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Facilitated discussion before, during and after experiences is widely accepted practice in the field of outdoor adventure education. Much of the literature appears to house the assumption that individual learning may be considerably restricted if participants' experiences are not processed with the help of an external facilitator, as they may not be able to make sufficiently clear connections between program activities and their daily lives on their own. This business of making clear connections between program and home is central to courses with personal and social development as their principal aim, yet this fundamental concept of transfer lacks convincing support in the literature and has been described as outdoor adventure education's Achilles' heel. It is within the broad themes of facilitation and processing that the discourse surrounding the use of metaphors as a means of helping participants make greater sense of their experiences exists. In this article, through an examination of the relevant metaphor literature, the author examines the possibilities and pitfalls of outdoor instructors using metaphors to enhance their course facilitation in non-therapeutic contexts. The title of the article is a play on the title of Stephen Bacon's seminal 1983 book, "The Conscious Use of Metaphor in Outward Bound."

Recent empirical research on outdoor education programs describes adjustment symptoms that instructors suffer from after the programs have come to an end. Post-course effects are also documented for students, but those are normally scientifically coded in measured changes in "skills" or "learning effects." In this paper, the author compares the adjustment processes of staff and students, and offers a philosophically motivated explanation for these processes with reference to his own experience of Outward Bound wilderness expeditions.

All "friluftsliv," or "open-air living," is to some degree a "quest." This certainly applies to paddling the big, open waters, although William James (1981) originally used the term to deepen the understanding of the Canadian soul during expeditionary travel on the great northern rivers. James was inspired in his task by the classical quest sequence of "Preparation, Separation, Tribulation and Return." Gaining insight into the panorama of paddling the seas and great lakes of the world could be no less well served through viewing such voyages in terms of these historical quest segments. In this paper, the author begins by examining his paddling life history, which now spans more than half a century and includes both private and pedagogically oriented ventures. This was supplemented by a review of his friluftsliv writings as well as a wide-ranging document analysis of quantitative and qualitative texts and illustrations of canoeing and kayaking. (Contains 3 tables.)

The author is now 30 years old. For more than a decade, she has been paid to facilitate an array of outdoor-based programming with varying groups of participants. With such breadth of experience, she frequently feels like she is a valuable asset to the organizations for which she works. However, at recent staff training and trip preparation days, where she has been surrounded by other outdoor professionals working in a similar role, she has begun to get inklings of feeling "old." Is there an expiry date for frontline outdoor professionals? How valuable is the experience of an outdoor professional over age 30? Is it worth adapting current organizational practices to retain these individuals for more than one or two seasons? To answer these questions, the author refers to her personal experience and the available literature in order to share a few insights about longevity on the frontline as an outdoor professional.

In this article, the author discusses British Columbia's integrated curriculum programs (ICPs). In this province of sea and mountains, outdoor adventures figure prominently in its ICPs--with a healthy dose of environmental and sustainability education mixed in. The author presents five examples from British Columbia's ICPs: (1) Earthquest Outdoor School; (2) Saturna Ecological Education Centre; (3) The TREK Program; (4) Coast Mountain Academy; and (5) The Valhalla Wilderness Program.

Connecting through outdoor adventure is a process that may or may not seem obvious. The word "connecting" resonates with a powerful and extensive implied meaning that the authors feel compelled to share. A recent collaborative research project between leaders from the Wikwemikong Unceded Indian Reserve and researchers from Laurentian University helped to uncover, or rediscover, that meaning through a series of outdoor adventure leadership experiences (OALE) designed for youth from this northern Ontario First Nations reserve. In this article, the authors aim not only to introduce the ways in which the OALE impacted resilience and well-being for Wikwemikong youth, but also to extend and apply their understanding of connecting beyond the context and culture within which it is rooted. They reveal how the OALE research reached beyond the youth participants, and how their experiences and stories have touched the authors on a personal level. Since research can be a deeply reflexive process, and it impacts all who are involved, the authors share this reflexive perspective through two personal philosophies of connecting through outdoor adventure. (Contains 1 figure.)

Adventure learning has emerged as a promising technology forum that provides students with opportunities to explore real-world issues through authentic learning experiences. Despite these promises, Adventure learning has received little empirical attention. This study examined how adventure learning affects motivation and learning outcomes with middle school students. As one of their teachers climbed Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa, 182 seventh and eighth graders learned about social studies. This exploratory mixed-method study utilized the Motivation Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) and an African-knowledge-based questionnaire for quantitative data. Additionally, the researchers collected qualitative data in the form of a semi-structured interview. These data revealed two themes: positive feedback on technology in the classroom and a strong effect of adventure learning on student motivation. (Contains 2 figures and 2 tables.)

The author comes to outdoor education from a background in theatre training. In the theatrical world one knows that the body remembers what the mind does not, or cannot. There are thus entire theatrical programs dedicated to developing the senses and training the body to engage beyond the facility of the mind alone. Anyone who has ever smelled a familiar scent and been "transported" to a different time and place knows about the power of the body's sensations to trigger thoughts and memories that the mind had previously forgotten or tuned out. In this article, the author describes an activity that engages the unique capacity of the body to experience learning in new ways and also to retain this learning beyond the scope of the thinking mind alone. What is particularly amazing about this activity is that it is relevant for students from K-12 at almost all levels of development. It encourages students to connect with a place in the absence of right or wrong--there is only the student's individual experiences, reactions and expressions. This exercise engages the body, the senses, sound and movement, while encouraging the intellectual mind to take a backseat to the experience. The article also suggests simple ways this activity facilitates well-being.

Adventure learning (AL) is an approach for the design of digitally-enhanced teaching and learning environments driven by a framework of guidelines grounded on experiential and inquiry-based education. The purpose of this paper is to review the adventure learning literature and to describe the status quo of the practice by identifying the current knowledge, misconceptions, and future opportunities in adventure learning. Specifically, the authors present an integrative analysis of the adventure learning literature, identify knowledge gaps, present future research directions, and discuss research methods and approaches that may improve the AL approach. The authors engaged in a systematic search strategy to identify adventure learning studies then applied a set of criteria to decide whether to include or exclude each study. Results from the systematic review were combined, analyzed, and critiqued inductively using the constant comparative method and weaved together using the qualitative metasynthesis approach. Results indicate the appeal and promise of the adventure learning approach. Nevertheless, the authors recommend further investigation of the approach. Along with studies that investigate learning outcomes, aspects of the AL approach that are engaging, and the nature of expert-learner collaboration, future adventure learning projects that focus on higher education and are (a) small and (b) diverse can yield significant knowledge into adventure learning. Research and design in this area will benefit by taking an activity theory and design-based research perspective. (Contains 2 tables, 3 figures, and 1 footnote.)

Background: Many postsecondary institutions offer outdoor programs to incoming students as a form of orientation or transition event. Positive outcomes for students are shown to result from these interventions but less is known about the mechanisms leading to these outcomes. Purpose: This article argues that "conversation" is one of these mechanisms and suggests canoe trips are an especially good intervention in which to generate conversation about student transition. Methodology/Approach: Insights emerging from our own outdoor orientation program called "Portage" lead to a hypothesis that canoe trips create three conditions ideal for the generation of productive conversation about student transition: the emergence of communitas, more egalitarian and communal relationships, and a rich source of metaphor. Findings/Conclusions: The "Portage" experience shows promise as a way to help students explore their educational and transition experiences through conversation. Implications: The intentional generation of conversation through metaphor on canoe trips may offer a useful space of pedagogical possibility to help students contemplate and pass through their transition more productively.

Background: Understanding strategies for enhancing learning is central to developing effective teaching practices. Students' perceptions of these practices are critical for deepening this understanding. Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate students' perceptions of a group journal activity (GJA) on learning enhancement and to present a model that illustrates the reflective-learning process of the GJA. Methodology/Approach: Three questionnaires (pre, post, and 2 months after) were distributed to 22 expedition participants in 2013 and 2015. Responses were analyzed to identify the learning benefits of the GJA, and grounded theory was used to develop the process model. Findings/Conclusions: A positive relationship exists between students' participating in the GJA and self-reported perception of learning. Students report the GJA as having similar benefits as traditional personal journal-writing with the added benefits of promoting learning from others' perspectives, enhancing understanding of others, promoting reflective communication skills, and providing a tangible record of experience which enables continued reflection and learning. A process model illustrates the recursive cycle of writing, sharing, and discovery that the GJA enables. Implications: This research presents the GJA as an uncommon form of journaling in outdoor education and demonstrates the GJA's potential for enhancing learning. The model outlines the effective use of the GJA.

Background: College students generally participate in study abroad experiences (SAE) at times of identity and value development as emerging adults. SAE has been criticized as perpetuating colonial acts through the project of globalization. Purpose: This research examined how participants construct meaning about place(s) and how this meaning relates to their sense of self during a 3-week expedition-style SAE in the Bolivian Andes. Methodology/Approach: SAE included place-based learning activities, cultural immersion, service projects, adventure travel, and two concurrent academic courses. Data were gathered from eight participants through written journal assignments, researcher observations, and field notes. Findings/Conclusions: Five themes emerged: personal growth, a multiplicity of meaning, privilege and global perspective, an urban-rural effect, and a taste for more. The social context and comfort--discomfort continuum are discussed as influencing factors. Implications: Findings suggest a place-based SAE can influence value formation and reflective practice of emerging adults. While findings echo SAE as a privileged experience, the question of latent effects of SAE on emerging adult social justice perspectives is raised.

This study discusses teacher preparation in relation to encouraging and empowering future teachers to appreciate the potential and value of adopting physical literacy as the goal of physical education (PE). The study addresses the issue of the role of schools and teacher training programs in developing the next generation of PE teachers entering PE teacher education with respect to thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and beliefs that underpin the concept of physical literacy, and providing high-quality learning experiences that are crucial to continuing physical activity throughout the life course for all children, not just those who have a natural aptitude in this area. Many advocates for radical change in PE have repeatedly argued that PE curricula around the world are too focused on a traditional, one size fits all, sport technique based, multiactivity form. Others have argued that the traditional curricula have a primary focus on physical competence in running, jumping, and balls skills rather than providing experience in a wide range of physical activities including, inter alia, those with a focus on aesthetic awareness and those related to outdoor adventure.

This paper describes a quasi-experimental crossover trial of an outdoor adventure program for Year 9 school students in Australia. Previous studies have reported a range of positive outcomes of outdoor camps and adventure programs, but cautious interpretation of some claims may be warranted due to limitations in research methods. This study examines a purpose-designed, seven-day outdoor adventure program intended to promote positive adjustment in young people. A total of 335 participants (aged 14-16 years) were recruited from across two Victorian secondary schools. In year 1 (2015), students from school A were recruited to the outdoor program while students from school B were recruited to a control group. In the second year (2016) the roles of each school were switched (crossed over). Outcome measures assessed on five occasions included a range of self-reported social and emotional health indicators. While quantitative analyses did not find support for positive, universal effects of our program, qualitative information gathered across the course of the study suggested that the outdoor program may have been both impactful and positive for some students. This complex picture suggests that effects of the outdoor adventure experience were quite variable amongst participants. Reasons for this pattern of findings are discussed, including the possibility that our quantitative measures may have been insensitive to some benefits. Future work should examine salient moderators of the beneficial effects of outdoor adventure experiences.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of participation in an outdoor orientation program on first-year college students' relationships with the natural world. The theory of biophilia was used as a lens through which to understand human-nature relationships. Eighty-five first-year college students on a 21-day outdoor orientation program were assessed at the trip's beginning and end using the Kellert-Shorb Biophilic Values Indicator (KSBVI). The instrument provides a "biophilic profile," a measure of how one relates to the natural world on each of nine separate subscales that collectively articulate expression of biophilic values: aesthetic, dominionistic, humanistic, moralistic, naturalistic, negativistic, scientific, symbolic and utilitarian. A repeated measures MANOVA was conducted to assess changes in the KSBVI subscales over time. Paired-sample "t"-tests were run to better understand the source and direction of change on the KSBVI subscale scores. These "t"-tests indicated statistically significant change from the pre to post scores in eight of the nine biophilic values. The KSBVI was shown to possess a level of sensitivity adequate for implementation in a pre-post design. Replication studies are recommended to further validate use of the KSBVI on adventure education programs in a pre-post format.

Background: Research has identified enhancement of positive self-concept as an important outcome connected with participation in adventure-based activities in physical education (PE). Purpose: This study compared the effectiveness of Team Building Through Physical Challenges (TBPC) and Adventure Curriculum for Physical Education (ACPE) programs on the self-conceptions of middle school PE students. Both approaches include adventure-type tasks adapted for use in PE. Methodology/Approach: Participants consisted of 397 female (n = 183) and male (n = 214) students who were enrolled in Coeducational Grades 7 and 8 PE classes in three middle schools. Students in the treatment classes were exposed to either the TBPC condition or the ACPE condition during PE classes over 7 months, whereas students in the control group completed the regular PE curriculum that did not include activities from either approach. Findings/Conclusions: Results suggest that both approaches benefit the self-conceptions of children with each being particularly effective at changing those self-conceptions logically related to specific organizing themes. Specifically, ACPE was greater than TBPC, for global self-worth and perceived behavioral conduct. TBPC was greater than ACPE for perceived social approval. Implications: Incorporating either the TBPC or the ACPE program in middle school PE can benefit the self-conceptions of students.

Background: The State University of New York (SUNY), the nation's largest comprehensive public university system, recently proposed making experiential learning activities available to all students enrolled in an academic program. Each campus was tasked with examining the feasibility of including experiential learning activities as a degree requirement. The Plattsburgh campus faculty senate voted to reject this requirement. Purpose: In light of the Plattsburgh rejection of the SUNY mandate, this study seeks to examine the practice and perspectives of four Plattsburgh faculty through the lens of a single experiential learning assignment. Methodology/Approach: A case study approach was used to illuminate common and/or distinctive pedagogies of instructors across four disciplines. Findings/Conclusions: Common themes include the elements of choice, embodiment, relationships, and risk. Critical to each case study was the willingness and ability of the instructor to engage in the educational process as a participant and expert learner. Implications: If the state, university system, or campus seeks to mandate experiential/applied learning, the mandate should be focused on the pedagogical components of experiential education not on the types of activities that count.

Based on the framework of interest, studies have shown that situational interest possesses strong motivation potential for students in physical education. Understanding how teachers can use situational interest in a classroom context is critical to motivate students. However, such investigations have been exclusively conducted in the United States and little is known about situational interest in other contexts. Grounded specifically in the French physical education curriculum, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between the five situational interest sources (instant enjoyment, exploration intention, attention demand, challenge and novelty) and total interest, to demonstrate which sources could be related to total interest and to determine possible mediators' effects among sources. Students (n = 601; M[subscript age] = 14.37; range 11-18 years; SD = 1.96; 51.4% boys) from 25 classes in six secondary schools participated in the study. They responded to the French situational interest scale after practising learning tasks in regular physical education lessons. On the basis of multiple-regression and mediation analyses, a structural equation model was formed to map out the meaningfulness of the relationships among situational interest sources and the total interest. Our results showed that instant enjoyment and exploration intention have direct and positive effects on total interest. In addition, these sources mediated the effects from attention demand and challenge toward the total interest. These results indicated that an effective way to motivate students in physical education is to build motivational components into the course content, especially those which enhance situational interest.

The challenge course (CC) is a popular element in experiential education, providing individuals with activities and reflective debriefing that build numerous social and psychological processes. To date, little research shows if CC activities can be successfully implemented in a college classroom setting. Using an introductory course at a U.S. liberal arts university, this study examined the perceived strengths and limitations of a classroom-based CC intervention with intentional follow-up activities throughout the semester. Employing a qualitative, descriptive study design, the class instructors (n = 5) and CC facilitators (n = 9) described their experience in two separate 1-hr focus groups. Three overarching themes emerged from the data: (a) perceived benefits of the intervention, (b) perceived challenges of the intervention, and (c) pedagogical recommendations for future interventions. In addition, several subthemes within each theme were also revealed. Despite noting several obstacles, the participants indicated that CC programs provide a unique learning experience that can be modified for the college classroom.

In an attempt to counter what the author perceived as a loss of student-led learning experiences, she began looking for examples of where play--kids tinkering and experimenting with materials and content or engaging in other hands-on, experiential learning opportunities freely--was still encouraged in schools. During that search, she learned that forest schools are emerging as an alternative form of early childhood education that utilizes free play, exploration, and experience to inspire an unstructured curriculum. As such, there are many connections between the learning found in forest schools and the practices and possibilities that exist in art education. This article presents forest schools and how they can play a role in art education.

This study is an investigation of what happens to participants during their adventure education (AE) experiences and the meanings they ascribe to those experiences. These topics were explored through the qualitative framework of educational connoisseurship and criticism at three sites: a backpacking expedition, a challenge course and a multi-activity adventure programme. Through 183 hours of observation and 74 interviews with 41 participants, the qualities of AE as aesthetic experience were revealed. This conception of AE experience is characterised through sensory encounters, full attention and aesthetic paradox. Findings are supported with the voices of participants, and the significance of this conception of AE experience is discussed.

Using a mixed methods design, the researchers investigated understandings and practices of democracy across Round Square, a worldwide network of 180 schools committed to shared values. An extensive questionnaire received 4020 student and 863 teacher returns; additionally, leaders, students, and parents from five case study schools on different continents were interviewed. All stakeholder groups were found to value democracy highly, but saw its implementation in their schools as challenging and limited. While staff and parents espoused more holistic understandings of democratic practices and cultures, students focused primarily on systems of election and representation. A philosophically informed framework for developing 'responsible leadership', and a values-led approach to school improvement, are offered to deepen students' democratic agency through informed, active, and reflective engagement with people, situations, and curricula.

The outdoor community has long been used to study motivation and sensation seeking. While sensation seeking is related to the personality traits extraversion and openness there has been little research conducted on the whole personality profile of this community. This study used the Five Factor Model and the Big Five Inventory to measure the personality profile of professionals in the outdoor community. It was found that professionals in this community tend to be more extraverted and open to experience than the control group. These individuals were also found to score lower on neuroticism.

Background: Participation in youth sport is often associated with a variety of positive development outcomes. In order to effectively utilize sport as a context of learning and development, the sport must be intentionally designed and programed. One often-used approach is known as sport-based positive youth development (PYD). Recently, to further enhance the intentionality of a sport-based PYD approach, several researchers have posited the potential benefits of applying experiential learning theory to youth sport programing. Through utilizing experiential learning within a sport-based PYD approach, it is believed youth sport can be designed to intentionally promote desired PYD outcomes. Purpose: Experiential learning theory offers a deep understanding and history of effective youth programing. However, within the field of experiential learning, many different pedagogical approaches exist. To date, sport-based PYD has yet to identify a specific pedagogical approach within experiential learning. In order to be accessible and applicable for youth sport leaders, a more definitive pedagogical approach is needed. One specific application of experiential learning which offers specific programing techniques that are compatible with a sport-based PYD approach is adventure pedagogy. Conclusions: Adventure pedagogy draws from adventure-based learning and adventure-based groupwork. Thus, adventure pedagogy is defined as a participant-centered approach consisting of intentionally designed and sequenced challenging group activities, which, when processed and debriefed, can lead to a shared opportunity for growth and development related to the intrapersonal development and interpersonal skills. Specifically, to enhance the programing and practices of the youth sport leader, this paper identifies key tenets of adventure pedagogy and highlights their applicability within a sport-based PYD approach. These tenets include the promotion of PYD outcomes, physical and emotional safety, intentionally designed activities, sequencing of prescribed activities, a novel learning experiences, intentional facilitation, challenging group activities, real and immediate consequences, and debriefing to transfer learning. Through the integration of adventure and sport-based PYD, youth sport leaders can effectively program and facilitate youth sport to promote desired PYD outcomes.

A number of recent studies have revealed that taking part in a sail-training-based Adventure Education Programme elevates youths' self-esteem. Across two studies, we sought to examine the extent to which youths' sense of belonging contributed to this increase in self-esteem. Study 1 revealed that participants who completed the voyage showed an increase in self-esteem from the first to the last day of the voyage. Partial correlation revealed that group belonging made a unique contribution to this change. Study 2 replicated Study 1 and, further, demonstrated that the relationship between group belonging and self-esteem was not a function of self-efficacy or group esteem. Such findings suggest that an important contributing factor to the benefits of sail-training interventions is their potential to satisfy psychological needs, in this case the need to belong.

This paper addresses pluralistic understandings of wilderness in the context of wilderness therapy (WT). The term wilderness perpetuates a modern worldview of place that beyond 'civilisation' exists an environment defined by risk, fear and an unpredictable nature. WT utilises outdoor travel and living practices during therapeutic intervention and health promotion although empirical justification for its use of wilderness for therapy is not yet established. This paper provides three cultural perspectives on wild places in relation to WT. These national perspectives are informed by local practices, historical and societal understandings of wilderness and supported by related literature from Canada, Norway and Australia. The authors (1) illustrate a number of contemporary western assumptions about wilderness enshrined in the WT and outdoor adventure literature, (2) cautiously propose core purposes for using wild places for therapy and (3) encourage further development of WT practice and research within national, regional and even across organisational contexts.

The purpose of this study was to analyze whether girls' levels of resilience increased after participation in a variety of programs. In this study, 711 girls participated in one of four program types: adventure education (n = 71), experiential education (n = 164), traditional camp setting (n = 228), and mixed camp setting (n = 248). The study compared outcomes across program type to examine whether specific program types were more effective at promoting resilience in girls. The researchers analyzed data using 2 (within subjects; Time: Time 1 vs. Time 2) x 4 (between subjects; Program Type: Adventure Program, Experiential Program, Traditional Camp, and Mixed Camp Program) mixed model ANOVAs. Results indicate small yet significant changes in resilience for adolescent girls in all program settings. However, the degree of difference appears to be influenced by program type.

The purpose of this paper is to explain and establish a link between social-psychological and biological explanations of self-efficacy theory. Specifically, the paper uses a hypothetical rock climbing program to illustrate how a practitioner could enhance the four sources of self-efficacious beliefs (enactive attainment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological state), in a way that would increase the likelihood of releasing four risk/reward brain chemicals (dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin, and endorphin) while decreasing the likelihood of releasing the stress hormone cortisol. By understanding and applying self-efficacy theory at the social-psychological and biological levels--a process called vertical integration--practitioners could improve program implementation and evaluation, thereby enhancing the overall outcomes of their programs. Furthermore, adoption of a vertically integrated self-efficacy theory could help bridge the research--practice gap.

This study reported the group development training results using a digital game-based adventure education course. In the research, six traditional adventure education activities were developed into six digital games that are assembled and practiced in the face-to-face course. The course was designed based on Tuckman's team development model in which students are trained to have positive human interactions and work as a team. With Hill Interaction Matrix (HIM) and focus group, the processes of students' oral interactions in the course were documented and analysed to see each groups' group dynamics and group development conditions. The results showed that groups of all kinds can be developed into effective groups and had positive human interactions after the course.

This article draws on a small survey of Auckland-area early childhood services to explore "tree climbing as curriculum". As well as considering how health and safety issues are understood and managed, it also considers the role/s of early childhood teachers during children's tree climbing, alongside the relevance of folk wisdom about tree climbing offered by historic leaders of the early childhood sector. The capacity to offer very young children access to trees for climbing reflects a matrix of decisions--starting with access to a mature tree. However, centre philosophy plus teacher confidence are also key to children's day-to-day experiences in trees. An ongoing challenge for centre management is the intentional care and management of playground trees.

Recent research underscores the importance of the skills, beliefs and behaviors that support student achievement in the classroom and beyond. This set of intrapersonal and interpersonal assets (e.g. perseverance, grit, social skills, efficacy beliefs and mind-sets) are often referred to as noncognitive factors, as they are not measured directly by traditional academic assessments. Outdoor adventure education (OAE) is well positioned to deliver these desired outcomes--boosting self-confidence, self-efficacy and social skills while developing leadership and communication competencies. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to better understand the form, function and delivery of an effective OAE program/school partnership targeting factors that support student success. Findings explain how shared OAE experiences among adolescent girls attending the same school contribute to greater social connectedness, self-efficacy in leadership competencies, and a recalibrated sense of self and personal potential.

Introduction: Many studies in physical education (PE) have sought to identify and categorize the modes of student interaction in order to gain greater insight into the nature of cooperative activity. More others recent studies have examined how modes of interaction evolve on the basis of the modes of collective activity that they generate. These studies have shown to describe and explain the interactions among individuals and the processes they generate, which then lead to the construction, deconstruction or reconstruction of different interaction modes. Although some studies have sought to describe the dynamics of student interactions, very few have quantified these dynamics. By doing so, however, researchers might gain a new perspective on student interaction modes that inspires new designs for teaching in PE, thereby having professional impact. The present study extends this research by investigating the dynamics of student interaction, with a focus on the emergence of interaction modes during orienteering lessons. For this purpose, the study was conducted within the methodological framework of course of action theory, which is an effective approach for examining activity in natural situations to provide insight into the experience of activity from the actors perspective. Method: The study was conducted in two classes of seventh-grade students (about 12 years old) in which 16 students volunteered and were available for post-action interviews immediately after the lessons under study. These volunteers were placed in eight affinity-based dyads. The teachers planned orienteering lessons at similar levels of difficulty and duration but modified the lessons across a range of contextual features. Two categories of data were collected: (1) data from audiovisual recordings as the students searched for the checkpoints and (2) verbalization data during the post-action interviews with the students. The data were processed in two steps: one qualitative, the other quantitative. The qualitative step consisted of processing the data of the student experiences to characterize their interactions in the three different contexts. In the quantitative step, the data from the first step were graphically represented to depict the interaction dynamics within the student dyads. Results and discussion: The qualitative analysis showed the emergence of three modes of student interaction shared across each learning context: co-construction, confrontation and delegation. The quantitative analysis revealed the percentages of the different modes of interaction and therefore characterized the interaction dynamics. Our results showed that the interaction dynamics within the dyads were both unique and similar in the task contexts in terms of both ratios of change and distribution. Results are discussed across two major points of interest: (1) the observation of the same interaction modes whatever the context yet with quite different dynamics and (2) proposals for PE teacher interventions.

Outdoor adventure education (OAE) is philosophically rooted in Western values, yet it has been implemented in non-Western cultures, such as East Asia. This paper examines how OAE functions in East Asia, through data from Hong Kong. Although some cultural differences are clear, there is no compelling evidence that OAE cannot provide benefits in Eastern contexts. The data in our example support the premise that OAE can be a viable and valuable medium for the development of social and intrapersonal skills and may serve as a complementary approach to traditional schooling in East Asia. Implications from this paper include better aligning OAE with schools and teachers, understanding the merits of relationships developed through OAE, and appreciating that some traditional OAE practices should be questioned when exported to different cultures.

With the increased emphasis on sustainability and place-based education, along with a heightened sense of awareness of diversity and inclusion issues in outdoor education, the time has come to critically examine the long-held trip and expedition construct within the outdoor education field. This paper will explore the theoretical influences of Romanticism on the field and connect these influences to long-standing and unresolved issues of diversity and inclusion in outdoor education. Using the romantic concept of the "sublime," I argue that outdoor and adventure education have traditionally settled around the organizing motif of the trip and the expedition in contrast with local and everyday experiences, and as a result, these frameworks have caused the field to miss opportunities for wider acceptance and usage as well as solidarity with like-minded pedagogies in environmental and place-based education. In this paper, I claim that a critical awareness of the romantic legacy, combined with a renewed focus on the concept of place and everyday experiences, will allow the fields of outdoor and adventure education to expand in influence and inclusion.

In this paper we sought to understand how teachers chose to integrate a hybrid online education program in their classrooms, how students responded to this choice, and how students' experiences were influenced by the integration model chosen by the teachers. Data collected via classroom observations, personal interviews, and focus groups suggest four integration models: curriculum-based, activities-based, standards-based, and media-based. We discuss these models in the context of hybrid online education and particularly in adventure learning. Finally, we provide recommendations for the design, development, implementation, and integration of hybrid online education programs. (Contains 1 table and 3 notes.)

For the purpose of this research project an outdoor education program was developed for students (aged between 10-14) displaying signs of emotional difficulties in engaging with school and family life. The project investigated the effective use of an Integrated Adventure Based Educational program delivered in a complimentary milieu of classroom, outdoor and "wilderness" venues. Participants of the Adventure Based Learning Experience (ABLE) program reported positive change. In interview, 86% of the students reported that their self-confidence had improved, 95% reported feeling more comfortable at school, and 64% believed that they had become more aware of the needs of others. Furthermore, 88% say that they have an increased ability to regulate their emotions, and 75% say they have experienced more positive interactions with their family since participating in the program. Outdoor education proponents have argued that a systematic approach to experiential learning through challenge can develop participants trust, social competence and group cohesion. This study demonstrates significant gains in social competence for 22 Year 8 students participating in the ABLE program as compared to the control groups.

In this article, the author uses his own personal experiences to illustrate how many backcountry expeditions emphasize quantity rather than quality of experience. He discusses why this is counter-productive to the goals of outdoor education in many settings, and how this leads to the gap that he often encounters between what is practiced and what is preached. From there, he suggests questions for the reader to reflect upon and different ways of knowing that have helped his own expedition experiences with students. He provides a "day in the life" itinerary to better illustrate some of his points. Concluding this article are some final reflective thoughts about the potential consequences of continuing to teach and lead expedition experiences based on quantity rather than quality.

A study of outdoor adventure risk management education was conducted in the fall of 2003 following the devastating avalanche season of winter 2002-2003, which took close to 50 lives in North America. The study was guided by the desire to better understand effective risk management training of outdoor adventure leaders in postsecondary institutions. Interviews with six industry-recognized outdoor adventure experts were conducted, yielding guidelines for postsecondary curriculum design. Although specifically addressing risk management curriculum, the resulting "Principles of Curriculum Design" are deemed applicable to other facets of outdoor adventure education. It was not the intent of this study to identify or articulate specific curricular content, but rather to highlight the means by which postsecondary programs can most effectively prepare future outdoor adventure leaders to assess and manage risk professionals. This research note provides a brief synopsis of the study and its findings, while full results have been published in the "Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning" (Harper & Robinson, 2005).

In this article, the authors describe a leadership experience that allows hard of hearing students to learn from the diverse identities of their peers. They describe a Youth Leadership Retreat for mainstream students that includes motivational speeches, adventure learning, ropes courses, team building activities, reflective and small group discussions, mentoring, games, skits, dancing, and just plain fun. Key elements that contribute to the model's uniqueness and success are discussed.

Historically, land-grant university research stations focused on demonstrating successful farming methods. The land-grant mission and the principles at its foundation have broad applicability, and we believe the land-grant principles can be successfully applied in urban settings to a university's work with youth and families. In this article we describe our work at Adventure Central, which has become a demonstration plot to learn about and share what works for youth and family programming. We describe the program components and lessons learned from being engaged with youth on a daily basis for the past six years. We argue that Adventure Central is an example of how extension remains relevant to the needs of today's society and serves as a model of outreach and engagement by extending the lessons learned to benefit other youth development efforts.

All forms of organized outdoor activity can--and perhaps should--be evaluated as if they were environmental education, because they may significantly generate and distribute knowledge of, beliefs about, and attitudes towards particular places. Safety guidelines for outdoor activities provide one possible indication of hidden "environmental education" (or mis-education) curriculum in outdoor activities. This article uses historical examples to show how the perspective of an outsider or stranger can be normalized in outdoor activities, and shows how militaristic approaches to places or environments can be discerned in outdoor safety guidelines.

School counselors can utilize adventure-based counseling techniques to improve and enhance the delivery of their guidance curriculum for students in small or large group guidance. The purpose of this article is to provide a summary of how the "National Standards for School Counseling Programs" can provide outcome objectives for school counselors and students who participate in adventure-based counseling interventions.