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A study investigated factors in Chinese language maintenance among balanced and pseudo-bilinguals who are second-generation Chinese-Americans. Subjects were 12 fifth-grade students in a Chinese-language school; half were balanced bilinguals (proficient in both languages) and half were pseudo-bilinguals (those in whom skills are more developed in one language than in the other). The children and their parents were administered a survey and interviewed. Analysis of results suggests parents have very strong differences in their reason for wanting to educate their children in two languages. Parents of balanced bilinguals tended to provide many more varieties of language input, and at some point in time, immerse their children in Chinese-speaking countries. Balanced bilingual children tend to believe in (1) putting more effort into learning two languages and (2) the fun of being bilingual. Findings may assist educators and immigrant families in increasing understanding and practices for raising children to be balanced bilingual. (MSE)

This study investigated the ways in which a bilingual's choice between the minority first language (L1) and the dominant second language (L2), in this case English, suggests the value the language has for the social and in-group identity of the bilingual. Adult bilinguals (n=38) of widely varying L1 backgrounds were surveyed concerning their language dominance, ethnolinguistic group enclosure, perceived social comparison to the L2 group, social contact/networking, and attitude toward the L2. Responses suggest bilinguals' strategies in choosing a language are socially conditioned in at least two ways: (1) there is a functional dependence on one or the other language in the relevant communicative contexts, and (2) in the L2-dominant society the relative tension between the perceived sociolinguistic power of L1 and L2 will lead a bilingual in language choice. When the dominant L2 is seen as competing with or undermining the value of L1, the L1 minority mobilizes the forces of its ingroup identity by choosing L1 as its crucially important attribute. It is concluded that as the tension in power relations between L1 and L2 moves along the sociocultural continuum, so does possible accommodation to L2, its acceptance, anticipated social benefits from choosing it, and possibly, its successful learning. A language use survey is appended. (Contains 19 references.) (MSE)

The group of case studies of family bilingualism examined the influences of maternal and paternal native language, schooling choices, travel and residence choices, and family background on development of bilingualism in the children. The families studied include eight Japanese-English bilingual families (one study including five generations) and two Chinese-Japanese families, including a total of 20 children. In each case, the family, language, and educational background of each family member is described and the family context for bilingualism is explored. The educational choices of the families and some of the main themes emerging in the case studies are also summarized. Themes identified include: the important influence of the parents in language development; the greater influence of the mother's native language; development of passive bilingualism; the role of parent language use in language loss or attrition; the differential roles of parent monolingualism and bilingualism; the influence of missionary upbringing; the importance of reinforcement of language skills in families changing location; long trips overseas as a factor in bilingual development; and the role of minority language literacy training in the home. (Contains 3 references.) (MSE)

Jean-Francois Lyotard is considered by many as the pre-eminent non-Marxist philosopher of the "postmodern condition." This paper offers Lyotard's intellectual biography, describes his political writings and subsequent turn to philosophy, and discusses his views on capitalism in the postmodern condition and the problem of the legitimation of knowledge. Lyotard offers a critical account of the status of knowledge and education in the postmodern condition that focuses on the most highly developed societies. The major working hypothesis of "The Postmodern Condition" is "that the status of knowledge is altered as societies enter what is known as the postindustrial age and cultures enter what is known as the postmodern age" (1984:3). Specifically, Lyotard maintains that the leading sciences and technologies have all been based on language-related developments and their miniaturization and commercialization. In this context, the status of knowledge is permanently altered: its availability as an international commodity becomes the basis for national and commercial advantage within the global economy; its computerized uses in the military provide the basis for enhanced state security and international monitoring. Knowledge has already become the principal force of production, changing the composition of the work force in developed countries. Educational theory should seek to critique existing metanarratives that legitimize education in universal terms. At the same time it must respect the culturally specific formations of plural forms of oppression at the intersections of class, race, and gender. (Contains 47 references). (LMI)

Differences in test performance on time-limited tests may be due in part to differential response-time rates between subgroups, rather than real differences in the knowledge, skills, or developed abilities of interest. With computer-administered tests, response times are available and may be used to address this issue. This study investigates procedures for identifying possible subgroup differences in response times from a computer-administered test. Based on the results, it appears that survival analysis methodology is useful for uncovering subgroup differences in response time rates. Data from a national high-stakes computer-administered (but not adaptive) reasoning test were used. Data from 6,306 test takers who said that English was their best language and 462 test takers who said that English was not their best language were analyzed with parametric (Cox regression) and nonparametric (Wilcoxon test) approaches. Significant differences between response times across the two subgroups were found, although this does not necessarily imply that particular items should have been identified as having differential item functioning. (Contains 3 tables, 3 figures, and 11 references.) (Author/SLD)

Several English and Spanish language tests currently used in bilingual education and some less known tests are reviewed, looking at both historic and psychometric factors. It is suggested that practitioners have commonly assumed that all language tests are basically valid, which contributed to the commercial success of some tests of questionable validity, ill-suited to the purpose of educational decision-making. Issues discussed include the various notions of and assumptions about language proficiency and language dominance reflected in them, reliability and validity, and considerations in test selection. Appended materials include a graphic representation of how language dominance and language proficiency interact at various levels, and a brief review of three tests: the IDEA Oral Language Proficiency Tests; Language Assessment Scales; and the Woodcock Tests. Contains 26 references. (MSE)

Although the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) has been administered to Chinese test takers in Taiwan and Hong Kong for more than 22 years and in China for the past decade, there is very little documentation on the history, test taker volumes, performance, or law school admission rates of these candidates. The current study addresses the following three issues: reviewing the history or LSAT administration in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong; delineating the numbers of test takers in the three regions; and describing and comparing the performance of Chinese test takers since 1991. Between June 1986 and February 1991, a total of 14 test taken in China, 141 in Taiwan, and 128 in Hong Kong have taken the LSAT. Between June 1991 and 1995 the number of test takers in China increased, from 3 in 1991 to 30 in 1995. The test taker volume in Taiwan grew from 21 to 48 in that time, but the volume in Hong Kong declined steadily from 21 in 1991 to 8 in 1995. Since the LSAT adopted its new scale in 1991, three major findings are apparent about test takers from these areas. The average performance of Chinese test takers from the three regions is quite comparable, and is close to the LSAT population mean. Female Chinese test takers tend to score slightly higher than males, and those test takers whose dominant language is English performed better than those whose dominant language is Chinese. (Contains five tables and one reference.) (SLD)

This paper addresses bilingual children's speech in relation to data from a case study of a child in Wales acquiring English and Spanish between the ages of 1 and 3 years to establish how language choice and code-switching can be recognized in young children. Data is reviewed from the one-word stage, the early two-word combination, and the multi-word combination stages. It is suggested that contextually appropriate language choice is possible at the one-word stage, that choices between content and function involve more content than function in the two-word stage, and that mixed language utterances in the multi-word stage may represent adult-like examples of code-switching. Overall, it is strongly recommended that a child's linguistic repertoire must be considered at all three stages to determine final language choice. It is concluded that both language choice and code-switching are dependent on a developing bilingual's linguistic resources; language choice cannot take place until there is equivalence between lexical items and alternative grammars in the languages for the child to be better able to choose between them. (Contains three references.) (NAV)

Students' academic achievement scores have been found to improve with the use of graphic organizers. Unfortunately, most previous research on graphic organizers has been constrained to English speakers in secondary and higher education. This study examines the effectiveness of graphic organizers when used by fourth grade students engaged in computer based instruction. Additionally, whether the learners's dominant language (Spanish or English) influenced the effectiveness of graphic organizers. Immediate and delayed gain in academic achievement scores of all students was analyzed. Statistically and educationally significant differences were found in scores favoring students who used graphic organizers. Results also indicated that when using computer-based instructional programs with embedded graphic organizers, Spanish and English speaking students, as groups, did not vary on learning style to the point of significantly impacting academic achievement scores according to tests measuring short-term and long-term recall. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are examined. Concepts are illustrated in two figures, and data is summarized in three tables. (Contains 23 references.) (Author/MAS)

A study and associated development work concerning bilingual elementary and secondary students in British schools is reported. The study was designed to examine the progress and needs of bilingual students in several schools in the Southampton (England) area. It arose from concern about possible marginalization of minority language students in the context of the new National Curriculum. Existing documentation on bilingual/multilingual learners was examined through a survey of area schools and agencies, and was found to be inadequate. A more substantial study was then undertaken in one elementary/middle school with a high language-minority population, using classroom observation and both oral and written surveys of both monolingual and bilingual students. Sixteen parents were also surveyed, and 21 teachers were interviewed for their perceptions of the impact of the National Curriculum on bilingual learners. School support of and participation in the project was found to be widespread and helpful. Results suggest that: (1) documentation on this population needs improvement; (2) the changing nature of the population requires constant monitoring; (3) tendency is toward bilingualism with English dominance; (4) teacher attitudes about the curriculum remain mixed; (5) patterns of Punjabi speaker dispersal are not as anticipated; and (6) parents want native-language classes. (MSE)

A study investigated the ways in which the background of six Spanish-English bilinguals has affected their attitudes toward the two languages and the transfer of skills between first and second languages, especially as it might relate to writing instruction. A review of literature looks at studies of linguistic and social aspects of the Hispanic culture, oral language transfer, sociolinguistic factors in language acquisition, psycholinguistic issues in second-language written expression, and syntactic and semantic problems in Spanish-English bilinguals' written expression in English. The study itself involved taped guided interviews and translation exercises with six women, aged mid-teens to mid-forties. Profiles of each are presented. Analysis focuses on the subjects' expressed cultural identity conflicts, attitudes toward language-mixing, experiences with formal education in the two languages, and semantic and syntactic dissonance in oral and written production of the two languages. Separate analyses are presented for Spanish-dominant (n=2), English-dominant (n=2), and impartial bilingual (n=2) subjects. It is concluded that: (1) while subjects seemed to use one language to help make meaning in another, this was not always through genuine code-switching, and (2) attitudes toward code-switching were based largely in upbringing. Appendix A presents the interview questions in Spanish and English. Appendixes B and C present the translation exercises and Appendix D shows the conceptual framework. Contains 26 references. (MSE)

A followup study looked at the language development of three children (aged 5-6 years during the present study) three years after initial observation. Initially, the children were Spanish-dominant; all had one native English-speaking parent; all were learning English easily. The followup study involved parent interviews and observations of the children interacting together and with others outside school. It focused on the children's use of Spanish and English in their daily lives and their expressed attitudes toward the languages. In the first phase of the study, the power of English was symbolized in the power of English-speaking superheroes appearing in the children's dramatic play, but English was used only in interactions related to superheroes or role-playing. Three years later, the children spoke no Spanish spontaneously with each other or their parents, were reluctant to use Spanish even when pressed to do so, and were limited in their abilities to express themselves in Spanish. It is concluded that all three children reversed their language dominance over three years, and while broad generalizations are not possible in the three cases, the children appear to actively construct their own uses of and attitudes toward the two languages from complex influences. (MSE)

This is an in-process report on over 100 English-as-a-Foreign-Language argumentative compositions written by Spanish university students in first and fourth year philology. The project aim was to compare writing development over 4 years in a cross-sectional design. As data were collected, factors other than developmental stages began to appear, such as native language (L1) impact and learning language (L2) constraints. It was decided to study the writers in both the L1 and L2 and then to compare results with similar age American student writers as well as professional Spanish and English writers in the argumentative text typology. Results are presented as global analyses of student writers, analysis of individual student groups, and analyses of the professional writers. Findings suggest that Spanish writers favor heavily embedded clauses more than English writers; they did not require the use of more function words, as originally believed. Interesting transference aspects also surfaced, and it was noted that American college student (junior-year-abroad) writers showed more proficiency in writing than American professionals in comparison to Spanish students and Spanish professional writers. (Contains 12 references.) (NAV)

This chapter describes the nature of bilingual education for Hispanics of Mexican origin (Chicanos), outlines successful and unsuccessful classroom approaches to bilingual education, and proposes a research agenda for the future. Four principal approaches have been used in observational studies of language use in bilingual classrooms, including examining the process in which two languages are used with bilingual children; the relationship of process to context, for example, distribution of language use in different program models; the relationship of process to process, for example, how certain teacher behaviors affect the responses of students; and the relationship of process to product, in which effective teaching behaviors are identified in relationship to language use and their effect in promoting student achievement. Research concerning classroom process with respect to bilingual and second language instruction reveals that the selection of a site and community in which research will be conducted is a critical variable; there are many classrooms for Chicanos that use the label bilingual but do not differ significantly from regular classrooms; border communities function differently from other communities in their expectations for language use outside the classroom; and individual schools vary a great deal in the extent to which they create an atmosphere of positive expectations for achievement. It has been found that effective bilingual classrooms promote a high degree of student involvement, contextualize classroom discourse, and integrate students' culture in the curriculum. Future research should focus on applying traditional and ethnographic techniques concurrently to provide a more complete picture of the classroom and to explore individual ability and attitude and their interaction in a variety of classroom processes. Contains 100 references. (LP)

An Austin, Texas, program regarding the identification and placement of Hispanic, limited-English-proficient (LEP) elementary school students is reported. They were assigned to one of three programs: bilingual education; English as a Second Language (ESL); or Language Arts Mastery Process (LAMP). The Austin Independent School District evaluated the effects of the placements based on data from central computer files and personal interviews. After 3 years of study the major findings were as follows: (1) the achievement of LEP students in LAMP exceeded that of students in both the bilingual and ESL programs in the first year, but subsequent years showed no distinct superiority of one program over the other two; (2) attendance and exit rates did not indicate any clear superiority for one program over the others; (3) students' language dominance appears to have changed little since original identification; (4) demographic characteristics of students in all three programs are very similar and have changed little during the 3 years; (5) after a large initial shift in 1989-90 from students being served in the bilingual program to the ESL and LAMP programs, little additional shift occurred in 1990-91; and (6) new procedures may prevent some false identification of students as LEP. Contains 4 references. (LB)

This study examines the conditions under which Spanish proficiency is associated with self-esteem among Mexican American adolescents. The study questions the validity of a gross relationship between Spanish proficiency and self-esteem and postulates that the link is stronger: (1) for youth whose significant others prefer speaking Spanish; (2) for youth who speak Spanish with parents and friends, as opposed to only with one group; and (3) for students attending schools with a high proportion of minority students. The study used data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 to test the interaction effects. Among the results: (1) Spanish proficiency has a significant positive effect on self-esteem for students who frequently speak Spanish with their fathers, but not for those who spoke Spanish with friends; (2) proficiency's positive effect on self-esteem is greater for those who spoke Spanish with both fathers and friends; and (3) Spanish proficiency is related to self-esteem for students attending schools with high minority rates. In conclusion, Spanish proficiency does not seem grossly related to self-esteem. Rather, it positively influences self-esteem only for Mexican American students who frequently speak Spanish with parents and who attend schools with high rates of minority students. The data suggest that the family is more influential than friends in socializing Mexican American adolescents, and may justify differential policies for home-language maintenance or bilingual programs. (TES)

This paper discusses whether the rapidly growing Hispanic segment of the United States population will speak one language or two. A review of statistics on this population group notes that it is comprised of many subgroups; that more than half of the Hispanic population has lived in the United States for 12 years or more; and that in the areas of education, income, and employment, the Hispanic population compares less favorably to the total population. This section also opens the discussion of language by looking at patterns of acculturation and assimilation and suggests that the Hispanic American population is becoming acculturated but not assimilated. This section argues that many immigrants come to the United States primarily for the higher standard of living and not from a more idealized admiration of its culture. A review and discussion of the research on language use and cultural preferences among Hispanic Americans and of mass media usage note that many retain their usage of Spanish language and high rates of watching and listening to Spanish language television and radio exist. The paper concludes that the Hispanic population is not assimilating rapidly into mainstream society, preferring to remain acculturated and retain their own cultural patterns and use of the Spanish language. Contains 20 references and 7 tables. (JB)

This study examines the relationship between proficient bilingualism or biliteracy (proficiency in reading and writing in both Spanish and English) and the self-esteem of Mexican American students. The concept of proficient bilingualism has not been widely used to examine bilingual education's noncognitive functions, in particular its effect on the self-esteem of Mexican American students. This study analyzed data from the 1988 National Education Longitudinal Survey. The sample included 1,034 Mexican, Mexican American, and Chicano eighth graders with a Spanish-English bilingual background. Based on self-report, students were categorized as either biliterate, English monoliterate, Spanish monoliterate, or oral bilingual. A set of 13 questions that measured self-esteem were factor analyzed, generating three subdimensions (self-deprecation, self-confidence, and fatalism). Controlling for students' sociodemographic background, school experience, academic performance, and status among peers, analysis revealed: (1) Mexican American children who saw themselves as biliterates had the highest self-confidence as compared to monoliterates and oral bilinguals; (2) English monoliterate children had lower fatalistic attitudes than other children; (3) self-reported Spanish monoliterates seemed disadvantaged in the three measures of self esteem; and (4) there was a strong interactive effect between parents' education and children's birth place (U.S. or foreign) on biliteracy identity. This paper includes data tables. Contains 40 references. (LP)

In order to better evaluate bilingualism in deaf children, this study examined whether observers (N=37) from different backgrounds would agree on deaf children's use of either American Sign Language (ASL) or English signing. Observers represented a range of background experience in a variety of schools and programs; 6 were deaf; 31 were hearing; 10 identified themselves as primarily ASL signers; and 27 as primarily Pidgin Sign English users. Observers viewed a videotape and decided whether the child signer was using ASL or English signing. Judgments were compared to those of a panel of sign language specialists. General results indicated no significant differences among observers at different levels of experience nor between deaf and hearing observers. However, the average score of deaf observers was significantly higher than that of hearing observers in identifying one child using ASL. Observers made their judgments predominantly on the basis of language use rather than structure or content. Results suggest that professionals working with deaf children cannot reliably distinguish between ASL and English signing and that years of experience with the deaf or being deaf oneself was of minimal assistance. Continued study of differences and similarities in ASL and English signing is recommended. Includes 29 references. (DB)

The determinants of dominant language fluency among immigrants and the labor market impact of this fluency are examined. The model is generally applicable, but the empirical tests are performed for adult foreign-born men in Australia (1981 and 1986 Australian censuses). The findings indicate that fluency responds to incentives, including economic incentives, and both the individual's exposure to and efficiency in acquiring dominant language skills. The analysis also shows that fluency enhances labor market earnings. Among immigrants from non-English speaking countries, those fluent in English had more than 9 percent higher earnings in 1986. Fluency is also shown to enhance the returns of other skills, including schooling and labor market experience. Two appendices present an analysis of the 1981 Australian census of population and housing, and descriptive statistics concerning adult foreign-born men. Contains 17 references. (LB)

The determinants and labor market consequences for immigrants of proficiency in speaking the dominant language (English in the United States and English of French in Canada) are explored, with focus on adult men using self-reported data from the 1980 and 1981 censuses of the United States and Canada, respectively. It is shown that the determinants of earnings among immigrants are remarkably similar in the two countries. Fluency in the dominant language has a large positive effect on earnings, independent of other personal characteristics and country of origin. The study shows the importance of explicitly incorporating dominant language fluency, and the determinants of dominant language fluency, in the criteria for allocating immigrant visas, if immigrant economic success is a policy objective. It also indicates that, because of the questions asked and the coding procedures, the data related to language in the U.S. census are superior to the data from the Canadian census for both statistical and public policy analysis. (Author/LB)

Program results emerging from policy changes concerning identification and placement of limited-English-proficient (LEP) students in one school district are evaluated. The policy changes permitted students classified as bilingual, English-dominant, or English monolingual to be placed by committee in an appropriate instructional program (bilingual, English as a Second Language, or Language Arts Mastery Process), and provided for screening of these groups to determine whether they were LEP or educationally disadvantaged. The latter group would be provided compensatory or remedial services as needed. It was found that the achievement of LEP students in the Language Arts Mastery Program (LAMP) exceeded that of other groups, but other measures did not indicate any clear superiority of one program over another. Of 122 students who would previously have been classified as LEP, 77 were determined not to be. Some formal process to assure that non-LEP, educationally disadvantaged students are given remedial help is seen as necessary. The committees were comfortable placing the students in the three programs. Where LAMP was combined with another program, schools felt the complementary approach was beneficial; however, some schools did not have LAMP programs. (Author/MSE)