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Purpose: This mixed-methods systematic review synthesized findings from studies published between January 1, 2006 and July 31, 2018 on the social inclusion experiences of children with and without disabilities, as viewed from their own perspective, with a focus on how typically developing peers promote social inclusion. Method: Forty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. Data from included studies were synthesized by means of content analysis. Results: The findings detail the inner social inclusion experiences (e.g., feeling included, different) of children with disabilities and provide information regarding the influence of disability type (e.g., physical, social, affective) on typically developing peers' responses (e.g., acceptance vs. rejection), peers' explanations for social inclusion/exclusion, and peers' relationships with children with disabilities. Barriers to social inclusion, supports, as well as strategies used to promote social inclusion, as perceived by peers and children with disabilities, are also reported. Conclusion: The findings of this review provide evidence that despite society's efforts to promote social inclusion, children with disabilities continue to report feeling lonely and excluded, having limited contact socially outside of home, and encountering systemic barriers (e.g., bullying, discrimination). More research on the social inclusion experiences of children with disabilities beyond educational settings is needed, such as in the contexts of recreation and leisure, community, and employment. The perspectives of children with and without disabilities need to be integrated in activities and programs aimed at promoting social inclusion. Teaching social inclusion strategies to children with and without disabilities is needed to help them deal with barriers. In addition to educational settings, rehabilitation clinicians need to promote social inclusion strategies in other contexts such as recreation and leisure, community, and employment contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Social engagement may be an important protective resource for cognitive aging. Some evidence suggests that time spent with friends may be more beneficial for cognition than time spent with family. Because maintaining friendships has been demonstrated to require more active maintenance and engagement in shared activities, activity engagement may be one underlying pathway that explains the distinct associations between contact frequency with friends versus family and cognition. Methods: Using two waves of data from the national survey of Midlife in the United States (n = 3707, Mage = 55.80, 51% female at baseline), we examined longitudinal associations between contact frequency with friends and family, activity engagement (cognitive and physical activities), and cognition (episodic memory and executive functioning) to determine whether activity engagement mediates the relationship between contact frequency and cognition. Results: The longitudinal mediation model revealed that more frequent contact with friends, but not family, was associated with greater concurrent engagement in physical and cognitive activities, which were both associated with better episodic memory and executive functioning. Conclusion: These findings suggest that time spent with friends may promote both cognitively and physically stimulating activities that could help to preserve not only these social relationships but also cognitive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Workplace friendships are primary sites of organizing associated with important outcomes including cohesive climates, creativity and innovation, and employee job satisfaction. Research indicates the workplace context influences the initiation of workplace friendships via physical proximity and shared projects. The present study demonstrates how another context variable – perceived task interdependence (PTI) – influences both the initiation and the continued development of workplace friendships into closer levels. The links between PTI and workplace friendship were examined, centering on communication (frequency and channel) and trust as mediating variables. PTI was associated with both the initiation and development of workplace friendships. Moreover, the link between PTI and friendship closeness was fully moderated by communication and trust. Results also demonstrated that asymmetric PTI (i.e., one coworker is more/less dependent on the other) influenced trust, but only for non-friend coworkers. Friendship appears to buffer the relationship from potential negative effects of asymmetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study validates a new procedure that combines continuous measures of proximity (Ubisense) and vocalization (LENA) into measures of peer social interaction. The data were collected from 4 boys and 5 girls (ages 2–3 at the outset) on 8 separate days (3–4 hours per day) over the course of an academic year. Teacher reports of friendship were positively correlated with continuous measures of dyadic social interaction (i.e., the amount of time two children spent in proximity to one another, talking). Self-reports of reciprocated friendship were marginally correlated with continuous measures of dyadic social interaction, but only in the spring semester (when children were older and their reports of friendship more reliable). At the individual level, peer nominations of likeability, and teacher ratings of sociability and withdrawal were correlated with continuous measures of social interaction (i.e., the amount of time a child spent in proximity to other children, talking). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A lack of empathy is related to some negative aspects of adolescent interpersonal functioning in the literature, such as bullying. However, the relationship between empathy and positive aspects of adolescent interpersonal functioning is less clear. Thus, this study sought to examine the association between empathy and positive components of peer relationships among adolescents. A scoping review was conducted to identify relevant literature and to provide a narrative overview of the identified studies. Three databases were searched (PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Sociological Abstracts). Subsequently, three reviewers independently analyzed articles to determine inclusion. Twenty-eight studies met inclusionary criteria. The aspects of peer relationships that were studied most frequently included peer attachment, social status (i.e., peer acceptance, likeability, social preference, and popularity), and friendship closeness or quality. The associations between empathy and some aspects of peer relationships among adolescents varied based on type of empathy and gender. Although inconsistencies were observed, the included studies often showed either a positive relationship or no relationship between empathy and positive peer relationship variables. In several studies, empathy was positively related to peer attachment and friendship quality or closeness, but not significantly related to popularity. Additional research is needed to further clarify these relationships. The results are integrated within a positive psychology framework examining the role of empathy as a potential strength in interpersonal functioning. Highlights: Most studies reported positive correlations or no correlation between empathy and positive aspects of adolescent peer relationships. Greater friendship quality or closeness and peer attachment were often related to higher empathy. Based on the reviewed literature, empathy does not appear to be a robust strength in interpersonal functioning among adolescents. More research is needed to clarify the role of empathy in adolescent peer relationships and to explore youth's perceptions of empathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined early adolescent autonomy and relatedness during disagreements with friends as key social competencies likely to predict academic achievement during the transition to high school and academic attainment into early adulthood. A sample of 184 adolescents was followed through age 29 to assess predictions to academic success from observed autonomy and relatedness during a disagreement task with a close friend. Observed autonomy and relatedness at age 13 predicted relative increases in grade point average (GPA) from 13 to 15, and greater academic attainment by age 29, after accounting for baseline GPA. Findings remained after accounting for peer acceptance, social competence, scholastic competence, externalizing and depressive symptoms, suggesting a key role for autonomy, and relatedness during disagreements in helping adolescents navigate challenges in the transition to high school and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mate crime is a specific subset of hate crime in which the perpetrator is known to the victim. The aim of the current study was to examine perceptions of friendship and the concept of mate crime in autistic adults. Five adults were interviewed about their experiences of social interactions, friendships and mate crime. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis revealed three superordinate themes: (1). Perceptions and 'learning the formula' (2). Socialising... 'It's more complicated than that', and (3). 'Taking Advantage of You'. Themes highlight the importance of further research into positive and negative aspects of social relationships in autistic adults, and the need to challenge attitudes around disability and provide support to those who may be socially vulnerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) are at higher risk of poorer mental health compared with children without DLD. There are, however, considerable individual differences that need to be interpreted, including the identification of protective factors. Aims: Pathways from the early language and communication environment (ELCE, 1–2 years) to internalizing (peer and emotional problems) and externalizing (conduct problems and hyperactivity) problems in middle childhood (11 years) were mapped using structural equation modelling. Specifically, the role of indirect pathways via social skills (friendships, play and prosociality) in childhood (7–9 years) was investigated. Methods & Procedures: Secondary analysis of existing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) was undertaken. The study sample consisted of 6531 children (394 with DLD). Outcomes & Results: The pathways from the ELCE to internalizing and externalizing problems were similar for children with and without DLD. For both groups, a positive ELCE was associated with more competent social play and higher levels of prosociality in childhood, which in turn were associated with fewer externalizing problems in middle childhood. Furthermore, better friendships and higher levels of prosociality in childhood were both associated with fewer internalizing problems in middle childhood. Conclusions & Implications: A child's ELCE is potentially important not only for the development of language but also for social development. Furthermore, in the absence of adequate language ability, play and prosocial behaviours may allow children with DLD to deploy, practise and learn key social skills, thus protecting against externalizing problems. We suggest that consideration be given to play‐ and prosociality‐based educational and therapeutic services for children with DLD. What this paper addsWhat is already known on this subjectOn the whole, children with DLD tend to have poorer mental health compared with their unaffected peers. There are, however, considerable differences and poor outcomes are not inevitable.What this study adds to the existing knowledgeWe demonstrate that children's ECLE is important for the development of social play behaviours and prosociality. Whilst children with DLD tend to have less competent social play and lower levels of prosociality compared with their unaffected peers, those with more competent social play and higher levels of prosociality are likely to have fewer externalizing problems later in childhood. We speculate that in the absence of adequate structural language ability, play and prosocial behaviours allow children with DLD to deploy, practise and learn key relationship skills, alongside behavioural and emotional regulation skills, thus protecting against externalizing problems. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?Understanding the relationships among play, prosociality and externalizing problems may pave the way for play‐ and prosociality‐based interventions in children with DLD. This may be particularly appealing for practitioners as such interventions capitalize on one of the most intuitive means of learning in childhood: play with friends. The likelihood of acceptability and engagement with such interventions may be higher in children than for traditional adult‐led, paper‐and‐pencil activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although a burgeoning body of research has illustrated the association of grit with academic and psychosocial functioning in adolescence, little is known about how adolescents with differing grit profiles may diverge in regard to peer relationships (i.e., perceived popularity and friendships). Guided by the dynamic interactionism framework, the current study, using a person-centered approach, explores grit profiles of Chinese early adolescents and examines whether these profiles exhibit mean differences in perceived popularity and friendships. A total of 1,150 early adolescents aged from 10 years to 13 years (53.4% male) were involved in this study; participants were asked to complete self-report questionnaires concerning grit and self-perception of friendships and complete peer nominations within each classroom in terms of perceived popularity. A latent profile analysis revealed five grit profiles based on two facets of grit (i.e., perseverance and consistency). Moreover, multivariate analysis of covariance—controlling for age, gender, and socioeconomic status—showed that early adolescents who scored higher on both perseverance and consistency were nominated as more popular individuals than those with low-to-moderate perseverance and low consistency. In contrast, perseverance was more essential than consistency in determining greater self-perception of friendships. To summarize, the current study suggests that both perseverance and consistency are pivotal in terms of perceived popularity, whereas perseverance is critical in regard to the self-perception of friendships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded in sexual script theory, this research explored the relationships between casual sexual encounters, personal and perceived social endorsement of the sexual double standard (SDS), and topic avoidance about casual sex (TACS). Participants (N = 327) were recruited from Amazon.com's Mechanical Turk and responded to a survey including measures assessing the aforementioned variables. A number of gender differences were apparent in the results. For men, personal and perceived social endorsement of the SDS were significantly and positively associated with casual sexual activity, whereas these same associations were not significant for women. For women, both personal and perceived social endorsement were significantly and positively associated with TACS, but for men, personal endorsement of the SDS was significantly inversely associated with TACS. Lastly, for men, the variable most strongly associated with TACS was personal endorsement of the SDS, whereas it was perceived social endorsement of the SDS for women. Explanations for these findings are offered based on the influence of individuals' cognitions, behaviors, and cultural scripts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Physical activity is associated with reduced depression in youth and adults. However, our understanding of how different aspects of youth activities—specifically, the degree to which they are social, team-oriented, and physical—relate to mental health in children is less clear. Methods: Here we use a data-driven approach to characterize the degree to which physical and non-physical youth activities are social and team-oriented. We then examine the relationship between depressive symptoms and participation in different clusters of youth activities using mixed effect models and causal mediation analyses in 11,875 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. We test our hypotheses in an original sample (n = 4520, NDA release 1.1) and replication sample of participants (n = 7355, NDA release 2.0.1). Results: We show and replicate that social–physical activities are associated with lower depressive symptoms. Next, we demonstrate that social connections, measured by number of close friends, partially mediate the association between social–physical activities and lower depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Our results provide a rubric for using data-driven techniques to investigate different aspects of youth activities and highlight the social dynamics of physical activities as a possible protective factor against depression in childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little research has focused on the positive adjustment of emerging adult adoptees (Palacios and Brodzinsky in Int J Behav Dev 34:270–284, 2010). Given the developmental context of emerging adulthood (Arnett in Am Psychol 55:469–482, 2000), it is important to select an indicator of adjustment that reflects the associated ambiguity. The present study aims to provide empirical support for the construct of relational competence, or competence in one's closest relationship regardless of relationship type (i.e., romantic vs. nonromantic) among emerging adult adoptees. Participants included 162 adoptees who had been adopted before the age of one in the United States through private domestic adoption in to same-race families. Relational competence was measured by adapting a measure of romantic competence in emerging adulthood (Shulman et al. in J Adolesc 34:397–406, 2011). Indicators of relational competence were coded from interviews in which participants discussed their self-identified closest relationship (White et al. in J Personality Soc Psychol 50:152–162, 1986). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the proposed model of relational competence was a good fit to the data and was invariant across relationship type and gender. No differences in relational competence scores were found by relationship type or by gender (all p's >.552). Relational competence was positively associated with adaptive functioning (β = 0.325, p =.006) and negatively associated with internalizing (β = − 0.246, p =.035) and externalizing behavior (β = − 0.347, p =.003). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heightened levels of peer relationship difficulties associated with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) potentially predispose adolescents to feelings of loneliness and depressive symptoms. The current study explores whether feelings of loneliness mediate the effects of ADHD on depressive symptoms. Eighty-four adolescents (Mage = 13.01 years, 75% Male) in Western Australian schools completed mental health and wellbeing surveys. Multivariate analysis of variance assessed whether adolescents with ADHD had greater loneliness and depressive symptoms, and mediation analysis explored whether loneliness mediated the relationship between ADHD and depressive symptoms. Adolescents with ADHD reported significantly greater depressive symptomatology and feelings of isolation and lower quality of friendships. Together, friendship and isolation related loneliness fully mediated the relationship between ADHD and depressive symptoms. Loneliness is associated with depression in adolescents with ADHD and may be an important consideration when addressing symptoms of depression among young people diagnosed with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses whether ethnic congruence associates with students' share of cross-group friendships and number of overall friendships. We investigate differences between natives, Western-European immigrants, and non-Western European immigrants. Multilevel analyses on 11,759 students across 83 Flemish secondary schools demonstrated that, for natives and Western-European immigrants, higher congruence linearly related to lower shares of cross-group friendships. For non-Western European immigrants we observed a U-curved relationship. Moreover, for the latter, higher congruence associated with more friendships overall. As such, non-Western European immigrants are better integrated in the peer group when at least a critical share of co-ethnics is present at school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sibling and friendship relationships are quite similar, in that they are both dyadic and reciprocal, and offer the child feelings of warmth, trust, loyalty and intimacy. Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often experience difficulties in their interpersonal relationships. The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of and to acknowledge possible links between sibling and friendship relationships of children with ADHD and typical development. Participants were 40 ADHD children and 120 typically developing peers, attending Greek primary schools (Mage = 9.51 years, SD = 1.1). The Sibling Relationship Questionnaire, sociometric nominations, and the Friendship Quality Questionnaire were used. The results showed that children with ADHD had greater antagonism with their siblings and fewer reciprocated friendships. Significant differences in friendship quality between the two groups were observed. Sibling relationships were found to influence all children's number of mutual friends, and the friendship quality of the typically developing children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although affective interactions in the family are important for development, home observational data are sparse. We replicated and extended one such study, Roberts & Strayer (1987, Developmental Psychology, 23, 415). Interactions in 33 two‐parent families (mean child age = 4.8 years; 48% girls) were observed for four evenings, from suppertime until the child settled for the night. Parents completed the Child Rearing Practices Q‐sort. Peer interactions and friendship networks in preschool were observed over four days. Teachers and observers completed the Preschool Behavior Q‐Sort. Based on Q‐rated peer competence and aggression, three expected groups of children were identified, one of them high on both aggression and peer competence. Although socially active and accepted by peers, they were, compared with other children, less cooperative with adults, less prosocial with peers, more impulsive, less achievement oriented, less purposive, and less happy (mean η2 =.52). Parenting, especially observed impatience, threats, and use of force when children were emotionally distressed, showed important differences across groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individual differences in social relationship competence (SRC) should have significant implications for social relationship success and well-being. Ability-based measures of SRC are scarce, though, particularly in social-personality psychology, and these considerations led to the present research. In specific terms, a situation judgment method was used to create and examine the correlates of a scenario-based assessment of SRC termed the Social Relationship Competence-Ability Measure (SRC-AM). Four studies (total N = 994) were conducted. Study 1 used item-total correlations and factor analyses to select scenarios from a larger pool. Studies 2 and 3 then showed that the SRC-AM predicted outcomes consistent with social relationship success (Study 2) as well as psychological well-being (Study 3). Study 4, finally, linked SRC levels to peer ratings of social competence and popularity. The research highlights a class of social inferences and abilities that possess novel implications for social relationship success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young children typically report primarily same-gender friendships across childhood. However, there is growing awareness of the benefits of gender-integrated friendships and gender integration in schools, especially for social-emotional domains. The current study tested whether Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP), an evidence-based motor competence intervention led by physical education teachers, promotes gender-integrated friendships in preschool-aged children. Results documented that children (Mage = 47.38, SD = 6.21 months, range = 36.67–60.25 months) assigned to the SKIP condition (n = 56) as compared to a control free-play condition (n = 37) showed higher motor skill competence and were more likely to report gender-integrated friendships post intervention. Growth in girls' reports of gender-integrated friendships, in particular, drove the intervention effect on gender-integrated friendships. These findings highlight one example of how motor competence interventions can also result in benefits in social-emotional domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dyadic synchrony within friendships examines the reciprocal exchange that may unfold between friends, such that the individuals within the dyad may share their emotions in response to or in anticipation of another's emotions. Researchers have not examined synchrony in response to a stressor in late adolescents' friendship dyads. This is surprising given the important role of friends in shaping social and emotional development. The current study examined affective and physiological synchrony within 50 college students who were in the developmental period of late adolescence (70% female, M age = 18.85, SD = 0.80) and observed friendship characteristics (friendship quality and negative escalation) that might strengthen synchrony associations. Results suggested that friends shared negative and positive affect, cortisol, and salivary alpha amylase (sAA) responses across a laboratory paradigm designed to induce interpersonal stress. Characteristics associated with lower quality friendships were found to strengthen synchrony associations for sAA and cortisol responses. These findings extend previous research on the ways in which friends may be similar to one another and suggest potential interventions to strengthen social and emotional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The purpose of this study was to ask older adults in a regional area of Australia how they made the decision to move into an independent living unit (ILU) within a three‐tier residential complex that provides varying services and care to older adults. Method: Focus groups were used to enable the gathering of rich data and to enable the voices of older adults. A deductive qualitative analysis (Gilgun, Qualitative research in social work, 2nd ed., pp. 107–135, 2013) was deployed using the factors for a successful later‐life transition to an aged‐care facility identified in the researchers' earlier systematic review. Results: Feelings of autonomy and control over the decision to move were important to all respondents. Any sense of loss of day‐to‐day autonomy, privacy and purpose, was compensated for by increased feelings of safety and security. Selected items brought from the old home to the new were a significant source of comfort. Conclusions: This study provides the views and experiences of 19 older adults from regional Australia about moving into ILUs in a three‐tier complex. The values and missions of the complex were important in the relocation decision‐making. Further, if the choice is between living near friends or family, participants recommended choosing friends. The strategic choice of an ILU in a three‐tier complex was seen as providing appropriate care into an unknown future. This study highlights the importance for older adults, their families and health‐care professionals of making timely relocation decisions and the importance for older adults to retain autonomy and control over the relocation decision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's (advanced) theory of mind (AToM) has been related to numerous real‐world social consequences, including regarding their feelings of loneliness. A recent study has shown that AToM does not rely on a single underlying ability, instead involving three distinct factors: social reasoning, reasoning about ambiguity, and recognizing transgressions of social norms. The present study of 229 5‐ to 8‐year‐olds investigated whether and how these three aspects of AToM cognition are related to children's feelings of loneliness while controlling for the influence of self‐esteem. Our results show that social reasoning is the only AToM factor that is related to children's loneliness, and it is independent from children's self‐esteem. Our findings have consequences for the conceptualization of AToM and our understanding of children's feelings of loneliness and their ability to form friendships. Statement of contributionWhat is already known on this subjectTheory‐of‐mind (ToM) understanding is related to children's ability to form friendships and to their loneliness.Results are mixed concerning the effects of advanced ToM.Recent studies show that advanced ToM is comprised of three separate factors.What the present study addsSocial reasoning is the only advanced ToM factor that is related to children's feelings of loneliness.Our results add to our knowledge about diverse real‐world consequences of AToM.Our findings have consequences for the conceptualization of AToM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Brain tumors during childhood may disrupt the development and maintenance of friendships due to the impact of disease- and treatment-related factors on functioning. The goal of this study was to determine if children treated for either a brain tumor or a non-central nervous system (CNS) solid tumor could name a friend and to evaluate the social information processes associated with the ability to name a friend.Method: Youth (ages 7-14) treated for either a brain tumor (n = 47; mean age = 10.51 years) or a non-CNS solid tumor (n = 34; mean age = 11.29) completed an assessment within 6 months of the conclusion of treatment that included asking participants to name a friend and completing measures of social information processing (SIP). Rates of self-reported friendship were compared between groups and correlates of being able to name a friend were evaluated.Results: Youth treated for a brain tumor (61.7%) were significantly less likely to name a friend compared with youth treated for a non-CNS solid tumor (85.3%). Diagnosis type (brain vs. non-CNS), relapse status, attribution style, and facial affect recognition were significant predictors of being able to name a friend or not in a logistic regression model.Conclusions: Youth treated for a brain tumor and those who experienced a disease relapse are at risk for impairments in friendships; difficulties with SIP may increase this risk. Targeted screening and intervention efforts for children diagnosed with brain tumors and those who have relapsed could address difficulties with peers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How people interpret and respond to simulated interpersonal events may provide insight into their values, beliefs, and personality. In pursuit of this possibility, a three-study program of research (total N = 576) applied a situational judgment method to the domain of friendship behavior. Specifically, consensus scoring techniques were used to scale the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of different ways of responding to vignettes involving protagonists and their friends. These norms were then used to score a dimension of friendship competence that was defined in terms of endorsing ways of responding (to friendship scenarios) that tend to be effective. Study 1 established the reliability of the relevant individual differences, Study 2 showed that they were related to both agreeableness and extraversion, and Study 3 showed that they predicted friendship quality as well as prosocial and antisocial behavior. The research provides novel insights into key personality processes that underlie social behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friendships are an important source of happiness, well-being, physical health, and longevity. Researchers have often linked unidimensional friendship quality to life satisfaction and positive affect, which are hedonic forms of well-being. Aristotle presented an expanded view of friendship with three general characteristics: Utility, Pleasure, and Virtue. Following his theory, we expected Pleasure and Utility characteristics to be primarily related to hedonic well-being (HWB). In contrast, we expected Virtue characteristics to be more strongly related to eudaimonic well-being (EWB), which includes meaning, personal growth, and positive relationships in this study. This exploratory study assessed Aristotle's theory about friendship and well-being with 375 participants. Two exploratory structural equation models were tested. There was an indirect relationship between Utility characteristics and HWB through Help Received. A friend's Virtue characteristics had an indirect relationship with EWB through the reliability of the friendship. These findings indicate that friendship characteristics related to utility and virtue friendships appear to have differential implications for understanding the role of friends in happiness and flourishing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From March 2020 in Australia, the covid-19 pandemic resulted in regulations for social distancing, which meant that students were homeschooled. Social distancing exponentially increased the exposure of most young children to digital technology such as touchscreens (iPads) and digital flip cameras. This study focuses on two seven-year-old children who maintain their friendship during covid-19 by imaginary performances and playing virtual games. A cultural–historical approach is used in the study to analyze the children's experience as they connect through virtual worlds and build imaginary spaces, contributing to sustaining their relationship during challenging times. Findings indicate that the children built a collective social situation of development integrating sophisticated imaginary, real and virtual worlds. The children's perspective – their motive orientations and intentions towards a new social situation provided new opportunities for learning in a virtual imaginary world. The combination of a real, an imaginary and a virtual world supported the children to experience a range of emotions including joyous moments, empathy and attunement as they encouraged each other to participate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Friendships have been linked to mental health and school attainment in children. The effects of friendlessness and friendship quality have been well researched, but less is known about the role of friendship stability (i.e., maintaining the same friend over time), an aspect of friendship which is often interrupted by the transition between phases of schooling. Many children report concerns about the secondary school transition which introduces a number of new social and academic challenges for children. Aims: To explore rates of friendship stability and whether maintaining a stable best friend across the primary to secondary school transition provided benefits to children's adjustment during this period. Sample: Data were from 593 children (M age = 11 years 2 months). Methods: This study used longitudinal data from children transitioning into 10 UK secondary schools and explored the association between self‐reported friendship stability and three outcomes: academic attainment, emotional problems and conduct problems. Analyses controlled for friendship quality and pre‐transition psychological adjustment or attainment as appropriate. Results: Rates of friendship stability were relatively low during this period. Children who kept the same best friend had higher academic attainment and lower levels of conduct problems. Exploratory analyses indicated that secondary school policies that group children based on friendships may support friendship stability. Conclusions: Helping maintain children's best friendships during the transition to secondary school may contribute to higher academic performance and better mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maltreatment during childhood is associated with difficult interpersonal relationships throughout the life course. The aim of the current study was to investigate differential pathways from child maltreatment to emerging adult relationship dysfunction. Specifically, we prospectively tested whether child maltreatment initiates a developmental cascade resulting in coercive negative romantic and friend interactions in emerging adulthood via childhood antisocial tendencies and via childhood relational aggression. Utilizing a longitudinal sample of emerging adult participants (N = 392; mean age = 20 years old) who took part in a summer research camp program as children (mean age = 11 years old), results supported pathways via both childhood antisocial behavior and childhood relational aggression. We found specificity within these pathways such that childhood antisocial behavior was a mediator of child maltreatment effects on emerging adult negative romantic interactions, whereas childhood relational aggression was a mediator of child maltreatment effects on emerging adult negative friend interactions. Taken together, results indicate that children exposed to maltreatment face significant interpersonal challenges in emerging adulthood, within both the friend and the romantic domains, and point to distinct childhood pathways to these negative interactions. Our findings are consistent with Dishion's (2016) theoretical framework for understanding the development of coercion in relationships and highlight the criticality of early intervention with maltreating families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined children's responses to vignettes depicting a child making one of four friendship transgressions; failing to provide validation, failing to provide help, being an unreliable partner, and betrayal. Twenty elementary students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 21 typically developing (TD) students participated. Children rated emotional responses, the strategies they would use following each transgression, interpretations of transgressions, and goals of their responses. Children with ASD rated sadness lower than TD children, and rated verbal aggression strategies higher than TD children. There were several significant correlations between emotional responses and goals, strategies, and interpretations in the ASD group. Betrayal was considered the most severe transgression. These results will aid researchers aiming to support friendship maintenance in children with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawn into the Communist Party's social circles through friendships during the 1940s, Mandela became increasingly interested from 1952 onwards in the party's doctrines and in the Marxist canon that informed their premises. His first encounters with Communists were at a time when the party was beginning to develop its strategic justification for aligning itself with African nationalism, a development that would prompt Communists to begin recruiting and extending their influence among the middle-class African elite. This article explores the implications of Mandela's association with South Africa's Communist left. It reviews the evidence that points to his membership of the party at the end of the 1950s. It explores the party's purpose in drawing Mandela into its embrace and considers the ways in which Mandela's political thinking and actions may have been shaped by his proximity to South African Communists between 1952 and 1962. Whether Mandela actually thought of himself at that time as a communist is open to question. Through the 1950s and later, he remained receptive to a range of political ideas and captive to none. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Adolescents' peer world is highly dynamic with constant dissolution of old friendships and formation of new ones. Though many of adolescents' risky decisions involve their peers, little is known about how adolescents' ever-changing friendships shape their ability to make these peer-involving risky decisions, particularly adaptive ones, and whether this association shifts over time. In a 5-wave longitudinal fMRI study, 173 adolescents (at wave 1: M age = 12.8, SD age = 0.52; range = 11.9–14.5) made risky choices to win money for their best friend. We assessed whether participants nominated the same or different best friend as their previous participation year (a total of 340 data points of friendship maintenance / change). In early adolescence, adolescents with the same best friend took more adaptive risks for that best friend than those with a different best friend. In late adolescence, however, adolescents with a different best friend took more adaptive risks for the new best friend than those with the same best friend. Further, the amygdala was differentially sensitive to friendship maintenance / change during these peer-involving adaptive risks across time. This study has implications for how stable and flexible peer landscapes differentially modulate social motivation and social decision-making over the course of adolescence. • Maintaining peers in 7th grade is linked to taking more adaptive risks for peers. • Changing peers in 11th grade is linked to taking more adaptive risks for peers. • The amygdala is differentially sensitive to friendships across adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When people come into contact with members of a new/other culture, their emotions may acculturate. In support of this idea, previous research has found that the emotions of immigrant minorities who have frequent contact with majority culture members, fit the majority emotion norms better than those who have less contact. Little is known about the possibility of majority members' emotions acculturating towards the emotion norms in the minority culture. To shed light on this question, the current study investigated the emotional patterns and social contact experiences (i.e., self-reported friendships with minority peers) of 916 majority youths in a representative sample of Belgian middle schools. We computed majority members' emotional fit with immigrant minority culture by relating majority members' emotional patterns to the average (i.e., normative) emotional pattern of their minority classmates in comparable situations. We also examined the role of clear minority norms for emotions (measured as a high average fit of minority classmates' emotions with the average emotional pattern of other minority students in the class). Results show that majority members' emotional fit with the minority norm is high when the minority norm clarity is high. In addition, they show that the emotional fit of majorities is high to the extent that majority members have close friendships with minority peers but only in contexts where there is clarity in the minority emotion norms. We conclude that even though non-symmetrically, majority and minority culture groups can mutually accommodate to the other group's emotion norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An ecological model is relevant to understand the children's subjective well-being in different cultures. • Even if children feel victimized by their peers, when exposed to protective factors, they can achieve well-being and positive development. • The importance of relational environments for healthy development and subjective well-being in childhood and youth is highlighted. The aim of this study is to analyze childreńs subjective well-being (SWB) and the protective role of contextual factors (satisfaction with friends, with school and in the neighborhood) as well as the influence of individual aspects (gender and age) in the face of peer victimization. For this purpose, 325 Brazilian students aged 10–12 years from public (83 %) and private (17 %) schools in the State of Rio de Janeiro participated by answering a self-report questionnaire containing socio-demographic questions and psychometric scales that were part of Children's Worlds, the International Survey of Children's Well-Being – ISCWeB. SWB was measured by using the CW-SWBS: Children's Worlds Subjective Well-Being Scale. Contextual factors were assessed through items in the same scales used in the survey. A hierarchical multiple regression was used to analyze the role of peer victimization, along with individual and contextual factors in the variability of CW-SWBS scores. The results of the final model highlighted that girls had lower levels of well-being than boys (β = -0.22) and older children also had lower levels of SWB when compared to younger peers (β = -0.19). Furthermore, the positive contextual factors reduce the consequences of victimization. The most important effect was the friend satisfaction (β = 0.33; p < 0.001), school satisfaction (β = 0.26; p = 0.001) and satisfaction with neighborhood (β = 0.20; p < 0.001) – which suppressed the negative effects of victimization (β = 0.01; p = 0.858). The findings give support to the interdependence of positive individual and contextual factors to promote well-being at different developmental system levels according to the bioecological theory of human development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The normative transition to formal schooling confronts children with social challenges but also opportunities. Longitudinal research on how school entry impacts children’s family and friend-ship relationships is scarce. This study investigated social relationship qualities with parents, siblings, and friends among 1110 children (49.9% female) from the prospective, population-based Bavarian Longitudinal Study at 6 years (before school entry) and 8 years using a forced-choice card-sorting task. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant effects of age (i.e., school entry) on social relationship qualities with mothers (Pillai’s Trace (PT) = 0.28, F(9, 1101) = 47.73, p < 0.001), fathers (PT = 0.14, F(9, 1101) = 19.47, p < 0.001), siblings (PT = 0.27, F(9, 1101) = 46.14, p < 0.001), and friends (PT = 0.21, F(9, 1101) = 32.57, p < 0.001). On average, children reported higher levels of parental comfort after school entry. Companionable qualities increased in relationships with friends, whereas sibling relationships became more conflictual from preschool to early school age. Findings provide unique insights into how social relationships develop from preschool to early school age, supporting evidence of the growing importance of friends. Conflict was predominant and increasing in sibling relationships and should be considered more in future research.

Introduction: Self-harm amongst young people is becoming increasingly prevalent. Understanding, responding to, and supporting young people who self-harm is vital. Friends are typically the first and sometimes the only source of support sought by adolescents who self-harm. Despite their important role as confidants, friends' perspectives and experiences remain poorly understood., Methods: We conducted retrospective qualitative semi-structured interviews, prompted by an adapted version of the Card Sort Task for Self-Harm (CaTS-FF), about the experiences of nine female young adults (18-20 years old) who supported a friend who self-harmed during adolescence. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis., Results: Four themes were developed: (1) "I did not realize my friend was on the road to self-harm": Friends' reactions to self-harm; (2) "That's what friends do": the role of friends; (3) The impact of supporting a friend who self-harms; and (4) "They were quite formative years": reflecting on growth through the experience., Discussion: The present findings highlight the complex experiences of young people supporting a friend who self-harms. Despite being willing to take on the role of a supporter, participants experienced a range of difficult emotions and consequences. The temporal transition running through the four themes reflects the evolving nature of participants' attitudes, knowledge, and friendships. Overall, results highlight the unmet needs of adolescents supporting young people who self-harm, as well as identifying potential pathways to "support the supporters" toward resilience., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Bilello, Townsend, Broome and Burnett Heyes.)

Personal identity and social identification processes can be challenging for adolescents belonging to an ethnic minority, who have to cope with the acculturation task of navigating several (and often conflictual) alternatives put forth by their cultural heritage community and destination society. Because identity and acculturation tasks are embedded in core domains of adolescents' life, this three-wave longitudinal study with ethnic minority adolescents (N = 244, 43.4% male; M age  = 14.9) examined how personal identity processes and social identifications are related to acculturation orientations in the education and friendship domains. Results of traditional cross-lagged models showed that, in the educational domain, adolescents who scored higher on cultural heritage maintenance compared to their peers, scored higher on commitment later on. In the friendship domain, stronger associations were found, such that adolescents who scored higher on cultural heritage maintenance compared to their peers, reported higher commitment and in-depth exploration later on, while those who scored higher on identification with friends reported over time also higher cultural heritage maintenance and destination culture adoption. Random-intercept crossed-lagged models indicated that, when adolescents reported above their own average on reconsideration of educational commitment, they reported increased cultural heritage maintenance later on. Furthermore, consistent associations (at baseline and over time) emerged. Overall, this study points to virtuous alliances between the fulfillment of tasks related to adolescents' identity development and acculturation., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

This 17-year prospective study applied a social-development lens to the challenge of identifying long-term predictors of adult depressive symptoms. A diverse community sample of 171 individuals was repeatedly assessed from age 13 to age 30 using self-, parent-, and peer-report methods. As hypothesized, competence in establishing close friendships beginning in adolescence had a substantial long-term predictive relation to adult depressive symptoms at ages 27-30, even after accounting for prior depressive, anxiety, and externalizing symptoms. Intervening relationship difficulties at ages 23-26 were identified as part of pathways to depressive symptoms in the late twenties. Somewhat distinct paths by gender were also identified, but in all cases were consistent with an overall role of relationship difficulties in predicting long-term depressive symptoms. Implications both for early identification of risk as well as for potential preventive interventions are discussed.

Although children with Williams syndrome (WS) are strongly socially motivated, many have friendship difficulties. The parents of 21 children with WS and 20 of the children themselves participated in a semi-structured interview about the children's friendships. Parents reported that their child had difficulties sustaining friendships and low levels of interaction with peers. Barriers to friendships included difficulties with play and self-regulating behaviour. However, there was within-group variability, with a small number of children reported to have strong friendships. While parents reported friendship challenges, all of the children named at least one friend, and most said that they had never felt excluded by their peers. Future research is needed to determine optimal ways to support children with WS in their friendships., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Few studies have examined whether the effect of education on pregnancy and childbearing is due to the academic skills acquired or the social environment that schooling provides. This paper explores whether adolescent girls' learning skills, school enrollment, grade attainment, and friendships affect risk of pregnancy, and whether friendships mediate the relationship between education and pregnancy., Methods: We draw on three waves of longitudinal data on adolescent girls aged 11-15 in Kibera, an informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya between years 2015-2019. We use fixed effects regression models to estimate effects of girls' learning skills, school attendance, grade attainment, and friendships on their probability of experiencing a pregnancy. We conduct mediation analyses to assess whether friendships mediate the relationship between education and pregnancy., Results: By round one (2015), 0.1 % of girls reported having experienced a pregnancy; by round three (2019), 6.3 %. Even after adjusting for friendships, we find that attending school decreases probability of pregnancy by nine percentage points; an additional year of schooling decreases probability of pregnancy by three percentage points; and a one standard deviation increase in numeracy decreases probability of pregnancy by one percentage point. Having any male friends who do not attend school increases girls' probability of experiencing a pregnancy by four percentage points; this association remains after adjusting for girls' education. However, out-of-school girls are far more likely to report out-of-school male friends. We find no evidence that other types of friendships affect girls' probability of becoming pregnant., Conclusion: We find significant protective effects of school attendance, higher grade attainment and numeracy skills on girls' pregnancy, and that having close friendships with out-of-school males increases girls' probability of pregnancy. We did not find evidence of meaningful mediation, suggesting that the protective effects of school attendance and learning remain regardless of any risk they may face from their friendships., Competing Interests: None to declare., (© 2024 The Authors.)