Search

This paper reviews evidence on social and economic costs of tuberculosis. Key socio-economic consequences include stigma, social isolation, increased out-of-pocket expenditures for medical and non-medical costs and reduced income. Many of the financing methods that households use have long-term negative impacts and the poor are most vulnerable to these costs. Together, these negative consequences adversely affect TB control, in terms of delayed diagnosis, delayed initiation of treatment, suboptimal adherence and failure to complete treatment, as well as the coping and well being of the individual and household. There are two ways to reduce treatment costs for the patient; one can either reduce the direct and indirect costs of seeking a diagnosis and obtaining treatment and/or provide income transfers to offset some of those costs incurred. Social transfers in the form of food, cash or vouchers can mitigate the negative effects by enabling the individual to seek a diagnosis, protecting minimum food expenditures, reducing the need to accumulate debt and reduce productive assets and reducing the negative impacts on other household members, particularly young children and school-age children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism is an activity of a person which includes traveling and staying in places that are outside of their location for business, vacation and other purpose. Large-scale tourism in developed and developing countries has positive and negative effects on the regional and national economies, local culture, physical infrastructure and environment. There are considerable gaps in research regarding tourism and livelihood in developing countries like Nepal. This research work aims at fulfilling such gap by assessing the impact of tourism on livelihood in Manaslu conservation area (MCA) of Nepal. We interviewed 76 household followed by three focus group discussions and five key informant interviews. The first-hand information collected at the site is complimented by socioeconomic and tourism-related secondary information. Socioeconomic variables such as marital status, size of household, education and landholding status had positive effect on tourism participation while livestock-holding status and occupation of the household had negative effect on tourism participation. Number of visitors is increasing in MCA in recent years, and tourism participation is helping local people to earn more money and improve their living standard. So, awareness and education related to tourism, gender empowerment of women, advertisement and publicity on tourism promotion, adequate subsidy and training on ecotourism and skill development trainings on handicraft are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Croatian Journal of Ethnology & Folklore Research / Narodna Umjetnost is the property of Institute of Ethnology & Folklore Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Konsumpcja i Rozwój is the property of Institute for Market, Consumption & Business Cycles Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study on which this article is based investigated the expenditure patterns of households receiving the state’s old-age pension grant. The old-age pension grant is the second-largest social grant in terms of the number of recipients and the largest when it comes to the monetary cost for the national government. The study looked at households in Kwakwatsi township receiving an old-age pension grant as the main source of income. The state’s old-age pension grant is used only for sustenance, and for buying basic household necessities. Food is the biggest household expenditure for pension grant recipients. The pension grant is also used to support additional family members, thereby reducing its distributional impact. Households spend the grant mainly on products that support the daily functioning of the household. Keywords: Social Grants, Poverty, Development Economics, Household Expenditure, Welfare Economics, Social Development, Household Income, Expenditure Patterns Disciplines: Economics, Poverty Studies, Development Studies, Policy Studies, Public Economics, Social Sciences, Health Sciences

Across West and Central Africa, wildlife provides a source of food and income. We investigated the relation between bushmeat hunting and household wealth and protein consumption in 2 rural communities in Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. One village was dedicated to commercial hunting, the other trapped game primarily for food. We tested whether commercial-hunter households were nutritionally advantaged over subsistence-hunter households due to their higher income from the bushmeat trade and greater access to wild-animal protein. We conducted bushmeat-offtake surveys in both villages (captures by hunters and carcasses arriving to each village). Mammals (including threatened primates: black colobus [Colobus satanas ], Preussi's guenon [Allochrocebus preussi ], and russet-eared guenon [Cercopithecus erythrotis ]), birds, and reptiles were hunted. The blue duiker (Philantomba monticola ), giant pouched rat (Cricetomys emini ), and brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus ) contributed almost all the animal biomass hunted, consumed, or sold in both villages. Monkeys and Ogilbyi's duikers (Cephalophus ogilbyi ) were hunted only by commercial hunters. Commercial hunters generated a mean of US$2000/year from bushmeat sales. Households with commercial hunters were on average wealthier, generated more income, spent more money on nonessential goods, and bought more products they did not grow. By contrast, households with subsistence hunters spent less on market items, spent more on essential products, and grew more of their own food. Despite these differences, average consumption of vegetable protein and domestic meat and bushmeat protein did not differ between villages. Our results highlight the importance of understanding the socioeconomic and nutritional context of commercial and subsistence bushmeat hunting to correctly interpret ways of reducing their effects on threatened species and to enable the sustainable offtake of more productive taxa. Contrastes en el Sustento y la Ingesta de Proteínas entre Carne de Caza de Subsistencia y Comercial en Dos Aldeas en Isla Bioko, Guinea Ecuatorial [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relevance of remittances in the economic structure of the households in Chiapas, as well as the use of them, with the intention of knowing the extent they help to the economic reproduction in the state. To do this, first we review the theoretical discussion on the conceptualization of these transfers and their ability to act as a lever of economic development. Then, with data from the ENIGH 2010, we calculate the proportion of households receiving remittances and the relationship of these transfers with the levels and structures of income and expenditure of families, finding that remittances tend to replace the labor remunerations that households lose when a member goes abroad. Also, it is found that, in the short term, a significant proportion of remittances go to savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Health demoting consumption of alcohol and tobacco are some of the most important risk factors for health loss worldwide, however there is limited information on these consumption risk factors in New Zealand (NZ) and whether inequities in the risk factors are ethnically patterned., Methods: We used three nationally representative Household Economic Survey waves (2006/07, 2009/10, 2012/13) (n = 9030) in NZ to examine household expenditure for key health risk-related components of consumption by ethnicity, and its contributors to the differences using non-parametric, parametric and decomposition methods., Results: Māori households (NZ indigenous population) were significantly poorer (25% less) than non-Māori households in terms of household per capita expenditure. However, our various econometric estimations suggested that, in relative terms, Māori spent more on tobacco and alcohol, and less on healthcare. The gaps become larger at upper quantiles of the budget share distributions; the composition effect (the gap due to differences in individual and household characteristics between Māori and non-Māori) explains most of the tobacco and alcohol budget share gap between the two groups, and less for healthcare. The structure effect (the gap due to returns to/or effect of individual and household characteristics) contributes very little to the budget share gap for tobacco and drink, but increasingly and predominantly when moving along the distribution of healthcare budget share.The differences between Māori and non-Māori in household ownership, education, and income negatively affect budget share on these health demoting consumption (tobacco and alcohol). The household head's age, education, and employment contributed most to the structure effect., Conclusions: Our study suggested ethnic inequities in the health risk consumption behaviour are evidenced in NZ. Interventions targeting education and employment that significantly affect household budget shares on risk factors (i.e., harmful consumption) for health loss may help narrow the gaps., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflict of interests., (© 2022 The Authors.)

Using the modelling tool ELESA (Econometric Lifestyle Environment Scenario Analysis), this paper describes forecast scenarios to 2030 for UK household expenditure and associated (direct and indirect) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for 16 expenditure categories. Using assumptions for real household disposable income, real prices, ‘exogenous non-economic factors’ (ExNEF), average UK temperatures and GHG intensities, three future scenarios are constructed. In each scenario, real expenditure for almost all categories of UK expenditure continues to grow up to 2030; the exceptions being ‘alcoholic beverages and tobacco’ and ‘other fuels’ (and ‘gas’ and ‘electricity’ in the ‘low’ scenario) leading to an increase in associated GHG emissions for most of the categories in the ‘reference’ and ‘high’ scenarios other than ‘food and non-alcoholic beverages’, ‘alcoholic beverages and tobacco’, ‘electricity’, ‘other fuels’ and ‘recreation and culture’. Of the future GHG emissions, about 30% is attributed to ‘direct energy’ use by households and nearly 70% attributable to ‘indirect energy’. UK policy makers therefore need to consider a range of policies if they wish to curtail emissions associated with household expenditure, including, for example, economic measures such as taxes alongside measures that reflect the important contribution of ExNEF to changes in expenditure for most categories of consumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper examines empirically the evolution of the customary standard of life and how this relates to real wages and economic development. Its starting point is Sraffa’s reintroduction of the classical notion of wages as the cost of reproducing labour, so that they are necessarily a charge on production. However, when considering a production system generating a surplus, Sraffa offered no explanation of how the surplus might be realised and distributed. Rather, he concentrated on the choice of technique as the profit share varied from 0 to 1. His approach was one of taking a snapshot of a productive system at a point in time. In contrast, this paper explores the trend in wages in the UK over the past 150 years and the evolving level and composition of what became the social necessities of worker consumption, i.e. the customary standard of life. In this process, four dynamically interacting processes can be identified: (i) a progressive increase in the productive potential of the system; (ii) the diffusion of a greater quantity and varieties of consumer goods, the growth of property ownership by consumers, and their use of credit in a cumulative improvement in their customary standard of life; (iii) the consolidation of the customary standard of life into real wages by collective bargaining; and (iv) diffusion of improved living standards by an extension of collective bargaining coverage to include groups previously excluded, and the growth of the welfare state in which the failure to achieve the customary standard of life defines poverty and triggers policy designed to alleviate it. The central role played by the customary standard of life in driving real wages means that the inputs of labour power into commodity production can be represented by the commodity composition of the customary standard of life in Sraffa-style analyses. In this, the successive cross sections in the historical flow of economic development showing the commodity flows into and out of production will be ever changing (like the still frames in a moving picture show). Moreover, such a historical approach rules out the possibility that at any time changes in the rate of profit will precipitate the switching of methods of production. Past choices of techniques are historically embedded in the capital stock, the composition of which is modified by new investment and the scrapping of old as it wears out, becomes technically outmoded and/or demand for its products declines. Nevertheless, changes in the distribution of income have consequences for the future path of economic and social development, and what this might be is arguably the most useful area for economic and social research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By applying Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing System (CATI) to randomly reach 1 199 residents from 14 cities in Liaoning Province, this study made a descriptive statistics and a regression analysis by means of SPSS 17. 0 with an aim to exploring how residents' charitable giving was impacted by the household income and expenditure. It was found that charitable giving was impacted greatly by residents' household income and expenditure, but there was only the salary of household income influencing residents' charitable giving significantly. Moreover, the variables of household expenditure significantly impacting residents' charitable giving were cash gift, personal income tax, expense in cultural entertainment, and alimony. Finally, some recommendations were made to promote residents' charitable giving--increasing income and encouraging high-income groups to donate; publicizing the laws and regulations of tax reduction and increasing the proportion of tax break to encourage people's donation; and directing residents from giving cash gifts to doing charitable work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: At the beginning of 2007, health care reforms were implemented in Hungary in order to decrease public expenditure on health care. Reforms involved the increase of co-payments for pharmaceuticals and the introduction of co-payments for health care services. Objective: The objective of this paper is to examine the progressivity of household expenditure on health care during the reform period, separately for expenditures on pharmaceuticals and medical devices, as well as for formal and informal patient payments for health care services. Methods: We use data on household expenditure from the Household Budget Survey carried out by the Central Statistical Office of Hungary. We present household expenditure as a percentage of household income across different income quintiles and calculate Kakwani indexes as a measure of progressivity for a four years period (2005-2008): before, during and after the implementation of the health care reforms. Results: We find that out-of-pocket payments on health care are highly regressive in Hungary with a Kakwani index of -0.22. In particular, households from the lowest income quintile spend an about three times larger share of their income on out-of-pocket payments (6-7 %) compared to households in the highest income quintile (2 %). Expenditures on pharmaceuticals and medical devices are the most regressive types of expenditure (Kakwani index--0.23/-0.24), and at the same time they represent a major part of the total household expenditure on health care (78-85 %). Informal payments are also regressive while expenditures on formal payments for services are the most proportional to income. We find that expenditures on formal payments became regressive after the introduction of user fees (Kakwani index -0.1). At the same time, we observe that expenditures on informal payments became less regressive during the reform period (Kakwani index increases from -0.20/-0.18 to -0.12.) Conclusions: More attention should be paid on the protection of low-income social groups when increasing or introducing co-payments especially for pharmaceuticals but also for services. Also, it is important to eliminate the practice of informal payments in order to improve equity in health care financing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The AIDS pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa puts increasing pressure on the buffer capacity of low- and middle-income households without access to health insurance. This paper examines the relationship between health shocks, insurance status and health-seeking behaviour. It also investigates the possible mitigating effects of insurance on income loss and out-of-pocket health expenditure. The study uses a unique dataset based on a random sample of 1769 households and 7343 individuals living in the Greater Windhoek area in Namibia. The survey includes medical testing for HIV infection which allows for the explicit analysis of HIV-related health shocks. We find that the economic consequences of health shocks can be severe for uninsured households even in a country with a relatively well-developed public health care system such as Namibia. The uninsured resort to a variety of coping strategies to deal with the high medical expenses and reductions in income, such as selling assets, taking up credit or receiving financial support from relatives and friends. As HIV-infected individuals increasingly develop AIDS, this will put substantial pressure on the public health care system as well as social support networks. Evidence suggests that private insurance, currently unaffordable to the poor, protects households from the most severe consequences of health shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Ecos de Economía is the property of Universidad EAFIT and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This study examines differences among urban Chinese consumers and their consumption patterns in three major cities—Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin—utilising data from a nationally representative sample survey conducted in 2005. Differences were found in these consumers’ age distribution, education level, household composition, birth and death rates, income, expenditure patterns and consumer durable ownership rates. Beijing and Shanghai, the two most affluent cities in China, exhibited the highest consumer durable ownership rates and the highest cost of living. While previous research has frequently segmented China in terms of a rural versus urban dichotomy or by geographic region, this study suggests that the urban Chinese do not constitute a homogeneous market. Further, it is suggested that both geographic region and income, which varies between rural and urban settings, are sound bases for segmenting this important market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An understanding of the changed financial circumstances of families with newborn children is important to a range of current policy debates, including those surrounding the provision of family assistance, women's attachment to the labour force and paid parental leave. Although there is a body of Australian research on the costs of raising children, in most cases this has been undertaken to enable the calculation of child support entitlement or to evaluate the effects of policy designed to reverse the effects of an ageing demographic. These studies do not report specifically on expenses associated with the arrival of newborn children. To address this gap in the evidence base, the current study investigates changes in household expenditure associated with the arrival of newborn children for three groups of families--those experiencing the arrival of their first, second, or third and subsequent-born children. Household spending items in Waves 6 and 7 (2006 and 2007) of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey are used to estimate whether different categories of expenditure typically increase or decrease for couple families with the arrival of newborn children. This study shows that a range of expenditure categories are influenced by the arrival of a new baby. Parents of first-born children increase expenditure on health care and clothing. Parents of second-born children increase expenditure on health care, and on meals eaten out and takeaway; however, they decrease expenditure on child care. Parents of third and subsequent-born children increase expenditure on health care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the conceptual and methodological challenges to develop a set of baseline indicators for South African food security targets. A food security target is a well-defined and measurable goal to reduce the numbers of people who lack enough food of the right quality to live healthy lives. To derive baseline indicators for household food security, the following question is asked: what is the average cost of a nutritionally adequate food basket per person? The cost of recommended nutrient intake is based on estimates of dietary energy costs. Reported food expenditure for each household based on 2005/2006 Income and Expenditure Survey data gets compared to two dietary energy cost baskets. The food expenditure shares of the poorest households vary between 38% and 71% according to different surveys. At food expenditure levels reported in the IES, one in five households meet their average dietary energy cost. Deep levels of food insecurity exist in rural areas with 85% of rural households unable to afford even the 'below average dietary energy costs'. Food security policy based on refined baseline indicators can better target food insecure households. Another policy benefit is that robust indicators help to develop effective monitoring capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health expenditure data are known to be afflicted by restricted range, zero values, skewness and kurtosis. Several methods for modelling such data have been suggested in the literature to cope with these problems. This paper compares the performance of several alternative estimators, including two-part models and generalised linear models. The dependent variable is household expenditure on health care in Greece, a country where out-of-pocket health expenditure is higher than anywhere else in the European Union, whether as a proportion of GDP, as a share of all health spending, or in per capita terms. To facilitate comparison of model performance, household health expenditure is examined in two different specifications: expenditure on all health care (where zero values are rare) and expenditure on hospital services alone (where zero values are common). In the case of expenditure on all health care, three of the estimators performed almost equally well in terms of three alternative model performance indicators: a modified two-part model with non-linear least squares in the second part, a constant-variance generalised linear model and a variance-proportional-to-mean generalised linear model. In the case of expenditure on hospital services, the constant-variance generalised linear model out-performed the rest. The findings suggest that no estimator is best under all circumstances, while most alternative estimators are likely to produce relatively similar results. The paper concludes by discussing implications for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We examine the effect of electricity market reform on residential consumers, using hypothetical scenarios likely to be prompted by reform. These include raising tariffs to cost reflective levels and introducing a standing charge to recover 10% of the revenue to mirror cost reflective structures. For Albania and Bulgaria, where household expenditure surveys and electricity tariffs are available, we analyse the effects by expenditure decile and region. The impact of reforms varies considerably, depending on how far current tariffs reflect the long run marginal costs of supply, but likely reform scenarios will adversely affect low income households more than others. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study examined the socio-economic and geographic differences in illness occurrence and levels of expenditures in South Eastern Nigeria, together with policymaker and healthcare provider views on how to alleviate the financial burdens placed on the poorest by existing payment mechanisms. We found no evidence of differences across socio-economic group in illness occurrence but there was inequity in expenditures, payment mechanisms used and sources of funds to cope with the burden of payments. Policymakers and facility managers were found to assume that households have the capacity to cope with healthcare payments and there is no functioning system of fee exemptions. Policies are needed to protect the poor and other vulnerable groups against the financial risk of ill-health. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last decade, the spatial or geographical nature of social and economic indices has proliferated. It is well understood that there are geographical variations in prices, particularly housing prices. What we do not know is relative wages - that is, given a wage in one place, what is the wage to attain the same standard of living in another place. Utilising recent budget standard research, this paper calculates relative salaries for Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Perth and Adelaide. It is found that in 2006 households in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth respectively require on average 24%, 7% and 4% more private income than equivalent Brisbane households to achieve the same standard of living, whereas Adelaide residents require 7% less private income than Brisbane residents. Changes in these relativities from 2003 to 2006 are examined. The public policy responses to such findings are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts on development economics which include crude oil price and monetary policy, residential demand for electricity and determinants of economic growth in Pakistan.

Objective:To describe the household intakes of retinol and carotenoids and social economic factors determining their intakes.Subjects:Data on a total of 1001 households (771 in rural areas and 230 in urban areas) were used in the analyses. Interviewed person was household food preparer.Results:Mean (s.d.) intake of carotenoids was 4178 (3154) μg/capita/day in rural and 4208 (3408) μg/capita/day in urban areas and intake of retinol was 101 (275) μg/capita/day in rural and 201 (470) μg/capita/day in urban areas. Multivariate analyses show that the subjects in households with four or more members consume about 700 μg carotenoids less compared to households with less than three members. Households with a higher expenditure (fourth quartile) consumed about 100 μg retinol/day more than those with a lower expenditure (first quartile).Conclusion:Carotenoids from plant food sources is the main source of vitamin A intake of the population and its main determinants are household expenditure and size of household. Food fortification and dietary diversification with special emphasis on promotion of consumption of animal foods should be key strategies for overcoming vitamin A deficiency in Vietnam.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2008) 62, 810–816; doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602782; published online 11 July 2007 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper, we used data from the 2004 Survey of Family Income & Expenditure of Taiwan to show that the problem of the crowding-out effects of tobacco and alcohol in a country with low expenditure can still be serious. Most studies that have investigated this issue have focused on developing countries with a high expenditure share on tobacco or alcohol, and have often overlooked the effects in countries with a low expenditure on such goods. After controlling for the endogeneity of tobacco and alcohol expenditure, and the possibility that households with a zero expenditure on tobacco and alcohol may result from a corner solution rather than abstention, we found that the lowest income households are still most vulnerable to tobacco and alcohol expenditures despite an overall low expenditure in Taiwan. Even higher income households may suffer a lower standard of living due to such expenditure. In addition, some goods and services may be perceived differently by households with different levels of income and this may be caused by the difference in composition across broad expenditure categories. Our results suggest that the government ought to tackle the problem of smoking and drinking outside the realm of health, since these expenditures may harm the country''s standard of living even when there is high income. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the absence of a universally accepted method of calculating poverty, household expenditure can be used to provide an indication of inequality of wealth and serve as an indicator of poverty. Household expenditure comprises expenditure of private households on goods and services, irrespective of their durability. The portion of household budgets allocated to different types of goods and services provides an indication of the material standard of living of a population. The article discusses different definitions of poverty and compares the state of poverty according to these definitions in selected countries. This is followed by an analysis of South Africa’s economic position in the world and a comparison of the household budgets and demographic profile of South African households that fall into different income groups in order to identify the differences between the poorest and the wealthiest households in South Africa. Income inequality in South Africa is further elucidated by means of the Gini coefficient. A comparison is also made between the household budgets of the poorest households with the minimum financial living level requirements in South Africa to maintain their health and have acceptable standards of hygiene and sufficient clothing for their needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To provide a better understanding of (1) the amounts households in The Gambia spend on a wide variety of malaria prevention measures, (2) how expenditure fluctuates throughout the year and (3) the main determinants of expenditure. Methods A random sample of 1700 households from the Farafenni region were interviewed about their expenditure on malaria prevention over the past 2 weeks. Interviews were staggered over 12 months. Expenditure was measured for bed nets, treating and repairing bed nets, aerosols, coils, indoor spraying, smoke and other prevention strategies such as drinking herbs and cleaning the outside environment. Results Expenditure on bed nets, including treatment and repair, constituted only 10% of total expenditure on malaria prevention. Every fortnight, households spent an average of 8.40 Dalasis (D) on coils, 4.20 D on indoor sprays, 3.09 D on smoke and 3.06 D on aerosols, together making up 81% of total fortnightly expenditure. Of the 442 households that did not own a bed net, 68% said it was because they could not afford one. Every 2 months, the same households spent an average of US$5, the equivalent to the cost of an insecticide treated bed net, on other forms of prevention. Total expenditure was 42% higher during the wet season than for the rest of the year. For every month of the year, coils were the dominant form of prevention expenditure. Wealth, age, occupation of household head, location of residence and month of the year were significant determinants of prevention expenditure. Conclusions Households in The Gambia spend considerable amounts on a range of malaria prevention products and activities throughout the year. Bed nets represent a relatively small proportion of this expenditure even though they are perceived to be the most efficient and effective method of malaria control. A more concerted effort is needed to develop appropriate targeting strategies to encourage bed net use especially for children <5 years of age. Equal emphasis should be given to addressing barriers to purchasing nets such as their relative high upfront cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present and discuss a method that allows the disaggregation of national Ecological Footprints by economic sector, detailed final demand category, sub-national area or socio-economic group. This is done by combining existing National Footprint Accounts with input–output analysis. Calculations in the empirical part are carried out by using supply and use tables for the United Kingdom, covering the reporting period 2000. Ecological Footprints are allocated to detailed household consumption activities following the COICOP classification system and to a detailed breakdown of capital investment. The method presented enables the calculation of comparable Ecological Footprints on all sub-national levels and for different socio-economic groups. The novelty of the approach lies in the use of input–output analysis to re-allocate existing Footprint accounts, in the detail of disaggregation by consumption category and in the expanded use of household expenditure data. This extends the potential for applications of the Ecological Footprint concept and helps to inform scenarios, policies and strategies on sustainable consumption. The method described in this paper can be applied to every country for which a National Footprint Account exists and where appropriate economic and environmental accounts are available. The approach helps to save time in data collection and improves the consistency between Ecological Footprint estimates for a particular human society from different researchers. For these reasons, the suggested methodology includes crucial steps on the way towards a standardisation of Ecological Footprint accounts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Indonesia's economic crisis of late 1990s lowered consumption of micronutrient-rich foods, which increased the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies, including anemia. As a postcrisis response, 5 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) implemented Food for Work (FFW) programs to protect food consumption levers and nutritional status by providing rice, sometimes combined with oil and/or pinto beans. An independent evaluation assessed the effect of the FFW programs on nutrition outcomes, particularly anemia. A quasi-experimental design was used in which 1500 beneficiary and 1500 control households were randomly selected and followed in each of 3 urban and 2 rural sites. Baseline data were collected before program implementation and subsequently at ∼6-mo intervals for 2.5 y. The poor were found to be appropriately targeted, and program participation ranged from 4 to 18 mo. The proportion of households with debts ranged from 32 to 70%; although it was higher among beneficiaries than controls, it increased among controls, but not beneficiaries. However, only among urban poor mothers in Surabaya were the odds of anemia at endline lower when participating in the FFW program (0.60, 95%Cl [0.40–0.89]). Other risk factors for anemia in mothers and children included nutritional status (anemia at baseline, low BMI, receipt of vitamin A capsule, child age) and socioeconomic status (maternal education, having official residency in the area, income level). Thus, postcrisis FFW programs had limited effect on anemia, the main identified nutritional problem. Closer attention is required to the potential for affecting nutritional outcomes through FFW, including food aid quality and quantity and complementary nonfood interventions. Micronutrient deficiencies should be addressed directly via supplements and fortified foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This empirical research analyzes the determinants of Colombian household revenues and expenditures. Using a life cycle model with data from the national household survey 1994-1995, the paper shows how the behavior of household income is mainly affected by demographic characteristics and by the social-occupational characteristics of its members. Expenditure behavior is determined principally by income and secondly by the social characteristics of the household and by the expenditure of other households with similar characteristics. The paper also analyzes the influence of income uncertainty on households expenditure, to see if the effect is due to a motive of precaution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]