Based on the test results and field test conditions, a regression model was established to determine the optimal installation parameters: the installation angle of the sensitive plate is 30°, and the installation height is 30 cm. At this stage, the accuracy of the sensor monitoring corn grains was 92.82%, and the accuracy of monitoring the mixture of corn grains and broken corncobs was 90.07%. The verification test shows that the monitoring accuracy can reach more than 94% after the sensor is debugged. This research can provide a reference for the design of corn cleaning loss monitoring devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fodder maize cultivation under low mountain conditions in Central Europe presents obstacles for organic dairy farmers; low temperatures and high precipitation values in spring delay the juvenile development of maize, which leads to lower and fluctuating yields. Increasing the soil temperature during the critical growth phase of maize in spring is beneficial for maize cultivation. For this reason, 0.15 m high ridge-row cultivation (RCM) of maize was compared to a typical flat surface cultivation method (FCM) with 0.75 m row spacing in three environments (En) in 2017, 2018 and 2020 on-farm at low mountain sites in Germany. In the experiment, with randomised block design and one-factorial arrangement, soil temperature (ST) at 0.05 m soil depth at midday, field emergence (FE) 4, 8, 16 and 20 days after sowing (DAS), dry matter yields (DM) in every En and plant development and N, P, K content in En 2020 were investigated. RCM led to a significantly higher ST 4 DAS in every En, 12 and 20 days in 2018 and 8 and 16 DAS in 2020. RCM did not accelerate maize FE but positively impacted plant development and starch content. RCM generated a higher dry matter (DM) yield of whole maize plants and corn cobs, and a higher protein yield than FCM. RCM slightly increased the plant-available P and Mg content from 0 to 0.3 m and influenced significantly the mineral N content from 0 to 0.3 m at the beginning of grain development. RCM, a simple cultivation technique, demonstrated benefits for maize cultivation, particularly for climatically marginal locations in Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hazardous composition of produced water (PW) places it as a dangerous contamination agent, which must be treated to meet environmental and operational requirements before disposal, reuse, or reinjection. The current work evaluated an adsorption treatment using raw and pretreated corncob samples to remove total oil and grease (TOG) from PW. The influence of adsorbent dosage (1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 g), particle size (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mm), and contact time (60, 120, and 240 min) were tested in a batch system, showing that the lowest oil concentration was achieved with the smallest particle size (0.5 mm) and highest contact time (240 min) and adsorbent dosage (5.0 g). Using a 20 cm secondary partition in the fixed-bed column system was more efficient for TOG removal than a 10 cm one: the raw corncob removed 85.23% of TOG against 17.41% pretreated biomass. Comparative studies showed that the adsorption performance of untreated corncob was superior to that observed for walnut shells (69%), a widely used commercial absorbent. Results indicated corncob's environmental and economic potential as a natural and cost-effective adsorbent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before fermentation with hemicellulosic hydrolysate as a substrate, it is generally necessary to detoxify the toxic substances that are harmful to microorganism growth. Cyclic AMP receptor protein (CRP) is a global regulator, and mutation of its key sites may have an important impact on E. coli virulence tolerance. Using corncob hydrolysate without ion-exchange or lime detoxification as the substrate, shake flask fermentation experiments showed that CRP mutant IS5-dG (I112L, T127G, A144T) produced 18.4 g/L of xylitol within 34 h, and the OD600 was 9.7 at 24 h; these values were 41.5% and 21.3% higher than those of the starting strain, IS5-d, respectively. This mutant produced 82 g/L of xylitol from corncob hydrolysate without ion-exchange or lime detoxification during fed-batch fermentation in a 15-L bioreactor, with a productivity of 1.04 g/L/h; these values were 173% and 174% higher than the starting strain, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the highest xylitol concentration and productivity produced by microbial fermentation using completely non-detoxified hemicellulosic hydrolysate as the substrate to date. This study also showed that alkali neutralization, high temperature sterilization, and fermentation of the hydrolysate had important effects on the xylose loss rate and xylitol production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blending biodegradable polymers with plant materials is an effective method to improve the biodegradability of solid carbon sources and save denitrification costs, but the recalcitrant lignin in plant materials hinders the microbial decomposition of available carbon sources. In the present study, corncob pretreated by different methods was used to prepare polybutylene succinate/corncob (PBS/corncob) composites for biological denitrification. The PBS/corncob composite with alkaline pretreatment achieved the optimal NO3−-N removal rate (0.13 kg NO3−-N m−3 day−1) with less adverse effects. The pretreatment degree, temperature, and their interaction distinctly impacted the nitrogen removal performance and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) release, while the N2O emission was mainly affected by the temperature and the interaction of temperature and pretreatment degree. Microbial community analysis showed that the bacterial community was responsible for both denitrification and lignocellulose degradation, while the fungal community was primarily in charge of lignocellulose degradation. The outcomes of this study provide an effective strategy for improving the denitrification performance of composite carbon sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is a common polyphagous pest on corn cob. H. armigera that is controllable through Trichogrammatoidea armigera (Nagaraja) parasitoid release. Successful inundated release of parasitoids depends on parasitization and parasitoid dispersal. Methods: The experiment consisted of 2 parasitoid release plots and 1 no release plot. T. armigera parasitoid was released twice, at 45 DAP and 52 DAP (Day after planting) in the middle of the experimental plot. The dose of parasitoid released during the corn generative phase was 1000 individuals per 254 m2 (-40000/ha). Evaluation was carried out by collecting the eggs of H. armigera 3 days after release at radius 1, 3, 6 and 9 m in all cardinal directions from the release point. Result: The release of parasitoids increased the eggs parasitization of H. armigera in 45 DAP tot he tune of 51.91% and 52 DAP was 38.57%. The wind direction did not affect the parasitoid movement which is active and almost uniform in all cardinal directions. Parasitoid movement was slightly similar in all distances and cardinal directions. The distribution of parasitoids reached 9 m from 40 release points ha-1 in colonies. T. armigera parasitoids were grouped hence, the monitoring in corn was carried out systematically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immobilization of microbial cells for the production of industrially important enzymes has been reported to offer the advantages of recyclability, higher yields and cost effectiveness. The search for an appropriate matrix that is affordable and easy to prepare is a significant topic in microbial biotechnology. Here, an abundant type of agro-industrial waste—corncob—was utilized as an immobilization matrix for the production of xylanase from an indigenous yeast strain, Saccharomyces cerevisiae MK-157. This is the first report describing xylanase production from immobilized S. cerevisiae. To render the corncob matrix more porous, alkaline pretreatment was undertaken and yeast cells were immobilized on the matrix by cultivating at 30 °C for 48 h in Sabouraud dextrose broth. After incubation, the immobilized matrix was transferred to mineral salt medium containing 1% xylan and incubated at 30 °C for 24 h. Xylanase production was determined in cell-free culture supernatant and the matrix was recycled for up to seven cycles. Moreover, xylanase-mediated saccharification was carried out using sugarcane bagasse as a substrate and the release of reducing sugars was monitored. The results showed that the immobilized yeast produced 4.97 IU mL−1 xylanase in the first production cycle, indicating a >tenfold increase compared to the free cells. Xylanase production further increased to its maximum levels (9.23 IU mL−1) in the fourth production cycle. Nonetheless, the cells retained 100% productivity for up to seven cycles. The volumetric and specific productivity of xylanase were also the highest in the fourth cycle. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed the rough surface of the untreated corncob, which became more porous after alkaline pretreatment. Immobilized yeast cells were also visible on the corncob pieces. The saccharification of a natural resource—sugarcane bagasse—using xylanase preparation yielded 26 mg L−1 of reducing sugars. Therefore, it can be concluded that yeast strains can yield sufficient quantities of xylanase, allowing possible biotechnological applications. Moreover, corncob can serve as a cost-effective matrix for industrially important yeast strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A promising new activated carbon (AC) was produced from corncobs (CCs) by boric acid-based chemical activation to remove methylene blue (MB) as an organic pollutant and cadmium ions (Cd2+) as an inorganic pollutant from aqueous solutions. After the produced activated carbon (CCs-AC) was characterized, the adsorption mechanism of CCs-AC, which is one of the most interesting topics in the literature, was the primarily focus. The possible adsorption mechanisms of Cd2+ and MB on CCs-AC from aqueous solutions are discussed with respect to pH, thermodynamic values, and regeneration parameters. The results show that the adsorption of Cd2+ on CCs-AC was favorable at pH values higher than 4. In contrast, the adsorption process was almost pH-independent for MB. Variation of pH showed that the adsorption of Cd2+ on CCs-AC primarily occurs by electrostatic interaction. However, MB adsorption may also involve π-π dispersion forces and partial hydrogen bonding. The Cd2+ adsorbed on CCs-AC was quantitatively desorbed by HCl, whereas MB was not desorbed quantitatively by any solution. While a temperature increase has a positive effect on the adsorption of both methylene blue and Cd2+, the thermodynamic results show that MB adsorption is primarily chemisorption (ΔH of 24.28 kJ/mole), while Cd2+ adsorption is mostly physisorption (ΔH of 7.20 kJ/mole). Using Langmuir adsorption isotherms, the MB adsorption capacity of CCs-AC, which primarily has a microporous structure, was 0.88 mmol/g, while the Cd2+ adsorption capacity was 1.28 mmol/g. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants are a rich source of phytochemical compounds with antioxidant activity. Several studies have revealed that the consumption of plant polyphenols reduces the risk of diseases. Purple corn (Zea mays L. variety KND) and butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea; CT) were selected to be investigated as alternative natural polyphenol sources to increase the value of these plants. Phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities of KND cob, silk, husk and CT extracts alone and in combination were investigated in this study. The results revealed that purple corn cob (C) extract had the highest tryptophan, melatonin, total anthocyanin (TAC) and delphinidin content, while the purple corn silk (S) extract showed the highest total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activities. Serotonin was found only in purple corn husk (H) extract and C extract. High contents of tryptophan and sinapic acid were found in CT extract. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that strong antioxidant activities were strongly correlated with protocatechuic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid contents, moderate antioxidant activities were strongly correlated with melatonin, and low antioxidant activities were strongly correlated with sinapic acid content. Therefore, the purple corn variety KND waste cobs, silk and husks are a potentially rich source of health-promoting phytochemical compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a strategy of corncob valorization was proposed. Corncob was first pretreated with a recyclable acid hydrotrope (p-TsOH, aqueous solution) to selectively remove lignin and hemicelluloses. After pretreatment, the collected liquid phase was diluted with deionized water to precipitate lignin. The hemicelluloses degradation products, mainly pentose, in the resulting acid liquor were converted into furfural with a yield of 53.65% without adding any catalyst. The collected lignin was depolymerized to phenolic monomers with a yield of 68.00% via a hydrodeoxygenation process. The pretreated cellulose-rich solid was subjected to 10 s ultrasonic treatment to form pulp and subsequently used for papermaking by blending it with commercial softwood pulp. With a corncob pulp addition of 20%, the tensile index and ring crush index of hand sheets increased by 10.62% and 5.05%, respectively, compared with those containing 100% softwood pulp. Therefore, this study provided a strategy for corncob valorization toward multipurpose fractionation: furfural, phenolic monomers, and pulp, reaching a comprehensive utilization of corncob. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The search for renewable energy sources has led to the development of plant microbial fuel cells (PMFCs). In this study, Epipremnum aureum plant species was used to generate bioelectricity in a PMFC, demonstrating the synergistic effect of corn cob and carbon road on the power generation and plant growth in PMFC. The maximum voltage output of PMFC with the composite corn cob and carbon rod anode was 465 mV which was 367 mV potential higher than the PMFC with the carbon rod anode only. The maximum power density obtained was 6.75 mW/m2. The results suggest that the use of corn cob has improved the biocompatibility of PMFC. The design of PMFC devices has been developed to increase power output which will be the next step of this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia's corn harvest area is decreasing so that corn production is also decreasing. The use of suboptimal land can be done to increase the harvested corn area by adding nutrients with organic fertilizers. One of the organic fertilizer ingredients is corn cob waste. The aim of the study was to examine the role of corn cob fertilizer on the growth, yield and nutrient uptake of corn. The study used a completely randomized block design with one fertilization factor with six levels, namely chemical fertilizers and corn cob organic fertilizer at a dose of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 or 12.5 tons/ha. Corn cob organic fertilizer has met the standard as an organic fertilizer with an organic C content of 62.21% and organic matter of 85.71%, ranking it in the high category. The total nitrogen is 1.44%, total phosphate is 1.43% and total potassium is 2.17%. Corn cob organic fertilizer had an effect on the leaf area index, root length, levels of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, weight of 100 seeds, cob diameter and phosphate uptake. Doses of 12.5 tons/ha produced the highest changes in chlorophyll a and b, root length and phosphate uptake. Phosphate and potassium uptake correlated with plant biomass and root length. Therefore, the results of the present study suggest that corn cob organic fertilizer is able to support the growth, yield and nutrient uptake of corn in sub-optimum land. Several gaps and research priorities in soil fertility have been identified, which need to be addressed in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tuberculosis (TB) is a deadly disease and needs a fast, cheap, and effective method of detection at an early stage. Methyl nicotinate (MN) is an important TB biomarker, but there are only a few reports on MN sensing. In this study, fluorescence-based sensors and optical electronic nose sensors from carbon dots (CDs) were developed for the highly sensitive and selective detection of MN. They were able to detect MN in the solution phase via the inner filter effect (IFE) and strong π–π interactions between the pyridine ring and the CDs. The limit of detection was found to be dependent upon the excitation wavelength and concentration of CDs. The use of 0.05 mg mL−1 CDs and 260 nm excitation provided the best linearity range of over 5–500 μM and the lowest detection limit of 3 nM. The CDs showed excellent photostability and good selectivity towards MN in the presence of several interferences. This work demonstrated the practical use of the CDs when tested in MN spiked biological samples, with 98.8–102.9% recovery percentage. The fabrication of reusable paper-based sensors was also demonstrated. The CD thin film integrated in the optical electronic nose could sense MN vapor and distinguish MN from other biomarkers. The CDs developed in this work can be potentially used as dual-mode sensors for early TB detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new bending fracture principle is proposed for ear picking by simulating the process of manually breaking off corn cobs. Based on this, a new test device for corn ear picking was designed to obtain the relationship between the ear-picking rate and the rotational speed of the snapping rollers, as well as the feeding speed. A mechanical test was conducted on corn at two different harvesting stages. This proved that the tensile breaking force used in ear picking was considerably greater than that associated with bending fracture, regardless of whether it was silage or mature corn. Moreover, the feasibility of the working principle of the bending fracture was tentatively verified by a verification test. Then, ear picking could be achieved using the designed device with less damage occurring to the corn ears and straw, according to the test for corn ear picking. Finally, a range analysis showed that the highest ear-picking rate could be obtained by the test device at a snapping roller rate of 780 r/min and a feeding speed of 1.5 (m/s), with a 40° angle between the snapping rollers and conveyor. Thus, this study provides a reference for the further development of a corn harvester for silage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new catalyst (Fe2(SO4)3-NaCl) was employed for the selective conversion of corncob hemicellulose to xylose via hydrothermal treatment. The optimal conditions included Fe2(SO4)3-NaCl treatment for 2 h at 140 °C to achieve the selective conversion of hemicellulose (92.4 wt%) and a xylose yield of 106.8 wt%, which is based on the hemicellulose content in corncobs. These conditions led to a cellulose and lignin dissolution of 7.9 and 21.2 wt%, respectively. Fe2(SO4)3 was found to play an important role, rather than NaCl, in the disruption of interactions among the three major components, while the conversion of lignin and cellulose was inhibited by NaCl and Fe2(SO4)3, respectively. The co-addition of Fe2(SO4)3 and NaCl promoted the selective dissolution of hemicellulose, leaving most of the cellulose and lignin unreacted in the solid residue. Additionally, Fe2(SO4)3 inhibited the formation of formic and acetic acids. A second hydrothermal treatment on the hemicellulose-free residue with the same catalytic system at 140 °C for 2 h resulted in 42.2 wt% cellulose conversion and a fructose yield of 79.7 wt% based on converted cellulose. Therefore, a potential route for the comprehensive utilization of corncobs is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Automobile wastewater is one among the heavily contaminated wastewater consisting of harmful elements such as surfactants, oil and grease, dust particles, and various dissolved and suspended solids. In this study, car wash water from an automobile wash center in Chennai, Tamil Nadu was collected and treated with waste from corn crops that is inedible. The increase in automobile industries and similar wash centers is contributing to environmental contamination. Due to the low cost and availability, the efficiency of removal of pollutants, and since it promotes environmental sustainability, natural materials are adopted more than chemicals. The study adopted using a column adsorption process and it showed good results in the physiochemical characteristics where it has adsorbed oil and grease, TDS, and TSS. Oil and grease removal by 71.4% was observed whereas the biochar was found to be effective with an 89% reduction in total dissolved solids and more than 50% decrease in parameters such as TSS, COD, conductivity, oil and grease, and total alkalinity. The adsorption isotherm was studied with varying particle size and bed height along with the comparison of removal efficiency of various parameters in this experimental investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formic acid (FA) was used for reductive depolymerization of industrial corncob lignin via ethanol and Pt/C system. The highest yield of bio-oil obtained was 71.4% when the reaction was conducted at 260 °C with an FA/lignin ratio of 8 for 0.5 h. The bio-oil was composed of oligomers (Mw within 600 Da) and lignin depolymerized fragments (Mw beyond 600 Da). Reaction temperature was the most important factor affecting the properties of bio-oil. Although excessive temperature could increase the C/H ratio and higher heating value (HHV) of bio-oil, it would lead to repolymerization of lignin degraded fragments, thus resulting in a higher molecular weight of bio-oil. Additionally, alkylphenols were major products in bio-oil, and the amount of alkyl phenols could be increased by increasing the temperature and extending the retention time appropriately. This study reveals the effects of various reaction conditions on the yield and properties of bio-oil, providing a theoretical basis for subsequent upgrading of bio-oil to biofuels and aromatic chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study determined some physical changes that occur on wood surfaces aged in a marine environment resulting from the removal of coatings using environmentally friendly media blasting. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood coated with water-borne and synthetic paints was exposed to a marine environment for 100 days. The aged paint layers were removed using five different media (sodium bicarbonate, hazelnut shell granules, corncob granules, walnut shell granules, and apricot kernel granules), varying blasting angles (45° and 90°), blasting distances (7 and 10 cm), air pressures (2 and 2.5 bar), and nozzle diameters (0.5 and 0.8 mm) using an automated blasting cabinet. The results showed that corn cob granules and sodium bicarbonate were less effective than other media for removing paint layers at the application parameters. The samples were tested for hardness, gloss, and total color change. Samples exhibited a remarkable total color change and gloss increase when the blasting distance was increased from 7 cm to 10 cm, while their hardness decreased. The highest gloss value was obtained on surfaces blasted with a nozzle diameter of 0.5 cm. Surfaces blasted with a nozzle diameter of 8 mm, however, yielded the highest total color change and hardest values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lignocellulosic biomass is widely used in the field of laccase production because it has the advantages of low price and easy availability. Thus, a comparative analysis was performed of the laccase secretion ability of five white-rot fungi in submerged fermentation using single or mixtures of lignocellulosic biomass. Maximum laccase activity of Trametes gibbosa An 360, Vanderbylia fraxinea An 369, Perenniporia pyricola Han 202, Coriolopsis trogii Han 474, and Trametes versicolor Han 1504 was 55.83 ± 0.28 U/L on the mixture of corncob and cottonseed hull, 77.96 ± 1.60 U/L on corncob, 443.33 ± 15.49 U/L on corncob, 686.57 ± 16.49 U/L on corncob, and 162.04 ± 11.33 U/L on cottonseed hull. The mixed lignocellulosic material effectively improved the laccase activity of T. gibbosa An 360 compared with other fungal strains. However, the presence of corncob contributed to the secretion of laccase activity for V. fraxinea An 369, P. pyricola Han 202, and C. trogii Han 474. Meanwhile, cottonseed hull was conducive to the secretion of laccase of T. versicolor Han 1504. Laccase activity of P. pyricola Han 202 was very stable throughout most of the fermentation time. The results from this study provide new methods and increase fungal strains to improve laccase activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laccase activity secreted by Pleurotus eryngii Han 1787 and Lentinus edodes Han 1788 grown on six types of agroindustrial wastes was investigated. Maximum laccase activity of P. eryngii Han 1787 on Ulmus pumila, Juniperus formosana, Pinus tabuliformis, cottonseed shell, corncob, and leaf of corncob was nearly 5.77-fold, 2.37-fold, 2.78-fold, 2.81-fold, 11.53-fold, and 6.73-fold higher than that of L. edodes Han1788 on corresponding agroindustrial wastes. In general, the capacity of secreting laccase of P. eryngii Han 1787 was superior to that of L. edodes Han 1788. Furthermore, laccase activity of P. eryngii Han 1787 on the leaf of corncob, the corncob, Ulmus pumila, and Juniperus formosana was relatively stable during the whole fermentation process. Different fungi showed different preferences in different agroindustrial wastes to secret laccase on whole fermentation stage. The presence of leaf of corncob was useful for improving laccase activity of P. eryngii Han 1787, while L. edodes Han 1788 was more preferred to produce laccase along with the presence of Juniperus formosana. These results were preliminary conducive in laying the foundation for increasing industrial laccaseproducing strains and producing low-cost laccase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sericin-hydrogel formulations incorporating purple waxy corn (Zea mays L.) cob extract (PWCC) were developed as potential topical skin cosmetic products. Sericin has wound healing properties, protects against ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, and anti-tyrosinase activities. PWCC is a rich source of anthocyanins with antioxidants, UV protective, anti-inflammatory, and collagen-enhancing activities. Six hydrogel formulations (S1–S6) were investigated for anti-melanogenesis on the B16F10 melanoma cell line and UV-protection on human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and anti-aging activities on normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs). The results showed that the hydrogel formulations enhanced the anthocyanin permeation through the skin. The S4 formulation indicated the highest inhibition of tyrosinase activity and reduced the melanin pigment, increased the cell viability of the UV-induced HaCaT cells, the inhibition of collagenase and elastase, and increased the collagen type I production without cytotoxicity. Therefore, the PWCC loaded-sericin hydrogels show a high potential as a novel anti-hyperpigmentation, UV protection, and anti-aging products for topical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purple corn cob is an agro-industrial by-product that contains high-value bioactive compounds, which makes its use attractive for the development of extraction processes. The aim of this research was to extract the bioactive compounds from the purple corn cob by high isostatic pressure at different processing temperatures. Pressures of 0.01 MPa, 250 MPa, 450 MPa and 650 MPa for 3 minutes and at temperatures of 25°C, 45°C and 65°C were used. High pressure extraction was compared with conventional extraction (2.5 h at 25°C). The purple corn cob extract obtained by isostatic processing at 650 MPa and 65 °C presented high antioxidant activity and content of bioactive compounds, unlike the conventional extraction of 2.5 h and 65°C (p<0.05). However, it did not show a significant difference with the extract obtained at 450 MPa and 45°C (p> 0.05). Seven different anthocyanins were identified by liquid chromatography in the extracts obtained by high isostatic pressure (650 MPa at 65 °C) and hydroalcoholic maceration (2.5 h at 65°C), mainly cyanidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside, and their respective malonyl derivatives. The high isostatic pressure increased the extraction of bioactive compounds by more than 50% and obtained them in shorter times, thus appearing as a new alternative, and ecofriendly method for the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Valorization of the abundant renewable lignocellulose through an efficient chemoenzymatic strategy to produce the furan-based platform compounds has raised great interest in recent years. In this work, a newly prepared sulfonated tin-loaded rice husk-based heterogeneous chemocatalyst UST-Sn-RH was utilized to transform corncob (75.0 g/L) into furfural (72.1 mM) at 170 °C for 30 min in an aqueous system. To upgrade furfural into furfuryl alcohol, whole cells of recombinant E. coli KPADH harboring alcohol dehydrogenase were employed to transform corncob-derived furfural into furfuryl alcohol at 30 °C and pH 7.5. In the established chemoenzymatic cascade process, corncob was efficiently transformed to furfuryl alcohol with a productivity of 0.304 g furfuryl alcohol/(g xylan in corncob). In general, biomass could be efficiently valorized into valuable furan-based chemicals in this tandem reaction with the chemocatalyst (bio-based UST-Sn-RH) and the biocatalyst (KPADH cell) in an aqueous system, which has potential application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conversion of plant‐based lignocellulosic materials into alternative fuels entails various pretreatment strategies (chemical, physico‐chemical or enzymatic) to boost the release of sugar constituents from biomass. This investigation reports the influence of different pretreatment techniques such as acid, alkali and steam treatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis in single and (or) consolidated system, for releasing fermentable reducing sugars from sugarcane bagasse (SB) and corn cobs (CC) (major agricultural residues). Alkaline pretreatment facilitated maximal lignin removal, 83.2 and 69.4% from CC and SB, respectively, thereby expediting enzymatic hydrolysis by in‐house xylanases produced from indigenously isolated Aspergillus tubingensis strains, AUMS60 (Xyn60) and AUMS64 (Xyn64A, B). The major operating conditions for enzymatic treatment of raw and pretreated residues were set at a substrate loading of 2% (w/v), an enzyme loading of 100–500 U g−1 substrate and incubation at 40°C, 140 rpm for 72 h. Treatment with Xyn60 and Xyn64A, B resulted in 81.4% (72 h) and 75.9% (24 h) saccharification of delignified SB and CC, respectively. Scanning electron micrographs and Fourier transform infrared spectra corroborated structural deformations induced by physico‐chemical pretreatment processes, thereby validating the maximal enzymatic hydrolysis of delignified substrates. The analysis of enzyme hydrolysis products suggested higher saccharification of hemicellulosic fraction as compared with cellulose. The observations of the present study signify that the thermotolerant in‐house enzymes show great potential in the saccharification of lignocelluloses within a short span of time and may open a new vista for biomass valorization in the bioenergy sector. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current research, heavy metals content (Zn, Ni, Cd, Cu, Pb) was analysed in soil and corn cobs samples to determine if the soil and corn plants are polluted with these heavy metals, corroborated with the humus content, total nitrogen, mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium, soil reaction, clay, sand and silt. Soil samples were collected from 9 parcels located in the Varvor area. Varvor is situated in the SW of Dolj County, 18 km from Craiova, and positioned in the northeast part of the Desnatui Plain, on the border with the high Balacita Plain. Following the results, was found that all values obtained for these parameters are falling below the established normal values by Order 756/1997, for sensitive soils. Only concerning Cu content of the analysed soil samples, the limit value of 20 mg kg -1 was exceeded for 6 of the 9 samples, the variation range being between 19.1-35.8 mg kg -1. Heavy metals content in corn cobs were within the acceptable limits according to Codex Alimentarius, except for cadmium, which exceeded the limit value established by Commission Regulation no. 1881/2006. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding anthocyanin- and antioxidant-rich forages to sheep and dairy cows can improve performance and product quality. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of feeding anthocyanin-rich (Hi-A) corn cobs on the growth performance and meat quality of lambs. A total of 30 eight-month-old Rambouillet ewe lambs (body weight 30.7 ± 1.2 kg) were fed for 63 days with three diets consisting of 80% concentrate and 20% roughage: Hi-A corn cobs (Hi-A), regular corn cobs (Low-A), and bermudagrass hay (BGH). A completely randomized design trial with 10 lambs per treatment was used. Data were collected on dry matter intake (DMI), body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), gain:feed ratio (G:F), carcass traits, meat color, fatty acid (FA) profile, volatile aroma compounds, and sensory panels. After feeding for 63 days, lambs were harvested, and the carcasses were evaluated. Boneless lamb loin chops were fabricated and submitted to FA, aroma, and sensory analysis. The corn cob diets did not affect BW, ADG, or G:F of the lambs compared to BGH diet, but DMI (P < 0.01) was decreased. The dressing percentage was greater (P < 0.05) in lambs fed BGH than in those fed Hi-A, while lambs fed Low-A did not differ from the other two diets. Loin chop instrumental color characteristics were not influenced by diets, except the hue angle, which was greater (P < 0.05) in lambs fed Hi-A than Low-A, while BGH did not differ from lambs fed either cob diet. There was no significant difference in the meat fatty acid profile. Five volatile compounds were affected by diets. The 2-butanone (P = 0.07) and 2,3-butanedione (P = 0.05) were greater in chops from lambs fed BGH relative to lambs fed Hi-A and neither differed (P > 0.05) from lambs fed Low-A diet. The 2-propanone was greater (P = 0.01) in chops from lambs fed BGH than in those fed either the Low-A or Hi-A diets. Both 3-methyl-butanal and methyl benzene were lower (P = 0.01 and P = 0.02, respectively) in chops from lambs fed the Hi-A diet than in those fed either the BGH or Low-A diet. Replacing 20% bermudagrass hay with corn cobs in the diets of feedlot lambs did not affect sheep growth performance, meat fatty acid profile, sensory traits, and most carcass characteristics and meat color parameters. Hi-A corn diet improved aroma in cooked boneless loin chops, but sensory traits were not affected. This study showed the Hi-A corn cobs can be safely used for roughage and feed for lambs and for improving meat aroma in cooked boneless loin chops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The use of commercially available ferulic acid (FA) as a precursor for vanillin production is costly. The utilization of agro‐waste as a starting material provides an alternative to obtain FA at a low cost and establish an economically profitable production system. In this work, optimization of ultrasound‐assisted extraction conditions for releasing FA from corn cobs using alkaline treatment was conducted. Further, bioconversion of FA from the crude hydrolysate of corn cobs to vanillin using Amycolatopsis thermoflava was performed. RESULTS: Since autoclaved hydrolysate was unfavorable for cell growth and vanillin formation, pasteurization was proposed. However, the presence of contaminants limited the entire process. Aiming to suppress the growth of contaminants and increase vanillin yield, novel strategies of limiting and controlling the nutrients for the strain were developed. Optimal hydrolysis conditions (NaOH concentration = 0.5 M, solid loading = 10% for 30 min) produced hydrolysate with relatively high titers of FA (715 mg L−1) and p‐coumaric acid (1025 mg L−1). To improve vanillin production from FA, four parameters (including the effects of sterilization method, nutrient limitation, initial biomass concentration, and reducing sugar control) were investigated. By adopting these strategies and performing bioconversion of FA to vanillin with an initial biomass concentration of 1.5 g L−1, the yield of vanillin was significantly increased by 29.5‐fold to 477.4 mg g−1, compared to bioconversion using autoclaved hydrolysate. CONCLUSION: This approach represents a relatively economical method for vanillin production from agro‐waste because it uses crude hydrolysate, requires minimum nutrients, and involves non‐modified organisms with a relatively short bioconversion time (17 h). © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sawdust (SD) and Corncob (CC) wastes possess up to 89.4% and 83.03% pozzolanic properties with a high impact on the mechanical properties required for high concrete strength reinforcement respectively. Applications of SD and CC wastes in concrete increased the concrete workability by 8.75% and 27.9% respectively. In addition, the use of SD in concrete eased its aggregates' compatibility rate by 4.4%. The consistency of cement paste with corncob ash (CCA) decreased with an increase in the percentage of CCA included. In addition, the final and initial setting times of paste with sawdust ash (SDA) decreased by 28.2% and 20% with increasing use in the percentage of SDA included, while that of CC increased with an increase in the percentage of CC. The densities of SDA-concrete and CCA - concrete observed were from 300 to 1800kg/m3 and 1998 kg/m3 to 2302kg/m3, and these were classified as lightweight concrete. The review showed that CCA had a high potential for increasing the concrete compressive strength by 34.5%. The blending of CC waste with other admixtures was observed to have increased concrete's tensile properties by 3.9%. CC waste possessed high potential for composite tensile property enhancement up to 68%. The CCAconcrete's flexural strength observed was low; the blending of CC with other admixtures has increased the concrete's flexural strength. SDW-Concrete suggested to high temperature showed an increase in compressive strength until 6000C is reached, after 6000C, there was a reduction in strength. The CCA reduced concrete's modulus of elasticity by 27%. From the X-ray result, quartz (SiO2) shows an essential and main mineralogical content of CCA. The concrete's rate of water absorption increased by 74% with the inclusion of SD. The ANN model is efficient and possesses good features for CCA and SD - concrete models. In conclusion, SD and CC wastes possess a good potential for the enhancement of structural concrete, which can be processed into types of cement and concrete composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to visualize the in-situ dynamic change process of Cu (II) adsorption in biochar. First, this study used corn cob biochar as the characterization object, CuCl2 solution with an initial Cu (II) concentration of 200 mg/L as the adsorption solution, and 5 min, 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 5 h, 8 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h as the adsorption time to obtain the adsorption kinetics samples of corn cob biochar. Then, Bruker Skyscan 1275 micro-CT was used for in-situ three-dimensional visualization of Cu (II) adsorbed biochar samples, and Fourier infrared spectroscopy was used to explore the Cu (II) adsorption mechanism of corn cob biochar. It was found that the characterization results of raw biochar samples and Cu (II) adsorbed samples has group difference, which may be related to the heterogeneity of sample composition and microstructure; 80% of Cu (II) adsorption of biochar occurred in the early stage of adsorption, and the surface adsorption was preferential adsorption; Cu (II) biochar particles showed internal diffusion with the extension of adsorption time. The micro-CT characterization results agree with the physicochemical test results, which show that micro-CT is feasible for the three-dimensional in-situ visual characterization of Cu (II) adsorption in biochar and the exploration of the adsorption mechanism. The findings may provide advanced methodological support for an in-depth dissection of the adsorption mechanism of heavy metals in biochar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The fibrous nature of ground corn cobs limited their utilization in poultry production. Zymomonas mobilis derivable from fresh palm sap is proposed to ferment corn cobs to improve their nutritive values. An experiment was carried out to evaluate the effect of ground corn cobs inoculated with Zymomonas mobilis (CCZ) on growth response, apparent nutrient digestibility, ileal digesta viscosity and cost benefits of broiler chickens. Five diets containing treated and untreated corn cobs were formulated to replace wheat offal at 0, 50 and 100 % levels on weight for weight basis. A total of three hundred and seventy-five 1-day-old unsexed Marshall broiler chickens were randomly allotted to the five dietary treatments in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Results showed that the biodegradation of corn cobs resulted in improved (p < 0.05) nutrient composition, crude protein increased by 63.90 % while the crude fibre decreased by 137.89 % after fermentation with Zymomonas mobilis. The broiler chickens fed 100 % CCZ had the lowest (p < 0.05) values for feed conversion ratio (FCR) at both phases. The 50 % CCZ improved (p < 0.05) crude fibre digestibility (CFD) at the finisher phase. However, 50 % and 100 % CCZ reduced (p < 0.05) the ileal digesta viscosity of the broiler chickens. The birds fed 100 % CCZ had the highest (p < 0.05) values of rate of return on investment, economic efficiency and relative cost-benefit. The study concluded that wheat offal could be replaced with 50 % and 100 % CCZ in the ration of broiler chickens with positive economic returns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the microstructural, mechanical, and physical properties of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) matrix reinforced with coconut fiber (CF) and corn cob ash (CCA) as potential composite materials for shoe sole production. The reinforcement materials were treated and characterized before incorporation into the matrix phase (PVC). The composite samples had varying CF and CCA proportions within the range of 2–20 wt%. The results of the examinations carried out revealed that the presence of CF enhances the properties of the developed composites. Sample from 20 wt% coconut fiber-reinforced PVC had the optimum properties with ultimate tensile strength of 47.00 MPa, tensile modulus of 3.52 GPa, hardness of 81.00 HS, and wear index of 0.06 mg among all the samples produced while composites with 15 wt% CF–5 wt% CCA showed the best flexural strength of 48.60 MPa, flexural modulus of 3.77 GPa, and impact strength of 94.30 J/m2. Hence, high proportion of CF in both composites supports the use of coconut fiber as reinforcement in PVC for shoe sole application where high flexibility and good impact resistance are essential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is extensively used for the industrial-scale cellulase production. It has been well known that the transcription factor Xyr1 plays an important role in the regulatory network controlling cellulase gene expression. However, the role of Xyr1 in the regulation of cellulase expression has not been comprehensively elucidated, which hinders further improvement of lignocellulolytic enzyme production. Results: Here, the expression dosage of xyr1 was tailored in T. reesei by differentially overexpressing the xyr1 gene under the control of three strong promoters (Pegl2, Pcbh1, and Pcdna1), and the transcript abundance of xyr1 was elevated 5.8-, 12.6-, and 47.2-fold, respectively. We found expression of cellulase genes was significantly increased in the Pegl2-driven xyr1 overexpression strain QE2X, whereas relatively low in the Pcbh1- and Pcdna1-driven overexpression strains. We also found that the Pegl2-driven overexpression of xyr1 caused a more significant opening of chromatin in the core promoter region of the prominent cellulase genes. Furthermore, the cellulase activity showed a 3.2-fold increase in the strain QE2X, while insignificant improvement in the Pcbh1- and Pcdna1-driven strains. Finally, the saccharification efficiency toward acid-pretreated corncob residues containing high-content lignin by the crude enzyme from QE2X was increased by 57.2% compared to that from the parental strain. Moreover, LC–MS/MS and RT-qPCR analysis revealed that expression of accessory proteins (Cip1, Cip2, Swo1, and LPMOs) was greatly improved in QE2X, which partly explained the promoting effect of the Pegl2-driven overexpression on enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulose biomass. Conclusions: Our results underpin that the precise tailoring expression of xyr1 is essential for highly efficient cellulase synthesis, which provide new insights into the role of Xyr1 in regulating cellulase expression in T. reesei. Moreover, these results also provides a prospective strategy for strain improvement to enhance the lignocellulolytic enzyme production for use in biorefinery applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To reveal the effect of torrefaction pretreatment on pyrolysis and gasification reactivity of biomass, corn cob was first subjected to torrefaction pretreatment in a fixed-bed reactor at various reaction temperatures. The pyrolysis reactivity, kinetics, and gasification reactivity of torrefied corn cob were systematically assessed by various methods, proving that torrefaction pretreatment has a substantial influence on the physicochemical properties of corn cobs. The O/C and H/C molar ratios of corn cobs considerably drop with the increasing torrefaction temperature, and their higher heat-ing value (HHV) and energy density rise as well. It is found that torrefaction improves the pyrolysis reactivity of corn cobs because hemicellulose degradation is more severe than cellulose degradation during torrefaction, resulting in an increase in the percentage of cellulose in torrefied corn cobs. However, the severe depolymerization, polycondensation, and carbonization reaction during torre-faction of corn cobs at 280–300 °C can lead to a significant decline in the pyrolysis reactivity of corn cobs. Torrefaction pretreatment increases the pyrolysis activation energy of corn cobs, in addition to decreasing the char gasification reactivity of corn cob. The average char gasification reactivity of corn cobs drops when torrefaction severity increases. The passivation of active sites on the char surface may cause condensation and carbonation reactions of corn cobs during torrefaction. These findings provide new sights into the reasonable design of efficient torrefaction methods for appli-cation prior to pyrolysis and gasification of biomass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online detection of impurities content in the corn deep-bed drying process is the key technology to ensure stable operation and to provide data support for self-adapting control of drying equipment. In this study, an automatic approach to corn image acquisition, impurity classification and recognition, and impurities content detection based on machine vision technology are proposed. The multi-scale retinex with colour restore (MSRCR) algorithm is utilized to enhance the original image for eliminating the influence of noise. HSV (Hue, saturation, value) colour space parameter threshold is set for image segmentation, and the classification and recognition results are obtained combined with the morphological operation. The comprehensive evaluation index is adopted to quantitatively evaluate the test results. Online detection results show that the comprehensive evaluation index of broken corncobs, broken bracts, and crushed stones are 83.05%, 83.87%, and 87.43%, respectively. The proposed algorithm can quickly and effectively identify the impurities in corn images, providing technical support and a theoretical basis for monitoring impurities content in the corn deep-bed drying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon‐based solid acid catalysts (CS−SO3H) were prepared by one‐pot carbonization‐sulfonation method with concentrated sulfuric acid using cotton as raw material, which was used to transformation of xylose and corn cob to furfural. The catalyst preparation conditions were optimized to be that the cotton mass/sulfuric acid volume ratio is 1 : 20 (g/mL), and the reaction is carried out at 160 °C for 10 h. The morphology, functional groups and surface chemical state were investigated. The yield of furfural can reach 87.3 % from xylose under the optimal reaction condition of 0.1 g xylose, 0.05 g catalyst, 180 °C for 90 min in 5.0 mL γ‐valerolactone‐water solvent. The yield of furfural can reach 63.2 % by the direct one‐pot conversion of corn cob over the CS−SO3H under the optimal reaction condition of 0.1 g corn cob, 0.1 g catalyst, 190 °C for 90 min in 5.0 mL γ‐valerolactone‐water solvent. The catalytic activity gradually declined when it was cycled for four times. The reason was determined to be the partial shedding of the sulfonic acid groups grafted on the catalyst during the reaction and insoluble humus accumulated on the catalyst surface. After regeneration, the catalytic activity can be restored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]