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With the development and application of computer network technology, the threat of network security is getting worse. SQL inpouring attack, ARP cheat, DNS cheat and various attacks of denial service occur frequently, such as SYN flood attack. This paper presented the design of detection and defense system of SYN flood attacks on Winpcap platform. The system includes three modules, such as sniffer module, analysis module and active defense module. Simulation results show that the detection rate of system is high, it can provide reference for tracking SYN flood attack.

Aiming at the single-point vulnerability such as tampering attack of SDN controllers, current solutions have passive defense defects and cannot solve the security problem of control layer fundamentally. Combined with state-of-the-art moving target defense, cyber mimic defense, and other active defense technologies, we present a security scheduling mechanism with heterogeneous redundant structure, which provides system dynamics and diversity for improved security. We also consider the load factor while designing the scheduling algorithm in our model, thus transforming it into a dynamic optimization problem. Several solutions are compared in terms of anti-attack capability, and simulation results show that proactive scheduling strategies can obviously improve system security as dynamic and diversity properties block the adversary’s attack process.

In the previous chapter, we were introduced to active defense among numerous other approaches. Now is a good time we explore active defense techniques in detail. These are automated- and human-directed activities that attempt to thwart cyberattacks by increasing the diversity, complexity, or variability of the systems and networks. These limit the attacker’s ability to gather intelligence or reduce the usable life-span of the intelligence. Other approaches focus on gathering intelligence on the attackers, either by attracting attackers to instrumented honeypots or by patrolling the systems and networks to hunt for attackers. The intelligence gathering approaches rely upon cybersecurity personnel using semiautomated techniques to respond and repel attackers. Widely available commercial solutions for active defense so far are lacking. Although general purpose products may emerge, meanwhile organizations need to tailor their applications for available solutions or develop their own customized active defense. A successfully architected system or application should include passive defenses, which add protection without requiring human interaction, as well as active defenses.

Over the last few years, the international community has devoted much attention to the topic of "international cyber norms". However, there appears to be a fundamental tension between these norm-development efforts and their real-world application as effective tools to reduce cyber risk and deter or prevent malicious state and non-state actors. Furthermore, in the current geopolitical climate, a broad agreement on global cyber norms seems improbable, as suggested by the lack of consensus in the course of the UN GGE 2017 process. In the meantime, government officials tasked with developing and deploying cybersecurity policy and law face day-to-day challenges and are operating on a different track. Questions continuously arise with respect to the role of the state in formulating cybersecurity standards, information sharing, active defense and privacy protection. These questions are dealt with mostly in the "civilian" cybersecurity sphere and are occurring largely under the radar of the global "international cyber norms" community. Against this backdrop, the paper suggests a shift in the approach to cyber norms. Its central thesis is that, at this juncture, rather than attempting to create a set of pre-defined aspirational norms aimed at achieving global stability, the international community should pay greater attention to discussions that are already occurring between cybersecurity regulators/authorities and should proactively support such discussions. Incremental and "bottom-up" processes, covering technical, policy and legal challenges at the domestic level, create fertile grounds for discussions that can be scaled up. This civilian, bottom-up approach is admittedly more mundane than the “aspirational cyber norms” track. Both tracks can and should continue to coexist in parallel, though the “civilian” track is more likely to result in a common taxonomy, legal/policy interoperability or common understandings that states can readily endorse, all of which could potentially ultimately lead to norms that enhance cybersecurity more pragmatically.

Scientific organizational and legal approaches are analyzed in relation to forming in the sector of safety and defensive ofUkraineof strategy of peaceful opposition and counteraction to the aggressor., Проанализированы научные и организационно-правовые подходы относительно формирования в секторе безопасности и обороны Украины стратегии мирного противостояния и противодействия агрессору., Проаналізовані наукові та організаційно-правові підходи щодо формування в секторі безпеки і оборони України стратегії мирного протистояння та протидії агресору.

Over the last few years, cyber attacks have become increasingly sophisticated. PDF malware – a continuously effective method of attack due to the difficulty of classifying malicious files – is a popular target of study within the field of machine learning for cybersecurity. The obstacles to using machine learning are many: attack patterns change over time as attackers change their behavior (sometimes automatically), and application security systems are deployed in a highly resource-constrained environments, meaning that an accurate but time-consuming machine learning cannot be deployed.

As an active defense technique to change asymmetry in cyberattack-defense confrontation, moving target defense research has become one of the hot spots. In order to gain better understanding of moving target defense, background knowledge and inspiration are expounded at first. Based on it, the concept of moving target defense is analyzed. Secondly, literature analysis method is adopted to explain the design principles and system architecture of moving target defense. In addition, some relevant key techniques are introduced from the aspects of strategy generation, shuffling implementation, and performance evaluation. After that, the applications of moving target defense in different network architectures are illustrated. Finally, existing problems and future trend in this field are elaborated so as to provide a basis for further study.

Although one segment of the proactive cybersecurity debate—e.g., hack back—has long been derided as a policy option carrying with it great risks of escalation, among other concerns, elements within the U.S. Congress and abroad are actively pushing to give companies a freer hand at defending themselves against cyber attackers. This Article compares several of these efforts, focusing on the so-called Graves bill in the United States with the experiences of China, Singapore, Thailand, Australia, and the G7. Given the Republican National Committee’s 2016 embrace of active defense principles, even as some firms like FireEye have begun to publicly admit to hacking back, the time has come to take a fresh look at the implications of this regulatory trend for both business integrity and international security.

This study investigated the influence of the estrus cycle in mediating cat odor-induced unconditioned and conditioned defensive behaviors in female Long-Evans hooded rats. Unconditioned defensive behaviors were assessed during predatory cue exposure; conditioned defensive behaviors were examined 24 h after threat exposure. Estrus phases were determined by microscopic examination of vaginal smears within 10 min of completing the behavioral tests. Compared to no-odor controls, female rats exposed to cat odor exhibited both unconditioned and conditioned defensive behaviors, including elevated levels of freezing, risk assessment and avoidance. Rats in proestrus and estrus exhibited reduced levels of defensive behavior during the unconditioned test trial compared to subjects in diestrus and metestrus. Specifically, estrus stages characterized by high levels of circulating estrogens and progesterone were associated with reduced immobility (i.e. freezing) and enhanced active defense (i.e. risk assessment), profiles that may enable mate seeking and subsequent reproduction in potentially dangerous or novel environments. These results suggest a specific role for ovarian hormone fluctuations in mediating unconditioned fear- and anxiety-like defensive behaviors during exposure to predatory odors.

An active defense scheme in which a ballistic missile launches a defending missile to intercept the incoming intercepting missile is considered. Compared with traditional passive evasion strategies, the active defense scheme can greatly increase the ballistic missile’s survival rate. Different from many terminal guidance laws using the line-of-sight nullifying strategy, a triangle-based guidance strategy by which the defender tries to keep itself on the line-of-sight connecting the target and the incoming intercepting missile is used to design a guidance law. With such a strategy, it is proved that the interceptor’s composite acceleration can be very small due to the acceleration cancellation in the target–interceptor line-of-sight frame and the defender–interceptor line-of-sight frame, meaning that the defender can catch the interceptor with small maneuverability. Based on this strategy, an adaptive nonsingular terminal sliding mode based cooperative guidance law is proposed treating the interceptor’s acceleration as an unknown bounded external disturbance. Simulation results show the high performance of the proposed guidance law.

In recent years, as a cultural carrier, the network has expanded rapidly in China. "Cultural safety" issue has become a major problem in the process of China's cultural reform and cultural industry development, and it has caused the government sector as well as academic attention. From technical, legal, cultural environment of network management, increasing awareness, and other levels, combined static and dynamic passive defense, active defense aspects, this article innovatively combined a variety of network safety defense sub-culture system and proposed a network culture safety active prevention system.

With the rapid development of network technology, the network security related threats are more and more serious at present. To guarantee the security of the network, now the main defense technology is static, but the static defense technology don’t change with the corresponding preventive measures change and unable to attack intention and attack strategies. Based on the analysis of the current situation, this paper mainly analyses the dynamic non cooperative game theory, and applied the theory to network security prevention, and achieved good results.

Active defense (AD) is a new method for protecting military vehicles. Instead of using thick and extremely heavy armors, the actively protected vehicles monitor approaching threatening missiles and de-active them by a suitable active counter-measures. The majority of AD systems is based on radar sensors capable of detecting the concerned missiles and measuring their parameters important for the protective functions. Often, these radar sensors are required to operate in a near-zone (from zero to tens of meters) and find and track relatively small and fast-flying targets. Beside that, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the velocity of the monitored targets can instantaneously vary. This problem especially refers to ignition of rocket engines which can abruptly introduce extremely high accelerations. If the concerned radar sensors employ signal-processing methods based on Kalman filtration, these high-order time-derivatives can cause substantial convergence problems. The main purpose of this article is to present the newly developed adaptable filtering which can reduce these effects. The designed procedures were verified using practically recorded data from flight of RPG-7 missiles.

Military active defense systems are based on the detection of threatening missiles and their de-activation by suitable counter-measures. Often, these defense systems are based on microwave radar sensors. Practical tests indicate that when detecting threatening missiles, the process can be complicated by frequent false targets. In this work, we show that these false targets can disrupt the convergence of a Kalman filtration process for effective counter-measure actuation. More detailed analyses led to conclusions that generation of false targets is caused by two different physical phenomena. Their description and proposals how to suppress their negative influences represent the main topics of this paper.

Industrial control systems (ICS) are designed to be resilient, capable of recovering from process faults and failures with limited impact to operations. Current ICS resiliency strategies use redundant PLCs. However, these redundant PLCs, being of similar make and model, can be exploited by the same cyber attack, defeating the ICS's resiliency strategy. This research proposes a resiliency strategy for ICS that employs an active defense technique to remove the cyber common cause failure. The resiliency of the active defense strategy is compared to traditional ICS resiliency by implementing both strategies in a semi-simulated wastewater treatment plant aeration basin that experiences a cyber attack. The active defense technique was shown to maintain effective treatment of the wastewater through the cyber attack where the traditional implementation allowed a process disruption that prevented the effective treatment of the wastewater.

Ever since the 19th century, French and British scholars have been interested in Caesar’s campaigning du- ring the Gallic war. In reconstructing the famous sieges by means of which he conquered Gaul, we can see, however, that most authors look at the war from the Roman side. The way the Gauls defended themselves against the Romans is rarely examined. The methods of defence they deployed in the course of the sieges can be partially inferred from Caesar’s text, which gives us a few clues here and there about the way in which the Gauls used their forti cations in the heat of action. Archaeological research on Iron Age ramparts means that we now have a far better understanding of both the architecture and the functioning of the defensive works constructed by the Gauls. Even if some ramparts may have been built in peacetime, as with some muri gallici, the enormous dump ramparts of central France are truly technological undertakings clearly conceived for war. This applies particularly to forti cations in the territory of the Bituriges, whose main centre, Bourges – ancient Avaricum, was besieged by Caesar in 52 BC. One of the largest civitates in Gaul in the 1st century BC, their territory boasts a series of late Iron Age forti cations which have been studied and excavated for more than 40 years (Bourges, Levroux, Châteaumeillant, Argentomagus and Hérisson).This talk presents the results of recent excavations on the ramparts of central France and will show that the Gauls mastered a speci c technology combining architectural design and military ingenuity. By bringing to- gether the archaeological evidence and the textual sources, we can examine the forti cations in the light of the defensive tactics employed by the Gauls. In particular, we will see that the dump rampart, the ultimate Celtic model, is not simply a mound of earth. On the contrary, it embodies the implementation of a sophisti- cated technology at the heart of which the murus gallicus was an important asset for thwarting the Romans’ saps and mines., Depuis le 19e siècle, de nombreux savants français et britanniques se sont interrogés sur les stratégies de César pendant la guerre des Gaules. En reconstituant les célèbres sièges qui lui ont permis de vaincre les Gaulois, on remarque que les auteurs se placent toujours du côté des Romains pour expliquer comment ils ont gagné la guerre. Mais la manière dont les Gaulois se sont défendus contre les Romains n’a été que peu étudiée. Les modes de défense qu’ils déployaient au cours des sièges peuvent être partiellement reconstitués à partir du texte de César qui donne quelques indications ici ou là. Ces allusions permettent essentiellement de comprendre la manière dont les Gaulois utilisaient leurs forti cations dans le feu de l’action. Parallèle- ment, grâce aux progrès des recherches archéologiques sur les remparts de l’âge du Fer on connait désormais de mieux en mieux l’architecture et la fonction des ouvrages défensifs construits par les Gaulois. Si certains remparts ont pu être édi és en temps de paix comme certains muri gallici, les énormes remparts massifs du Centre de la France sont de véritables ouvrages technologiques conçus pour la guerre. C’est le cas des forti cations du territoire des Bituriges dont la ville principale est Bourges, l’ancienne Avaricum assiégée par César en 52 BC. Ce territoire correspond à l’une des plus vastes civitates de la Gaule au Ier s. BC et comprend une série de forti cations qui ont fait l’objet d’études et de fouilles depuis plus de 40 ans (Bourges, Levroux, Châteaumeillant, Argentomagus, Hérisson...).Cette conférence présentera les résultats des fouilles archéologiques récentes sur les remparts du Centre de la France et montrera que les Gaulois maitrisaient une technologie spéci que combinant projet architectural et ingénierie militaire. En combinant les données archéologiques et les sources textuelles, nous examinerons également les fonctions des forti cations à la lumière des tactiques défensives déployées par les Gaulois. On verra en particulier que le rempart massif, ultime modèle celtique, n’est pas qu’un simple talus de terre. Il révèle au contraire la mise en œuvre d’une technologie élaborée au sein de laquelle le murus gallicus peut devenir un atout essentiel pour faire échec aux sapes et aux mines des Romains.

The article of record as published may be found at http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2013.11.004 This essay offers a broad view of active defense derived from the concept of active air and missile defense. This view admits a range of cyber defenses, many of which are widely deployed and considered essential in today’s threat environment. Instead of equating active defense to hacking back, this wider interpretation lends itself to distinguishing different types of active defense and the legal and ethical issues they raise. The essay will review the concepts of active and passive air and missile defenses, apply them to cyberspace, describe a framework for distinguishing different types of active cyber defense, and finally suggest legal and ethical principles for conducting active cyber defense.

Honeypot is a new type of active defense security technologies. This paper attempts to use of data mining methods to be mining and analysis of information collected on the honeypot system. Build a Windows system based on virtual machine technology research honeynet. Data collection be standardized and sequential pattern mining. Finding out the correlation between different data records and frequent with time-based sequence of audit data, which found that,select the law of value of the attack.

Host-pathogen arms race is a universal, central aspect of the evolution of life. Most organisms evolved several distinct yet interacting strategies of anti-pathogen defense including resistance to parasite invasion, innate and adaptive immunity, and programmed cell death (PCD). The PCD is the means of last resort, a suicidal response to infection that is activated when resistance and immunity fail. An infected cell faces a decision between active defense and altruistic suicide or dormancy induction, depending on whether immunity is “deemed” capable of preventing parasite reproduction and consequent infection of other cells. In bacteria and archaea, immunity genes typically colocalize with PCD modules, such as toxins-antitoxins, suggestive of immunity-PCD coupling, likely mediated by shared proteins that sense damage and “predict” the outcome of infections. In type VI CRISPR-Cas systems, the same enzyme that inactivates the target RNA might execute cell suicide, in a case of ultimate integration of immunity and PCD.

Securing cyber system is a major concern as security attacks become more and more sophisticated. We develop in this paper a novel graph-based Active Cyber Defense (ACD) model to proactively respond to cyber attacks. The proposed model is based on the use of a semantically rich graph to describe cyber systems, types of used interconnection between them, and security related data useful to develop active defense strategies. The developed model takes into consideration the probabilistic nature of cyber attacks, and their degree of complexity. In this context, analytics are provided to proactively test the impact of vulnerabilities/threats increase on the system, analyze the consequent behavior of cyber systems and security solution, and decide about the security state of the whole cyber system. Our model integrates in the same framework decisions made by cyber defenders based on their expertise and knowledge, and decisions that are automatically generated using security analytic rules.

We compared the antipredation behavior of the red-backed shrike against five European corvids including the jay, nutcracker, rook, crow, and raven. These species differ in body size and in the proportion of eggs and nestlings in their diets. The jay and nutcracker are the smallest, the rook and crow are middle-sized, and the raven being the largest corvid of all. The jay, crow, and raven are habitual nest predators, whereas the nutcracker and rook are not. The harmless pigeon was presented as a control. We analyzed (1) the number of attacks executed by shrikes against intruder presented close to shrike nests and (2) the distance between the intruder and the shrikes during the trial. The small corvids (the jay and nutcracker) were attacked significantly more intensively than the other, larger, corvids (the rook, crow, and raven) and pigeon control. All three large corvids were attacked as exceptionally as the pigeon. Shrikes approached closer to the small corvids and the pigeon than to the large corvids. These results imply that shrike antipredation strategy is adjusted to intruder size, but not to the level of intruder nest plundering specialization. Shrikes weigh up their ability to chase a given intruder away and avoid pointless aggression against large, undefeatable, intruders. This suggests that shrikes are able to asses not only the dangerousness of the intruder but also the potential advantageousness, or otherwise, of active defense.

Plants recognize certain microbial compounds as elicitors of their active defense mechanisms. In the present study, NUBS-4190, a synthetic bis-aryl-methanone compound elicited NO and ROS generation in potato suspension cultured cells and intact potato leaves. Hypersensitive cell death was found in these cultured cells and in potato leaves without the accumulation of phytoalexins in the tubers. Defense-related genes such as StrbohB, StrbohC, StNR1, StNR5, Sthsr203J and StPR1 were expressed in potato suspension cultured cells treated with NUBS-4190. Resistance against Phytophthora infestans also increased in NUBS-4190-treated potato leaves.

With the development of network technology, computer crimes occur from time to time. As a mean of active defense in network security aspect, network forensics have been widely studied and used. This thesis detailed introduces some network forensics techniques and methods, advances and analyzes how to design the network forensics system based on the techniques of intrusion tolerance, network monitor and so on.

Under the circumstance of heterogeneous wireless network, the new characteristic of heterogeneous wireless network makes great challenge to the network security. In this paper, we proposed the active defense model based on trust evaluation, introduced sensitive factors and assigned the weight to reflect the trust, through aggregation method, detect the feedback (or recommendation), select the related information, make the model can be dynamic and objective to network status. The simulation result shows that, the proposed model function well, compared with the good and malicious behavior environment.

Active defense is a popular defense technique based on systems that hinder an attacker's progress by design, rather than reactively responding to an attack only after its detection. Well-known active defense systems are honeypots. Honeypots are fake systems, designed to look like real production systems, aimed at trapping an attacker, and analyzing his attack strategy and goals. These types of systems suffer from a major weakness: it is extremely hard to design them in such a way that an attacker cannot distinguish them from a real production system. In this paper, we advocate that, instead of adding additional fake systems in the corporate network, the production systems themselves should be instrumented to provide active defense capabilities. This perspective to active defense allows containing costs and complexity, while at the same time provides the attacker with a more realistic-looking target, and gives the Incident Response Team more time to identify the attacker. The proposed proof-of-concept prototype system can be used to implement active defense in any corporate production network, with little upfront work, and little maintenance.

A defender protects a target from being attacked. It can carry out two kinds of strategies. One is passive defense strategy. The other is active defense strategy. When the defender executes the passive defense strategy, it can deploy camouflage to misinform the attacker. When the defender runs the active defense strategy, it strikes the attacker preventively. Then, the defender will reveals itself and therefore, the attacker detects the target without the intelligence contest. Depending on the strategy chosen by the defender, the attacker should succeed in double contest games to destroy the target. In the case of passive defense it should win the target intelligence and impact contests. In the case of active defense it should win the preventive strike and impact contests. The attacker allocates its resources among the intelligence, the impact and self-protection efforts, whereas the defender distributes its resources among the counter intelligence, protection and the preventive strike efforts. The attacker attempts to maximize the target vulnerability, but oppositely the defender desires to minimize it. The paper develops two non-cooperative two-period minmax games.

Aiming at the shortcomings of traditional lightning protection measures in active defense for lightning accident, it is necessary to carry out studies on lightning warning method. On the basis of lightning warning information, measures can be taken to avoid lightning risk in advance. This paper makes comparative analysis between fair-weather electric field and thunderstorm-weather electric field by using Hilbert-Huang Transform, and analyses their intrinsic oscillation characteristics for lightning warning. Combining the amplitude of atmospheric electric field with its proportion of energy on high frequency band, a lightning warning method is proposed. Then typical thunderstorm-weather is utilized to verify this lightning warning method workable and accurate.

Aim: To evaluate catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) activity in healthy and inflamed dental pulp of young patient’s teeth and to investigate if an active defense system oxidizing agents is present as a response to bacterial invasion. Materials and Methods: Twenty young patients between 15 and 25 ages, who were diagnosed to be healthy, were the source of the pulp tissue. The situation of the dental pulps was evaluated using clinical and radiographic assessments. The patients were divided two groups from healthy, and inflamed pulp tissues were obtained; each participant provided one pulp tissue specimens. The specimens were collected during endodontic treatment or by longitudinally grooving and splitting the teeth (if extracted). Catalase activity was determined through spectrophotometric methods and an independent sample t ‑test assessed the significance of differences between the groups. Results: There was statistically a difference between healthy pulp tissue and inflamed pulp tissue ( P < 0.005, independent sample t ‑test). The catalase activity of healthy group was significantly lower than inflamed pulp groups. Conclusion: The present study has shown that a significant increase in catalase activity is determined in inflamed dental pulps, which is due to pulpitis in comparison to healthy dental pulp. Keywords: Catalase, enzyme, pulp tissues, teeth

This paper introduced the implementation strategy of three points collinear active defense to realize aircraft active defense. Based on the kinetic characteristic of fighter, defending missile, offensive missile, a induce capture aircraft-defending missile synergy active defense method was put forward, which transform the complex air war confront problem between fighter and defending missile and offensive missile into a simple trajectory problem of fighter. A process performance index during the implementation process of active defense strategy was put forward and the different between process performance index and traditional performance index was analyzed. Because of the QPSO arithmetic is a off-line arithmetic, result in the whole process can't be able to be evaluate. So the method of RHC(receding horizon control) was used to maintain process performance index as the optimization index of every receding optimization window. Which solve the disadvantage of QPSO arithmetic and rise its real-time. Simulation was applied to prove the validity of active defense strategy and synergy method, and the effectiveness and accuracy of this arithmetic.

This Paper proposes Web application-oriented active threat awareness model and analyzes the threat features of Web application, which is used for threat intelligence analysis, association analysis and data-driven anomaly detection. So in this paper, we mainly study the threat feature design and selection problem in the web application, which will be used for threat awareness system to improve the active defense ability.

The Internet is a man-made complex system under constant attacks (e.g., Advanced Persistent Threats and malwares). It is therefore important to understand the phenomena that can be induced by the interaction between cyber attacks and cyber defenses. In this paper, we explore the rich phenomena that can be exhibited when the defender employs active defense to combat cyber attacks. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that shows that {\em active cyber defense dynamics} (or more generally, {\em cybersecurity dynamics}) can exhibit the bifurcation and chaos phenomena. This has profound implications for cyber security measurement and prediction: (i) it is infeasible (or even impossible) to accurately measure and predict cyber security under certain circumstances; (ii) the defender must manipulate the dynamics to avoid such {\em unmanageable situations} in real-life defense operations., Proceedings of 2015 Symposium on the Science of Security (HotSoS'15)

A printed circuit board (PCB) acts as the backbone of any electronic system hardware by providing mechanical support and electrical connections to its active and passive components. Traditionally, the PCB of a system has been considered trusted and robust during field operation. However, there are numerous recent reports on physical tampering of PCB in the field for malicious alteration of its functionality (e.g. adding/replacing a component through soldering, snooping a trace, and bypassing a connection). Through such alteration, an adversary can leak secret information from PCB or bypass security protection implemented in a system. This paper presents a novel approach to detect tampering in a PCB after it is deployed and to actively prevent system operation when tampering is detected. To our knowledge, this is the first report on active protection against PCB tampering in field. The proposed autonomous monitoring and prevention can enable active defense against physical tampering of electronic hardware, thus maintaining the integrity of a system against various security issues arising from such tampering.

This study begins to offer a tangible definition and operationalization of the required level of preparedness for safely staying and defending a property by householders in Australian wildfires. A consultative workshop was conducted with a taskforce of national experts from Australia seeking to obtain consensus on the critical nature of a wide-ranging list of preparatory actions. An innovative methodology was employed to account for the potential relationship between the desired levels of preparedness and Fire Danger Ratings (FDRs), the indicator of fire weather intensity, as was long suggested by Australian fire agencies. The resultant model includes a checklist of critical preparatory actions for each FDR that portrays a minimum and essential preparatory condition to guide an individual’s decision to stay and defend under the given fire condition. While the definition presented here does not provide a unique solution to ensure the safety of active defense under all household scenarios, it delive...

The cyber domain exhibits a sovereignty gap: the government cannot protect the private sector against all relevant threats. The challenge of cybersecurity, therefore, is essentially one of civil defense: how to equip the private sector to protect its own computer systems in the absence of decisive government involvement. Ordinarily, civil defense in the new domain has involved passive measures, such as resilience and redundancy. Passive measures, however, will not redress the sovereignty gap unless they are complemented by a proactive approach — especially the techniques of “active defense,” which attempt to neutralize threats before they are carried out. Yet presently the authority to implement active defense belongs exclusively to the government. Top officials in the United States and other countries have called for changes in law and policy that would bolster the private sector’s ability to conduct active defense, such as by inserting web beacons or disabling external hostile machines. This paper explores the possible strategic and other consequences of arming the civilian quarters of cyberspace with active defense capabilities. It argues that while the potential defensive and other benefits of private-sector arms are significant, the risks to defenders, innocent third parties, and international conflict stability are notably greater. Cyber civil defense, in short, should remain a reactive enterprise. The paper also explores the meaning of active defense — an ambiguous and contested notion that lies at the heart of contemporary debates about cyber strategy and policy in the Journal of Cybersecurity. Some observers claim that active defense involves actions taken within the defender’s own computer terrain. Others also claim that it entails disruptive action. This paper develops a different definition: it defines active defense as any defensive action — disruptive or undisruptive or both — that a defender conducts beyond the home perimeter.

The respiratory system is permanently exposed to the influence of numerous harmful environmen tal factors: various microbial pathogens, allergens and air pollution, with non-volatile toxic chemicals of tobacco smoke. Therefore, there have been developed several mechanisms protecting from these fac tors. These mechanisms can be classified as innate, non-specific, or acquired, much more specific, which are associated with regular immune response. In this review authors shortly describe the innate, nonspecific mechanisms, which compose the first line of antimicrobial defense in our respiratory system. The mechanisms of innate immunity include passive protection, provided by the mucus-mediated mechan ical barrier. Moreover, by means of active defense, several potent immunoregulatory factors and vari ous substances displaying antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity are also engaged.