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Modeling work by Brian Skyrms and others in recent years has transformed the theoretical role of David Lewis's 1969 model of signaling. The latter can now be understood as a minimal model of communication in all its forms. In this article, we explain how the Lewis model has been generalized, and consider how it and its variants contribute to ongoing debates in several areas. Specifically, we consider connections between the models and four topics: The role of common interest in communication, signaling within the organism, meaning, and the evolution of human communication and language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences is driven by syntax, a cognitive system that can combine a finite number of primitive linguistic elements to build arbitrarily complex expressions. The expressive power of syntax comes in part from its ability to encode potentially unbounded dependencies over abstract structural configurations. How does such a system develop in human minds? We show that 18-mo-old infants are capable of representing abstract nonlocal dependencies, suggesting that a core property of syntax emerges early in development. Our test case is English wh-questions, in which a fronted wh-phrase can act as the argument of a verb at a distance (e.g., What did the chef burn?). Whereas prior work has focused on infants' interpretations of these questions, we introduce a test to probe their underlying syntactic representations, independent of meaning. We ask when infants know that an object wh-phrase and a local object of a verb cannot co-occur because they both express the same argument relation (e.g., *What did the chef burn the pizza). We find that 1) 18 mo olds demonstrate awareness of this complementary distribution pattern and thus represent the nonlocal grammatical dependency between the wh-phrase and the verb, but 2) younger infants do not. These results suggest that the second year of life is a period of active syntactic development, during which the computational capacities for representing nonlocal syntactic dependencies become evident. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A well-known problem for head-final languages is diagnosing rightward head movement. For Germanic OV-languages such as German and Dutch, it has been claimed that there is no evidence for rightward movement of the verb and arguments have been made against such movement. This paper aims to reassess this claim with a focus on German and ultimately argue in favour of head movement to the right. First, I show that the objections raised by Haider against movement to rightward head positions do not provide conclusive evidence against rightward verb movement. Then, I aim to provide arguments in support of rightward verb movement, in particular based on particle verbs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on sentences that have code-mixing and code-switching of Igbo and English. It accounts for how their structural similarities have contributed to mixing of the two languages especially amongst Igbo bilinguals or multilinguals that have proficient knowledge of the languages. Descriptive research design was adopted for the study while Matrix Language Frame of Myers-Scotton (1993) and Speech Act Theory of Austin (1995) were used simultaneously. Data were elicited through the use of audio records; from corpus collected, the researchers abstracted and analysed utterances that are in tandem with the objective of the study. It was discovered that the Igbo language and the English language have structural similarities; simple sentences of the two languages have the SVO or SVC structure. In Igbo, demonstratives succeed nouns they point at while they come before nouns they refer to in English. The study also reveals that a speaker can start with either of the two languages and end with any but most lexical verbs of a code-switched or code-mixed sentence often emerge from the matrix language. Sometimes, it may use a verb form from the embedded language which in turn abandons the feature of the embedded language and embrace the grammatical nature of the matrix language. When the speaker code-switches, he can start with English and end with Igbo or vice versa but when the speaker code-mixes, he can start with either of the two and end with any. Most speakers who code-switch or code-mix the two languages do not do that because of their inability to use any of the languages proficiently but they rather employ them as communication style which enables them to interact with their audience not minding their social status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linguistic deficits attested in children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) have been explained in terms of limitations in working memory (WM). The goal of this research is to assess whether a tailored WM program can improve the syntactic abilities of children with DLD and those with typical development (TD). We created a novel iPad application consisting of five activities specifically designed to train the components of WM that have been shown to be the most predictive of performance on tests assessing complex syntax. Thirty-two children with DLD (M = 9;0) and 18 with TD (M = 8;5) followed the WM training (lasting 12 hours). Results show significant improvement in verbal WM (direct effects) in both TD and DLD groups, and in sentence repetition (transfer effects) in the DLD group, with the most pronounced improvements observed for complex syntactic structures. This progression is not observed for 38 age-matched children of the same age who followed an alternative, global scholastic training (20 DLD, 18 TD), which proves the specific efficacy of our WM training. The logical next step will be to incorporate the training into the therapy of children with DLD in order to reinforce the potential benefit of their interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of observational and experimental data in nonhuman primates has highlighted the presence of rudimentary call combinations within the vocal communication system of monkeys. Such evidence suggests the ability to combine meaning-bearing units into larger structures, a key feature of language also known as syntax, could have its origins rooted within the primate lineage. However, the evolutionary progression of this trait remains ambiguous as evidence for similar combinations in great apes, our closest-living relatives, is sparse and incomplete. In this study, we aimed to bridge this gap by analysing the combinatorial properties of the pant hoot–food call combination in our closest-living relative, the chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes. To systematically investigate the syntactic-like potential of this structure, we adopted three levels of analysis. First, we applied collocation analyses, methods traditionally used in language sciences, to confirm the combination of pant hoots with food calls was not a random co-occurrence, but instead a consistently produced structure. Second, using acoustic analyses, we confirmed pant hoots and food calls comprising the combination were acoustically indistinguishable from the same calls produced in isolation, indicating the pant hoot–food call combination is composed of individually occurring meaning-bearing units, a key criterion of linguistic syntax. Finally, we investigated the context-specific nature of this structure, demonstrating that the call combination was more likely to be produced when feeding on larger patches and when a high-ranking individual joined the feeding party. Together our results converge to provide support for the systematic combination of calls in chimpanzees. We highlight that playback experiments are vital to robustly disentangle both the function this combination might serve and the similarities with combinations of meaning-bearing units (i.e. syntax) in language. • Chimpanzees combine pant hoots with food calls into larger nonrandom structures. • Calls in combinations are acoustically similar to individual ones. • They occur when feeding on large patches and when high-ranked individuals join. • Chimpanzees may combine calls to convey information on both ID and context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of corticostriatal circuits in language functions is unclear. In this review, we consider evidence from language learning, syntax, and controlled language production and comprehension tasks that implicate various corticostriatal circuits. Converging evidence from neuroimaging in healthy individuals, studies in populations with subcortical dysfunction, pharmacological studies, and brain stimulation suggests a domain-general regulatory role of corticostriatal systems in language operations. The role of corticostriatal systems in language operations identified in this review is likely to reflect a broader function of the striatum in responding to uncertainty and conflict which demands selection, sequencing, and cognitive control. We argue that this role is dynamic and varies depending on the degree and form of cognitive control required, which in turn will recruit particular corticostriatal circuits and components organised in a cognitive hierarchy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a computational approach to Arabic syntax. The approach uses the Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) framework. Semantic networks and frames were used to handle computational semantics using lambda notation. This was implemented in Prolog using Definite Clause Grammar (DCG) as a formalism for analyzing and generating syntactic structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kriol is an English-lexified creole spoken throughout the northern regions of Australia since the beginning of the twentieth century. With documentation and description of the language commencing only in the later decades of the twentieth century, many aspects of Kriol grammar remain under-described, especially within the domains of syntax and pragmatics. This study documents and describes subject elision in Kriol, a process where subject NPs are elided in a range of syntactic and discourse contexts. Through qualitative methods we describe the environments wherein subjects are elided and consider the relationship between elision licensed by the syntactic context, and elision licensed by the discourse context. The analysis reveals that subject elision can be licensed through antecedent–anaphora relations at the level of syntax and through the encoding of unambiguous, continued topics following the beginning of a narrative episode at the level of discourse. We then consider the role of substrate and lexifier sources to account for how subject elision categories may have arisen in Kriol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is necessary for the evaluations about the literary works to be built on the language features of the related works. The grammar studies which are based on the texts will enable us to know better the various aspects of the grammar of Turkish language. There were just two copies of Dede Korkut Stories which were known until the end of 2018: Vatican and Dresden copies. In 2019, a new copy was added to these copies: The Book of Dede Korkut Turkestan / Turkmen Sahara Copy Genealogy and the 13th Tribe: Salur Kazan’s Killing the Seven-Headed Dragon. Language is a great set of systems which have its own special characteristics. In this great system that shows itself as knowledge of sound and morphology, syntax forms an important part of this integrity. Syntax is generally analyzed in two main groups itself. Sentence and word groups. In this study, the word groups of the story named Salur Kazan’s Killing the Seven-Headed Dragon have been examined with a descriptive method. It has been tried to reveal the distinctive syntax features of the work itself and the similarities and differences with those of Turkish of Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Reading comprehension is a complex process influenced by many factors. However, the abilities that are known to influence reading comprehension may not contribute equally for children with different levels of oral language. Aims: Here we examined the relationship of two factors known to influence reading comprehension (morphology and syntax) in a group of children who varied in their levels of oral vocabulary. Method: Two hundred seventy‐three typically developing Spanish‐speaking fourth graders were assessed on non‐verbal intelligence, word and pseudoword reading, oral vocabulary, morphological awareness and syntax, along with reading comprehension ability. Standardised oral language scores within this group ranged from the first to the 99th percentile. Mediated multiple regression with moderation was used to assess (1) whether the influence of oral vocabulary on reading comprehension was mediated by decoding, morphology or syntax and (2) whether the effects of syntax on reading comprehension varied as a function of oral vocabulary levels. Results: There was a direct positive relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension, and this was mediated by word reading and syntax, but not by pseudoword reading or morphology. Furthermore, the relation between syntax and reading comprehension was moderated by oral vocabulary such that the strength of this relationship diminished as oral vocabulary levels increased. Conclusions: These findings suggest that longitudinal research is necessary to explore the possibility that a syntax intervention might be beneficial for readers with low oral vocabulary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The wide variation in bifurcation anatomy has generated an ongoing search for stents explicitly designed for coronary bifurcations, and to date, results have been underachieved. Methods: The POLBOS I and POLBOS II were international, multicentre, randomized, open‐label, controlled trials. Patients were randomly assigned to BiOSS Expert (in POLBOS I, biodegradable polymer eluting paclitaxel)/BiOSS LIM (in POLBOS II, biodegradable polymer eluting sirolimus) stent implantation or regular drug‐eluting stent (rDES) deployment. A provisional T‐stenting strategy was the default treatment option. The primary endpoint of this pooled data study was the cumulative rate of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) consisting of cardiac death, myocardial infarction (MI) and target lesion revascularization (TLR). Telephone follow‐up was performed annually up to 72 months. (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: POLBOS I—NCT02192840, POLBOS II—NCT02198300). Results: The total study population consisted of 445 patients, 222 patients in the BiOSS group and 223 patients in the rDES group. The follow‐up rate was 93.7% in the BiOSS group and 91.9% in the rDES group. At 72 months, there was no significant difference between BiOSS and rDES groups regarding MACE (25.7% vs 25.1%, HR 1.06, 95% CI 0.73‐1.52), cardiac death (3.1% vs 4.0%, HR 0.94, 95% CI 0.43‐2.34), MI (3.6% vs 4.9%, HR 0.76, 95% CI 0.32‐2.89), TLR (18.9% vs 16.1%, HR 1.17, 95% CI 0.75‐1.83) and stent thrombosis rates (0.9% vs 0.5%, HR 1.21, 95CI 0.75‐2.09). Conclusions: At the 6‐year follow‐up, clinically significant clinical events did not differ between BiOSS stents and rDES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metaphor of the parsing is a phenomenon called changing the parsing of the word because of deletion or addition, and it is divided into two parts: the metaphor for deletion and the metaphor for addition, and these two types do not enter “the well-known metaphor term” in the science of rhetoric, and therefore the opinions of scholars differed on this metaphor, and they differed in determining its type and position. This research tries to provide evidence that the metaphor of the parsing is a phenomenon related to the characteristics of the structures of the Arabic style, and the phenomena that occur to them such as deletion and addition, so it is better to study in the science of meanings or in the science of grammar, It is not related to metaphor. The research included an introduction to concepts and terminology, and four sections, which dealt with this phenomenon among the rhetoricians and grammarians, and a conclusion with the most important findings of the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The benefit of optimal medical therapy (OMT) on 5-year outcomes in patients with 3-vessel disease and/or left main disease after percutaneous coronary intervention or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) was demonstrated in the randomized SYNTAX (Synergy Between PCI With Taxus and Cardiac Surgery) trial.Objectives: The objective of this analysis is to assess the impact of the status of OMT at 5 years on 10-year mortality after percutaneous coronary intervention or CABG.Methods: This is a subanalysis of the SYNTAXES (Synergy Between PCI With Taxus and Cardiac Surgery Extended Survival) study, which evaluated for up to 10 years the vital status of patients who were originally enrolled in the SYNTAX trial. OMT was defined as the combination of 4 types of medications: at least 1 antiplatelet drug, statin, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker, and beta-blocker. After stratifying participants by the number of individual OMT agents at 5 years and randomized treatment, a landmark analysis was conducted to assess the association between treatment response and 10-year mortality.Results: In 1,472 patients, patients on OMT at 5 years had a significantly lower mortality at 10 years compared with those on ≤2 types of medications (13.1% vs 19.9%; adjusted HR: 0.470; 95% CI: 0.292-0.757; P = 0.002) but had a mortality similar to those on 3 types of medications. Furthermore, patients undergoing CABG with the individual OMT agents, antiplatelet drug and statin, at 5 years had lower 10-year mortality than those without.Conclusions: In patients with 3-vessel and/or left main disease undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention or CABG, medication status at 5 years had a significant impact on 10-year mortality. Patients on OMT with guideline-recommended pharmacologic therapy at 5 years had a survival benefit. (Synergy Between PCI With Taxus and Cardiac Surgery: SYNTAX Extended Survival [SYNTAXES]; NCT03417050; Taxus Drug-Eluting Stent Versus Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery for the Treatment of Narrowed Arteries [SYNTAX]; NCT00114972). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This squib documents exceptions to the main strategy of expressing sentential negation in Russian Sign Language (RSL). The postverbal sentential negation particle in RSL inverts the basic SVO order characteristic of the language turning it into SOV (Pasalskaya 2018a). We show that this reversal requirement under negation is not absolute and does not apply to prosodically heavy object NPs. The resulting picture accords well with the view of RSL word order laid out by Kimmelman (2012) and supports a model of grammar where syntactic computation has access to phonological information (Kremers 2014; Bruening 2019). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Matrix syntax is a formal model of syntactic relations in language. The resulting mathematical structure resembles some aspects of quantum mechanics. Matrix syntax allows us to describe a number of language phenomena that are otherwise very difficult to explain, such as linguistic chains, and is arguably a more economical theory of language than most of the theories proposed in the context of the minimalist program in linguistics. In particular, sentences are naturally modeled as vectors in a Hilbert space with a tensor product structure, built from 2x2 matrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we analyze the perfective progressive periphrasis (PPP) in Brazilian Portuguese (BrP) and Argentinian Spanish (AS) in a comparative way. Based on different linguistic tests, we make two statements regarding the PPP in comparison with the imperfective progressive periphrasis (IPP). Firstly, we claim that the PPP has a progressive and perfective meaning. Secondly, we claim that the PPP allows iterative readings when combined with telic events (i.e., achievements in BrP and AS and accomplishments just in AS). We propose a syntactic and semantic analysis which accounts for these observations in a compositional way: while the gerund form expresses a progressive meaning (present in both periphrases), the auxiliary on the PPP expresses a perfective meaning which allows the iterative readings observed in this periphrasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Biomarkers are useful measures assisting the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of cardiovascular diseases. They can predict the severity of cardiovascular diseases, especially in acute myocardial infarction at the emergency department. We aimed to investigate the severity of cardiovascular disease using three biomarkers, namely cardiac troponins, C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction who presented to the emergency department. Material and Methods: The study included a total of 166 patients that presented with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) in the first three hours of symptom onset and underwent coronary angiography. SYNTAX (SS) scores were calculated, and based on these scores, two groups were formed. High-sensitivity troponin T (Hs- TnT), high-sensitivite CRP (Hs-CRP), and procalcitonin levels were measured at the presentation. Results: Although the high sensitive troponin, Hs-CRP values were higher in the SYNTAX score>20 groups, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups. There was no significant difference in the PCT measurements between the two groups Conclusion: When Hs-TnT and Hs-CRP are evaluated together in patients with STEMI with a high SS, it may be predictive in early determining the severity of coronary artery disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we return to the question of the use of te, the Italian personal pronoun, as subject instead of complement. According to scientific literature, the diffusion of te in substitution of tu as the subject of the clause is attributed to the spoken variety of language. We aim at verifying this hypothesis and to further document the use of te as subject using existing corpora of both written and spoken language. The research considers old and new issues (for example the diffusion of the coordinative phrase io e te instead of io e tu, on which see Blasco Ferrer, 1992) and intends to represent the phenomenon in quantitative and qualitative terms. In the conclusions it is stated that the phenomenon, even better represented in the spoken versus the written, seems diachronically stable, and sensitive to diatopic factors. The most significant results of the current research consist in having evaluated the presence of the phenomenon separately in the different constructs in which it occurs, and in having identified other contexts of attestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The verbal complement clause is a principal element of sentence structure that cannot be omitted. A major category of potential complications is elicited by the structural positioning of clausal complements. The determiner phrase embedded complementizer argument is preverbally base generated. In the case of the resistance principle, the tensed (bare) clausal complements must not occupy a cased marked position at some point of derivation. Thus, the bare complementizer phrase argument is positioned to the right of the verb, and the head verb encompasses different properties. This article examines the topicalization of the complement clause, the topicalizing of the constituent verbal (bare) complement clause, the appearance of the topic marker "ra" as well as the case marker "ra", and two types of the pronominal enclitic, one base generated and the other a copy of the moved constituent. The study demonstrates the Persian word order mix, the head parameter, and the discourse status of "ra" and "ke". This study uses data analysis to investigate in some detail the relationship between information structure and grammatical associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To estimate comparative efficiency of voice recognition system Voice Recognition System (VRS) and Medical Transcriptionist (MT) by qualitative and quantitative assessment of errors in Radiology Reports at Cross-Sectional Imaging. Study Design: Prospective cross-sectional study. Place and Duration: Dow Institute of Radiology, DUHS; from 1st February to 30th April 2020. Methodology Total consecutive criteria 201 cross-sectional reports were included in the study, these cases dictated by Radiologists and transcribed by Medical Transcriptionist were re-phonated on Voice Recognition System (VRS); the outcome of these reports were saved on Microsoft word files. Voice Recognition USB Headset and the microphone-both systems were analyzed for the functionality of VRS. Data was further categorized into CT and MRI long and short cases; error types and frequency were recorded. Results: Mean Error rate (MER) of the Reports for voice recognition system (n=201) was 15.2% +/- 12.3 (S.D.) while that for Medical Transcriptionist (n=201) was 2% +/- 1.94 (S.D.). Independent t-test showed statistically significant greater Error Rate for VRS as compared to MT; [p-value 0.000]. A linear positive correlation was seen between no. of errors and total word count. There was no statistically significant difference between no. of errors for CT category as compared to MRI category, but regarding the error rate of MT and VRS Reports for MRI reports; there was a significant association of MER in the long cases as compared to short cases. In voice recognition system Reports, syntactic errors were found in a total of 184 Reports whereas semantic errors were found in a total of 82 reports. Typographical type error was the leading error seen in 175 Reports In Medical Transcriptionist reports; Syntactic and Semantic errors were seen in only a few Reports (14); [p-value-0.022]. Conclusion: Medical Transcriptionist was found to have higher efficacy as compared to Voice recognition. VR has a significantly high frequency of error rate as compared to MT, deeming it unsuitable for implementation in cross-sectional imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metaphor of the parsing is a phenomenon called changing the parsing of the word because of deletion or addition, and it is divided into two parts: the metaphor for deletion and the metaphor for addition, and these two types do not enter “the well-known metaphor term” in the science of rhetoric, and therefore the opinions of scholars differed on this metaphor, and they differed in determining its type and position. This research tries to provide evidence that the metaphor of the parsing is a phenomenon related to the characteristics of the structures of the Arabic style, and the phenomena that occur to them such as deletion and addition, so it is better to study in the science of meanings or in the science of grammar, It is not related to metaphor. The research included an introduction to concepts and terminology, and four sections, which dealt with this phenomenon among the rhetoricians and grammarians, and a conclusion with the most important findings of the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates complement clauses, i.e., clauses entering an argument slot of a complement taking predicate, in Ötämiš Ḥājjī's Čingiz-nāmä, a 16th century Middle Turkic text from Khiva which demonstrates Qipchaq linguistic features. Three major classes of complementation will be investigated: direct quotations, propositional-type complement clauses, and state of affairs-type complement clauses. The multitude of surface forms will be encoded into abstract structural types which enable structural comparison. The aim is to establish the inventories of expression types for each class, to give representative examples for each type, and to compare the typological inventories. Besides the formal aspects, semantic issues are investigated as well. The aim of the paper is to provide data for synchronic comparison, and ultimately to contribute to our understanding of the evolution of the variation in clausal complementation among the Modern Turkic languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the Narrator in Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742) explains: "Those little Spaces between our Chapters may be looked upon as an Inn or Resting-Place." An inn is a prepositional sort of building: it is between here and there; one travels to or from it; it links villages and towns and cities; it is on the road and on the way. Inns became increasingly important in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century landscapes, depending commercially on their architectural uniqueness, even eccentricity. This essay examines the ways in which Fielding's textual structures borrow the architectural as well as syntactical grammar of inns as part of a distinctly modern effort (in the words of the landscape gardener John Claudius Loudon) to "form new combinations on every movement of the spectator" (1806). From chapter headings, tables of contents, and spatial descriptions, on the one hand, to the shapes of syntax, paragraph, and plot, on the other, Fielding's novels generate fresh perspectives from the act of reading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The optimal revascularization strategy for the elderly with complex coronary artery disease remains unclear.Objectives: The goal of this study was to investigate 10-year all-cause mortality, life expectancy, 5-year major adverse cardiac or cerebrovascular events (MACCE), and 5-year quality of life (QOL) after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) in elderly individuals (>70 years old) with 3-vessel disease (3VD) and/or left main disease (LMD).Methods: In the present pre-specified analysis on age of the SYNTAX Extended Survival study, 10-year all-cause death and 5-year MACCE were compared with Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazards models among elderly or nonelderly patients. Life expectancy was estimated by restricted mean survival time within 10 years, and QOL status according to the Seattle Angina Questionnaire up to 5 years was assessed by linear mixed-effects models.Results: Among 1,800 randomized patients, 575 patients (31.9%) were elderly. Ten-year mortality did not differ significantly between PCI and CABG in elderly (44.1% vs. 41.1%; hazard ratio [HR]: 1.08; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.84 to 1.40) and nonelderly patients (21.1% vs. 16.6%; HR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.00 to 1.69; pinteraction = 0.332). Among elderly patients, 5-year MACCE was comparable between PCI and CABG (39.4% vs. 35.1%; HR: 1.18; 95% CI: 0.90 to 1.56), whereas it was significantly higher in PCI over CABG among nonelderly patients (36.3% vs. 23.0%; HR: 1.69; 95% CI: 1.36 to 2.10; pinteraction = 0.043). There were no significant difference in life expectancy (mean difference: 0.2 years in favor of CABG; 95% CI: -0.4 to 0.7) and 5-year QOL status between PCI and CABG among elderly patients.Conclusions: Elderly patients with 3VD and/or LMD had comparable 10-year all-cause death, life expectancy, 5-year MACCE, and 5-year QOL status irrespective of revascularization mode. (Synergy Between PCI With TAXUS and Cardiac Surgery: SYNTAX Extended Survival [SYNTAXES]; NCT03417050) (SYNTAX Study: TAXUS Drug-Eluting Stent Versus Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery for the Treatment of Narrowed Arteries [SYNTAX]; NCT00114972). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crucial issue in the debate about the correct treatment of natural language tense concerns covert variables: do we have reason to think there are any in the syntax, as the quantifier theorist maintains? If not, it seems we can quickly discount the quantifier theory from consideration, without even considering the data in its favour. And, indeed, there is a good reason to doubt that there are such variables: contemporary syntactic theory, notably, does not seem to posit them. I respond to this argument going from the premise that positing covert variables is illicit to the conclusion that quantifier theories of tense are false. I argue that the argument fails by suggesting a non-committal understanding of the process of positing covert variables. On this view, even if we are not doing fundamental syntax in so positing, nevertheless there is a reason to think we are doing something theoretically productive, because it seems like an important part of the practice of semantics and because it seems like semantics is a discipline which is making progress. The progress of semantics supports the methodology of positing variables at its heart; the quantifier theorist of tense, accordingly, need not worry about their syntactic commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reassesses the evidence for active transitive participles in Hittite and suggests that they are in reality formed from the unergative class of intransitive verbs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heyday of discussions initiated by Searle's claim that computers have syntax, but no semantics has now past, yet philosophers and scientists still tend to frame their views on artificial intelligence in terms of syntax and semantics. In this paper I do not intend to take part in these discussions; my aim is more fundamental, viz. to ask what claims about syntax and semantics in this context can mean in the first place. And I argue that their sense is so unclear that that their ability to act as markers within any disputes on artificial intelligence is severely compromised; and hence that their employment brings us nothing more than an illusion of explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ibn Hisham (d. 761/1360), who lived in the eighth century AH, is regarded as one of the leading Arabic language scholars. According to sources his full name is Jamâlüddin Abu Muhammad Abdullah b. Yusuf b. Ahmed b. Abdillâh b. Hisham al-Ansari al-Misri. His tag is Abu Muhammad, and his nickname is Jamâlüddin. In addition, he is known for the references like al-Ansari, al-Mısrî, and an-Nahvî. However, he has been famous and known as Ibn Hisham or Ibn Hisham an-Nahvi. Ibn Hisham took lessons from prominent scholars of his time and compiled many works related to the Arabic language. Some of the works he wrote are Muğni'l-lebib 'an kutubi'l-e'arib, Evdahu'l-mesâlik ilâ Elfiyyeti Ibn Malik, Qatru'n-nedâ wa bellu's-sadâ, Şerh-u Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sâda Şerhu şuzûri’z-zeheb, al-I'rab an kawa'idi'li'rab. Ibn Hisham's work called Qatru'n-nedâ is a succinct and comprehensive grammar book written in the Arabic language. It was annotated by many people, primarily by the author of the work himself, and many footnotes were written on these commentaries. Our study subject, called Sharhu Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sadâ, is also a commentary work made by the author himself to Qatru'n-nedâ. Ibn Hisham made use of the views and works of many scholars who were experts in the Arabic language while compiling his work called Sharhu Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sadâ. He referred to many Arabic language scholars who lived before him while he was compiling his aforesaid work. While Ibn Hisham frequently mentions some Arabic language scholars' names in his work titled Sharh-u Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sada, he made very few references to others. Among the scholars whose names the author uses a lot in his aforesaid work are Sîbeveyhi (d.180/796), Kisâî (d. 189/805), Ferrâ (d. 207/822), Ebu'l-Hasen al-Ahfesh (d. 215/830), Ebu'l-Abbâs al-Muberred (d. 286/900), Ibnus-Serrâc (d. 316/929) and Abu 'Ali al-Faraisi (d. 377/987). Therefore, it has been ascertained that Ibn Hisâm referred to many scholars' views in his work called Sharh-u Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sadâ. However, he did not accept all the views of the scholars he referred to. He accepted some of these views and refused some of them. Sometimes he was content with just conveying the opinions without making any comments or explanations about the views he dealt with. At times, he made evaluations within the views in question and preferred the steadiest view according to his opinion. The author's attitude towards the scholars of the Arabic language shows that he thoroughly researched the grammatical issues of the Arabic language and preferred the views that he found the steadiest. In our study, Ibn Hisham's attitude towards the Arabic language scholars, whom he benefited from in the field of syntax and made a lot of references to while dealing with various language issues in his work called Sharh-u Qatri'n-nedâ wa belli's-sadâ, which was written about the grammar of the Arabic language and the text and commentary of which belongs to Ibn Hisham himself, is examined. As a matter of fact, Ibn Hisham put forward many linguists' views in his aforesaid work, made comparisons between these views from time to time, and made some preferences himself. In this study, Arabic language scholars whose works Ibn Hisham made use of, especially in the field of syntax, and whose names he referred a lot were handled and a brief introduction was made about the linguists in question. In addition, this study tries to determine Ibn Hisham's attitude towards Arabic language scholars, his preferences, justifications, and whether he acted with fanaticism when conveying opinions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Necessity is a concept used for many morphological and grammatical linguistic phenomena that are scattered in the works of Arabic linguists and critics. In ancient Arabic poems, the usual rules of the Arabic language were broken and the views, attitudes and approaches of critics and linguists varied on the various irregular uses expressed by the term "poetry necessity". Linguists also touched upon the subject of necessity while creating their works in the field of syntax. This is not because the necessity is among the syntax issues, but because it is an easy way out for them. It seems that there are two fundamentally opposite views about the phenomenon of necessity: The view that accepts every ungrammatical use that occurs in poetry and expands the scope of necessity, regardless of whether the poet is compelled or not, and the view that accepts the necessity only because the poet had to, that is, because the poet could not find another use instead of that usage. While the representatives of the first view are the majority of the linguists led by Sîbeveyhi and Ibn Jinni, the second view is represented by of Ibn Malik. In addition, Ahfesh believes that necessity, which is a special case for poets, is also appropriate in the normal words of poets due to their language habits, while Ibn Faris argued that there is no phenomenon of necessity, saying that these uses, which are considered contrary to the rules of language in poetry, are nothing but mistakes. From this point of view, it seems that there are four different views about necessity. The reason for these differences about the phenomenon of necessity is that language scholars do not distinguish between the language of poetry and the language of prose. Since linguists want to apply the language rules they use in normal speech to poetry, they considered the usage that contradicts the language rules in normal speech as a phenomenon of necessity due to the necessity of meter and rhyme in poetry. Linguists brought evidence from poetry while putting forward the rules of language. Sometimes it has been observed that the usages against these language rules occur in poetry. In this respect, there are many differences of opinion about the necessity phenomenon. Some put these ungrammatical uses under the phenomenon of necessity, which the poet resorted to because of an obligation caused by the language of poetry, while others suggested that it would not be appropriate to put it under the title of necessity as these uses were special to the Arabic language and others suggested that they were exceptional uses. Among linguistic scholars, there is also a dispute as to whether the phenomenon of necessity is a license granted to the poet or an exceptional use. Since the linguists do not see the necessity as a linguistic phenomenon, there was no consensus on this issue and this phenomenon was put forward in the syntax books without drawing a general framework. Linguists have dealt with such usages, which are considered to be necessities, through one of the two resolutions. While the first of these two resolutions is to simulate something that is not permissible to something permissible, the second is to return a word to its original. The reason why linguists resort to these two resolutions is to put the necessity phenomenon within the framework of language rules. In general, quality uses and structures of the phenomenon of necessity emerging as a manifestation of the Old Arabic poetic language, both in individual works and in language and literature sources have been handled according to their pleasant or unpleasant nature, usually with a subject classification method and sometimes with a qualitative approach. In these sources, the phenomenon of necessity has been studied through literary, historical and religious texts such as poems, verses, hadiths and proverbs. In this study, the approaches of linguists to the necessity phenomenon will be examined with a critical point of view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cartographic program has investigated interesting crosslinguistic linear orderings among various sentence constituents. Its signature technical move is to postulate hierarchies of functional projections related by functional selection. I note three problems that functional hierarchies encounter in capturing linear order: 'explanation', 'plenitude', and 'rigidity'. I compare linearity in cartography with linearity in the integers, which involves a single relation (<) ordering the domain. I consider work by Scontras et al. (2017) arguing for a single 'inequality relation' underlying the ordering of attributive adjectives in nominals and show how this result can be incorporated into a feature-driven theory of syntactic projection. This captures crosslinguistic linear orderings without appeal to functional selection or functional hierarchies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While discourse marker (DM) sequences are rather frequent, not any DM can co-occur with any other, or in any order. In this study, we aim at uncovering which linguistic features constrain DM co-occurrences. More precisely, our objective is to disentangle the role of syntax (source grammatical category), prosody (intonation boundaries) and pragmatics (functions and domains of use) on the degree of integration and order of DMs in sequences. This multifactorial approach reflects our view that different constraints may affect different subsets of DMs and different aspects of their use. Our analysis of 420 co-occurring DMs in a sample of conversational French showed the relevance of functional orientation (backward vs. forward) and, to a lesser extent, of prosody to distinguish between different degrees of integration. It further revealed that the order of DMs in integrated sequences is mainly explained by the persistence of syntactic constraints, often mapping with functional tendencies, such as the "weak first, strong second" rule. • DM co-occurrence is governed by syntactic, prosodic and pragmatic factors. • Orientation and prosody are useful to distinguish independent from integrated DMs. • The order of DM sequences is mainly explained by syntax, with functional tendencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the position of object and adverbial clitic pronouns in coordinated affirmative verb-first declaratives introduced by e(t) "and" in Old Occitan and early Old French, a context in which clitics are variably preverbal or postverbal. An empirical study reveals that this variation is principled and reflects semantico-discursive properties in the same way in these two related and grammatically similar medieval Gallo-Romance varieties. On a theoretical level, I posit that preverbal clitics occur when conjunction occurs at the TP level, and postverbal clitics occur when conjunction occurs at the CP level, and that the choice of clause structure (TP vs. CP) for second conjunct clauses depends on illocutionary force, which in turn depends on discourse coherence relations and the semantics of verba dicendi (verbs of utterance). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compositionality has been a central concept in linguistics and philosophy for decades, and it is increasingly prominent in many other areas of cognitive science. Its status, however, remains contentious. Here, I reassess the nature and scope of the principle of compositionality (Partee, 1995) from the perspective of psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience. First, I review classic arguments for compositionality and conclude that they fail to establish compositionality as a property of human language. Next, I state a new competence argument, acknowledging the fact that any competent user of a language L can assign to most expressions in L at least one meaning which is a function only of the meanings of the expression's parts and of its syntactic structure. I then discuss selected results from cognitive neuroscience, indicating that the human brain possesses the processing capacities presupposed by the competence argument. Finally, I outline a language processing architecture consistent with the neuroscience results, where semantic representations may be generated by a syntax‐driven stream and by an "asyntactic" processing stream, jointly or independently. Compositionality is viewed as a constraint on computation in the former stream only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to assess the use of an adapted picture description task described by Eisenberg and Guo to explore the morphosyntactic error patterns of English–Spanish preschool simultaneous bilingual learners. Language samples were collected from 28 bilingual preschool children aged 3 to 5 years. Language samples were elicited in both English and Spanish using a series of pictures and elicitation questions/prompts. Twenty-one participants produced a language sample in only one language (16 in English and 5 in Spanish) and seven participants produced language samples in both languages. Language samples were analyzed for grammaticality and error types. There were a higher number of fragments, tense marker, and grammatical morphemes errors in English. In Spanish, the children demonstrated more argument structure and pronominal form errors than in English. The adapted picture description task demonstrated sensitivity to common errors in English and Spanish and shows promise for use with bilingual populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The present study examined patterns and predictors of reading comprehension growth in first language (L1) and second language (L2) readers in the upper grades of primary school. Previous research suggests that L1 and L2 readers differ in their growth trajectories and that differences in language proficiency play a role in this. However, how predictors at different levels of processing influence growth has not been investigated. In particular, the role of unification skills such as syntactic integration and the ability to form a situation model of a text is under‐investigated. Method: In a longitudinal study, 63 L1 Dutch and 109 L2 Dutch readers were followed from fourth to sixth grade (mean ages 10 to 13 years). L2 children had a variety of language backgrounds. In Grades 4–6, reading comprehension was assessed. In Grade 4, participants were also assessed on cognitive ability (nonverbal reasoning and working memory), decoding, vocabulary, and unification skills (syntax and situation model building ability). Patterns and predictors of growth were investigated by means of mixed‐effects modelling. Results: Reading comprehension growth was predicted by vocabulary and decoding, such that participants with lower decoding or vocabulary scores made more reading comprehension gains. L1 and L2 readers with high vocabulary scores did not differ in their reading comprehension growth. L2 readers with low vocabulary made less reading comprehension gains than L1 readers with low vocabulary. Unification skills predicted initial reading comprehension but not growth. Conclusions: Findings suggest that linguistic skills above the word level predict initial reading comprehension but not growth. Children with lower initial literacy skills caught up on reading comprehension, but this was less true for L2 children. L2 children with high vocabulary, however, did not differ from their L1 peers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have signaled grammatical difficulties in individuals with developmental dyslexia. These difficulties may stem from a phonological deficit, but may alternatively be explained through a domain-general deficit in statistical learning. This study investigates grammar in children with and without dyslexia, and whether phonological memory and/or statistical learning ability contribute to individual differences in grammatical performance. We administered the CELF "word structure" and "recalling sentences" subtests and measures of phonological memory (digit span, nonword repetition) and statistical learning (serial reaction time, nonadjacent dependency learning) among 8- to 11-year-old children with and without dyslexia (N = 50 per group). Consistent with previous findings, our results show subtle difficulties in grammar, as children with dyslexia achieved lower scores on the CELF (word structure: p =.0027, recalling sentences: p =.053). While the two phonological memory measures were found to contribute to individual differences in grammatical performance, no evidence for a relationship with statistical learning was found. An error analysis revealed errors in irregular morphology (e.g., plural and past tense), suggesting problems with lexical retrieval. These findings are discussed in light of theoretical accounts of the underlying deficit in dyslexia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural use of language involves at least two individuals. Some studies have focused on the interaction between senders in communicative situations and how the knowledge about the speaker can bias language comprehension. However, the mere effect of a face as a social context on language processing remains unknown. In the present study, we used event-related potentials to investigate the semantic and morphosyntactic processing of speech in the presence of a photographic portrait of the speaker. In Experiment 1, we show that the N400, a component related to semantic comprehension, increased its amplitude when processed within this minimal social context compared to a scrambled face control condition. Hence, the semantic neural processing of speech is sensitive to the concomitant perception of a picture of the speaker's face, even if irrelevant to the content of the sentences. Moreover, a late posterior negativity effect was found to the presentation of the speaker's face compared to control stimuli. In contrast, in Experiment 2, we found that morphosyntactic processing, as reflected in left anterior negativity and P600 effects, is not notably affected by the presence of the speaker's portrait. Overall, the present findings suggest that the mere presence of the speaker's image seems to trigger a minimal communicative context, increasing processing resources for language comprehension at the semantic level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the position of object and adverbial clitic pronouns in coordinated affirmative verb-first declaratives introduced by e(t) “and” in Old Occitan and early Old French, a context in which clitics are variably preverbal or postverbal. An empirical study reveals that this variation is principled and reflects semantico-discursive properties in the same way in these two related and grammatically similar medieval Gallo-Romance varieties. On a theoretical level, I posit that preverbal clitics occur when conjunction occurs at the TP level, and postverbal clitics occur when conjunction occurs at the CP level, and that the choice of clause structure (TP vs. CP) for second conjunct clauses depends on illocutionary force, which in turn depends on discourse coherence relations and the semantics of verba dicendi (verbs of utterance). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a detailed description of the results of 24 constituency diagnostics, both morphosyntactic and phonological, to Chácobo, a southern Pano language of the northern Bolivian Amazon. While it is often assumed that misalignments across the domains that emerge from constituency diagnostics can be resolved by reference to a distinction between phonological and morphosyntactic words, I argue that this is not true of Chácobo. Divergence is at least as high within phonological domains and morphosyntactic domains as it is across them. While it is often assumed that domains tend to converge overall on a single wordhood candidate or that domain divergence is marginal, I argue that this is not true of Chácobo. I present a cluster of methodologies that assess the motivation for a word constituent as an empirical hypothesis, rather than treating it as an a priori assumption. No strong evidence for a word constituent emerges from the Chácobo data. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between form and meaning is central to the theory of language. Traditionally, syntax and semantics are viewed as two different levels of representation. Based on insights from the intersection of dynamical systems theory and the theory of computation, and guided by linguistic data, I argue that there is only one space, a syntacticsemantic one. I model it here as a stable, countably infinite attractor of an iterated map dynamical system. One advantage of this approach is that it supports a unified treatment of grammatical and ungrammatical processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to test the claim that languages universally employ morphosyntactic marking to differentiate events of more‐ versus less‐direct causation, preferring to mark them with less‐ and more‐ overt marking, respectively (e.g., Somebody broke the window vs. Somebody MADE the window break; *Somebody cried the boy vs. Somebody MADE the boy cry). To this end, we investigated whether a recent computational model which learns to predict speakers' by‐verb relative preference for the two causatives in English, Hebrew, Hindi, Japanese, and K'iche' Mayan is able to generalize to a sixth language on which it has never been trained: Balinese. Judgments of the relative acceptability of the less‐ and more‐transparent causative forms of 60 verbs were collected from 48 native‐speaking Balinese adults. The composite crosslinguistic computational model was able to predict these judgments, not only for verbs that it had seen, but also––in a split‐half validation test––to verbs that it had never seen in any language. A "random‐semantics" model showed only a relatively small decrement in performance with seen verbs, whose behavior can be learned on a verb‐by‐verb basis, but achieved zero correlation with human judgments when generalizing to unseen verbs. Together, these findings suggest that Balinese conceptualizes directness of causation in a similar way to these unrelated languages, and therefore constitute support for the view that the distinction between more‐ versus less‐distinct causation constitutes a morphosyntactic universal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the widespread classification of ʾt before the nominative as a trademark of Late Biblical Hebrew. The paper begins by defining the nature and scope of this syntactic usage and reviewing its possible explanations. Next, a full list of the relevant examples is presented and alleged post-biblical cognates are examined. This data leads to the conclusion that contrary to the common scholarly sentiment, ʾt nominativi cannot be considered a late feature within Biblical Hebrew. The evidence from Mishnaic Hebrew that was erroneously associated with ʾt nominativi enables, however, the identification of a hitherto unknown late biblical structure, namely, the demonstrative ʾt ʾšr. Biblical occurrences of this usage are recognizable in Jeremiah, Zechariah, and Qohelet. The paper concludes that while ʾt nominativi is by no means a late usage, the demonstrative ʾt ʾšr may be classified as late with more certainty. This conclusion calls for a re-examination of the syntactic profile of LBH as drawn in the influential works of the field, chiefly those by Kropat and Polzin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines complex sentences [in Russian] formed using the connector word "аÐ?Ñ,Ð?рыÐ?" - which conveys different semantic relationships, especially multiple prepositions in the sentence are involved. It also analyses the difficulty of translating these types of sentences from Russian into Turkish, and provides examples of such. Such a construction mainly exists in written Russian only, and requires its normative usage. As it is prevalent in Russian business writing and journalism, we've also briefly touched how it is used in both contexts. The subordinate part of such a construction - with the help of the connector - contains information about the main sentence. Thus, it contributes to the integrity of the expression. In Russian linguistics, these traditionally referred to as linking sentences. However, many studies on Russian syntax refer to them under a different guise. There are a number of reasons why these sentences are difficult to translate into Turkish: One, the main elements of the main sentence performs a different function in the subordinate clause. Two, the continuation of the sentence becomes more difficult. Three, you have to take the connector and the meanings of various prepositions into account. This will analyse these difficulties of translating such sentences. Our objective is to compare/contrast how such sentences take shape in both languages and present possible ways to approach translating them. We have also attempted to identify problems that students of Russian as a foreign language ought to pay attention to when they encounter similar sentence structures and guide them through how to translate them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Annotation has a key role in transferring an information. Accentuation on writing as most important way in information and transferring information in Islam's main texts provided that Arabic annotation culture got the new phases at a primitive level. So the annotations revealed in the various Koran-based fields in the early periods. The main differences which discriminate these annotation works from each other became clear in time. The field of syntax became systematized as a result of socio-cultural and socio-political actions in the early periods and it reached to "accomplishment". Therefore, some categories which are amenable to certain wording styles occurred in syntactic annotations. The works in type of "text" that information related to the field of syntax is briefly transferred are the main of these categories. The works which are named as "sharh" consist in the second category in explanatory quality on the texts as a result of purpose to remove the closeness in such kind of works and the conception of "accomplishment" in the field of syntax. The traditional annotation wording way such as clarification, quotation and sampling was adopted in type of sharh annotation and aimed to involve the whole of text. Those, who conducted the educational activities in madrasahs, pioneered that an annotation way which is mentioned as "hashiya" appeared on the third category as they or their students noted while teaching sharhs or making preliminary preparations. The annotation way which became a tradition in time became an annotation method with the certain standards that only necessary parts of sharhs are taught. The long prologues, the syntactic comments adorned with logical and philosophic facts, the detailed i'râb changing analyses and the discussions conducted with presumptive questions come at the beginning of these standards. As the annotations are mostly in currency of madrasahs so those in this place increased their tendency to the annotation of hashiya. So Fakhraddin al-Arnasi (d.1392/1972) who was one of the madrasah scholars in last period accommodated the hashiya in name of Khesfu'l-Gita in that scope. In this context, the general terms of annotation copyright tradition were made, and their expressions on the work were emphasized. Thus, the impact that the hashiya annotation tradition having an important amount made in field of syntax was examined practically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Theory of Mind (TOM) is a cognitive ability to understand the beliefs, emotions, and desires of oneself and others, and its development is associated with proper development of other cognitive skills, including language. This study aimed at investigating the relationship between language and TOM and comparing the grammatical and lexical performances and TOM skills between children with high-functioning autism (HFA) and developmental language disorder (DLD) and typically developing (TD) children. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in 50 children aged 6-11 years old, native speakers of Persian language, with DLD (n= 14) and HFA (n= 11), and in TD (n= 25) children. Assessment of language skills was done by lexical and syntactic indicators obtained from the analysis of narrative speech sample and Persian grammar expression test (PEGT) and TOM skills using Persian mind theory test. Data were analyzed in SPSS V22 using ANOVA, Pearson Correlation, KruskalWallis test, and Spearman correlation. Results: There were no significant differences in most grammatical, lexical, and TOM scores between children with DLD and HFA (P<0.05), but the performances of both groups were found to be significantly lower than TD children (P>0.05). Significant correlation was observed between overall scores and TOM and PEGT scores in all three groups (P< .05). Conclusion: The current study revealed that children with HFA and DLD have weaker TOM skills than TD children which could be due to their language deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - Measurement of information has long been studied for many years from different perspectives. Acknowledging this diversity, the article aims at reviewing approaches to the information measurement. Design/methodology/approach -- Literature review method was used to analyze and interpret main approaches of measuring information. Findings - Logarithm, volume, syntax, probability and entropy, quantity, impact, value, and energy of information were identified and investigated in detail as the major approaches to the information measurement. Originality/value - Discussing strengths and weaknesses of each approach, it concludes that a multi-dimensional approach would help us measure the information more accurate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short text similarity measurement methods play an important role in many applications within natural language processing. This paper reviews the research literature on short text similarity (STS) measurement method with the aim to (i) classify and give a broad overview of existing techniques; (ii) find out its strengths and weaknesses in terms of the domain the independence, language independence, requirement of semantic knowledge, corpus and training data, ability to identify semantic meaning, word order similarity and polysemy; and (iii) identify semantic knowledge and corpus resource that can be utilized for the STS measurement methods. Furthermore, our study also considers various issues such as the difference between the various text similarity methods and the difference between semantic knowledge sources and corpora for text similarity. Although there are a few review papers in this area, they focus mostly only on one/two existing techniques. Furthermore, existing review papers do not cover recent research. To the best of our knowledge, this is a comprehensive systematic literature review on this topic. The findings of this research can be as follows: It identified four semantic knowledge and eight corpus resources as external resources that can be classified into general-purpose and domain-specific. Furthermore, the existing techniques can be classified into string-based, corpus-based, knowledge-based and hybrid-based. Moreover, expert researchers can utilize this review as a benchmark as well as reference to the limitations of current techniques. The paper also identifies the open issues that can be considered as feasible opportunities for future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]