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When the solar wind hits Jupiter's magnetic field, it creates a long magnetotail trailing behind the planet that channels material out of the Jupiter system. The New Horizons spacecraft traversed the length of the jovian magnetotail to >2500 jovian radii ( R J ; 1 R J ≡71,400 kilometers), observing a high-temperature, multispecies population of energetic particles. Velocity dispersions, anisotropies, and compositional variation seen in the deep-tail (≳ 500 R J ) with a ∼3-day periodicity are similar to variations seen closer to Jupiter in Galileo data. The signatures suggest plasma streaming away from the planet and injection sites in the near-tail region (∼200 to 400 R J ) that could be related to magnetic reconnection events. The tail structure remains coherent at least until it reaches the magnetosheath at 1655 R J .

The Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) comprises the hardware and accompanying science investigation on the New Horizons spacecraft to measure pick-up ions from Pluto's outgassing atmosphere. To the extent that Pluto retains its characteristics similar to those of a "heavy comet" as detected in stellar occultations since the early 1980s, these measurements will characterize the neutral atmosphere of Pluto while providing a consistency check on the atmospheric escape rate at the encounter epoch with that deduced from the atmospheric structure at lower altitudes by the ALICE, REX, and SWAP experiments on New Horizons. In addition, PEPSSI will characterize any extended ionosphere and solar wind interaction while also characterizing the energetic particle environment of Pluto, Charon, and their associated system. First proposed for development for the Pluto Express mission in September 1993, what became the PEPSSI instrument went through a number of development stages to meet the requirements of such an instrument for a mission to Pluto while minimizing the required spacecraft resources. The PEPSSI instrument provides for measurements of ions (with compositional information) and electrons from 10s of keV to ~1 MeV in a 120 deg x 12 deg fan-shaped beam in six sectors for 1.5 kg and ~2.5 W., Comment: 107 pages, 38 figures, 29 tables; To appear in a special volume of Space Science Reviews on the New Horizons mission

This study reports on the performance of Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) as a timing detector for ion Time-of-Flight (TOF) mass spectroscopy. We found that the fast signal carrier speed in a reach-through type APD enables an extremely short timescale response with a mass or energy independent

The Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3) experiment flown on the Mars Express (MEX) spacecraft includes the Electron Spectrometer (ELS) as part of its complement. The ELS instrument measures the differential electron flux spectrum in a 128-level logarithmic energy sweep within a time period of 4 s. The orbital path of MEX traverses the martian sheath, cusps, and tail where ELS recorded periodic electron intensity oscillations. These oscillations comprised periodic variations of up to an order of magnitude (peak to valley) in energy flux, with the largest amplitudes in the tens to hundreds of eV range. The observed oscillations displayed periods ranging from minutes down to the instrument sweep resolution of 4 s. In the cases analyzed here, the frequency of the integrated electron energy flux typically peaked between 0.01 and 0.02 Hz. This frequency range is nearly the same as the typical O + gyrofrequency in the magnetosheath, calculated using magnetometer data from Mars Global Surveyor. Due to the motion of the spacecraft, it is unclear if the wave structures observed were permanent standing waves or rather constituted waves propagating past the spacecraft.

Observations made by the ASPERA-3 experiment onboard the Mars Express spacecraft found within the martian magnetosphere beams of planetary ions. In the energy ( E / q )–time spectrograms these beams are often displayed as dispersive-like, ascending or descending (whether the spacecraft moves away or approach the planet) structures. A linear dependence between energy gained by the beam ions and the altitude from the planet suggests their acceleration in the electric field. The values of the electric field evaluated from ion energization occur close to the typical values of the interplanetary motional electric field. This suggests an effective penetration of the solar wind electric field deep into the martian magnetosphere or generation of large fields within the magnetosphere. Two different classes of events are found. At the nominal solar wind conditions, a ‘penetration’ occurs near the terminator. At the extreme solar wind conditions, the boundary of the induced magnetosphere moves to a more dense upper atmosphere that leads to a strong scavenging of planetary ions from the dayside regions.

Data from the Ion Mass Analyzer (IMA) sensor of the ASPERA-3 instrument suite on Mars Express have been analyzed to determine the mass composition of the escaping ion species at Mars. We have examined 77 different ion-beam events and we present the results in terms of flux ratios between the following ion species: CO2+/O+ and O-2(+)/O+. The following ratios averaged over all events and energies were identified: CO2+/O+ = 0.2 and O-2(+)/O+ = 0.9. The values measured are significantly higher, by a factor of 10 for O-2(+)/O+, than a contemporary modeled ratio for the maximum fluxes which the martian ionosphere can supply. The most abundant ion species was found to be O+, followed by O-2(+) and CO2+. We estimate the loss of CO2+ to be 4.0 x 10(24) s(-1) (0.29 kg s(-1)) by using the previous measurements of Phobos-2 in our calculations. The dependence of the ion ratios in relation to their energy ranges we studied, 0.3-3.0 keV, indicated that no clear correlation was found. Validerad; 2006; Bibliografisk uppgift: Se artikeln för de andra 46 medförfattarna.; 20070104 (pafi)

We present the first results from the ion mass analyzer IMA of the ASPERA-3 instrument on-board of Mars Express. More than 200 orbits for May 2004–September 2004 time interval have been selected for the statistical study of the distribution of the atmospheric origin ions in the planetary wake. This study shows that the martian magnetotail consists of two different ion regimes. Planetary origin ions of the first regime form the layer adjacent to the magnetic pile-up boundary. These ions are accelerated to energy greater than 2000 eV and exhibit a gradual decreasing of energy down to the planetary tail. The second plasma regime is observed in the planetary shadow. The heavy ions (considered as planetary ones) are accelerated to the energy of the solar wind protons. Obviously the acceleration mechanism is different for the different plasma regimes. Study of two plasma regimes in the frame referred to the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) direction (we used MGS magnetometer data to obtain the IMF clock angle) clearly shows their spatial anisotropy. The monoenergetic plasma in the planetary shadow is observed only in the narrow angular sector around the positive direction of the interplanetary electric field.

The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission will make the first global observations of the heliosphere’s interaction with the interstellar medium. IBEX achieves these breakthrough observations by traveling outside of the Earth’s magnetosphere in a highly elliptical orbit and taking global Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENA) images over energies from ∼10 eV to 6 keV. IBEX’s high‐apogee (∼50 RE) orbit enables heliospheric ENA measurements by providing viewing from far above the Earth’s relatively bright magnetospheric ENA emissions. This high energy orbit is achieved from a Pegasus XL launch vehicle by adding the propulsion from an IBEX‐supplied solid rocket motor and the spacecraft’s hydrazine propulsion system. IBEX carries two very large‐aperture, single‐pixel ENA cameras that view perpendicular to the spacecraft’s Sun‐pointed spin axis. Each six months, the continuous spinning of the spacecraft and periodic re‐pointing to maintain the sun‐pointing spin axis naturally lead to global, all‐sky images. Over the course of our NASA Phase B program, the IBEX team optimized the designs of all subsystems. In this paper we summarize several significant advances in both IBEX sensors, our expected signal to noise (and background), and our groundbreaking approach to achieve a very high‐altitude orbit from a Pegasus launch vehicle for the first time. IBEX is in full scale development and on track for launch in June of 2008.

[1] The intense level of solar activity recorded from 19 October to 12 November 2003 led to unusually high energetic particle intensities observed throughout the heliosphere. The fleet of spacecraft distributed in the inner and outer heliosphere offers us the opportunity to study both the effects of these events in different regions of the heliosphere and the evolution of the energetic particle intensities measured at different heliocentric radial distances. Observations at 1 AU by the ACE and GOES-11 spacecraft show multiple particle intensity enhancements associated with individual injections of solar energetic particles (SEPs) and with the arrival of shocks driven by coronal mass ejections (CMEs), resulting in a long time interval (∼40 days) of elevated low-energy (

The Cassini spacecraft in orbit around Saturn has observed electron beams accelerating away from the planet in regions that map to the locations of Saturn's aurora. The conventional model for aurora creation involves electron beams that accelerate towards a planet's surface. A similar phenomenon was recently observed on Earth, suggesting that electrons going the ‘wrong’ way are a general property of aurora, and that this characteristic needs to be incorporated into any full theory of aurora formation. Strong discrete aurorae on Earth are excited by electrons, which are accelerated along magnetic field lines towards the planet1. Surprisingly, electrons accelerated in the opposite direction have been recently observed2,3,4,5,6. The mechanisms and significance of this anti-earthward acceleration are highly uncertain because only earthward acceleration was traditionally considered, and observations remain limited. It is also unclear whether upward acceleration of the electrons is a necessary part of the auroral process or simply a special feature of Earth's complex space environment. Here we report anti-planetward acceleration of electron beams in Saturn's magnetosphere along field lines that statistically map into regions of aurora. The energy spectrum of these beams is qualitatively similar to the ones observed at Earth, and the energy fluxes in the observed beams are comparable with the energies required to excite Saturn's aurora. These beams, along with the observations at Earth2,3,4,5,6 and the barely understood electron beams in Jupiter's magnetosphere7,8, demonstrate that anti-planetward acceleration is a universal feature of aurorae. The energy contained in the beams shows that upward acceleration is an essential part of the overall auroral process.

[1] Measurements from the Cassini Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI) beginning in July 2004 reveal that sudden planetward injections of energetic ions (5–200 keV) and electrons (20–200 keV) over confined regions of azimuth are pervasive events in Saturn's magnetosphere over the radial range of 3.8 to 11.2 Saturn radii (RS). Saturn is thus similar to both Earth and Jupiter in the pervasiveness of such injections. At Saturn with Cassini, unlike Jupiter with Galileo, effects of the large radial gradients in the global azimuthal rotational flow pattern often dominates the dispersive particle injection signatures. Accurate knowledge of rotational flow patterns is required to calculate the age and formation positions of injections that are more than several hours old. Here we develop procedures to derive the needed flow profiles from the injections themselves.

Mercury is a poorly known planet, since the only space-based information comes from the three fly-bys performed in 1974 by the Mariner 10 spacecraft. Ground-based observations also provided some interesting results, but they are particularly difficult to obtain due to the planet’s proximity to the Sun. Nevertheless, the fact that the planet’s orbit is so close to the Sun makes Mercury a particularly interesting subject for extreme environmental conditions. Among a number of crucial scientific topics to be addressed, Mercury’s exosphere, its interaction with the solar wind and its origin from the surface of the planet, can provide important clues about planetary evolution. In fact, the Hermean exosphere is continuously eroded and refilled by these interactions, so that it would be more proper to consider the Hermean environment as a single, unified system – surface-exosphere-magnetosphere. These three parts are indeed strongly linked to each other. In recent years, the two missions scheduled to explore the iron planet, the NASA MESSENGER mission (launched in March 2004) and the ESA cornerstone mission (jointly with JAXA) BepiColombo (to be launched in 2012), have stimulated new interest in the many unresolved mysteries related to it. New ground-based observations, made possible by new technologies, have been obtained, and new simulation studies have been performed. In this paper some old as well as the very latest observations and studies related to the surface-exosphere-magnetosphere system are reviewed, outlining the investigations achievable by the planned space-based observations. This review intends to support the studies, in preparation of future data, and the definition of specific instrumentation.

[1] Since July 2004 Cassini is in orbit around Saturn providing in-situ measurements of the Saturnian magnetosphere. One of the three sensors of the Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI) is the Low Energy Magnetospheric Measurement System (LEMMS) that responds to energetic particles which can serve as indicators of key regions (Krimigis et al., 2005) and ongoing plasma processes in the magnetosphere. In this paper we identify and characterize, based on energetic particle and magnetic field measurements, the radiation belts, the plasma sheet, and the lobe region. The transition between plasma sheet and lobe region sometimes occurs very rapidly, and sometimes occurs with the period of Saturn's rotation. We explain the highly variable nature of the Saturnian plasma sheet as a combination of the geometry of the Cassini trajectory, together with the variable location of the boundary between open and closed field lines caused by a strong localized magnetic anomaly in the Saturnian field.

The Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI) onboard the Cassini spacecraft observed the saturnian magnetosphere from January 2004 until Saturn orbit insertion (SOI) on 1 July 2004. The MIMI sensors observed frequent energetic particle activity in interplanetary space for several months before SOI. When the imaging sensor was switched to its energetic neutral atom (ENA) operating mode on 20 February 2004, at ∼10 3 times Saturn's radius R S (0.43 astronomical units), a weak but persistent signal was observed from the magnetosphere. About 10 days before SOI, the magnetosphere exhibited a day-night asymmetry that varied with an ∼11-hour periodicity. Once Cassini entered the magnetosphere, in situ measurements showed high concentrations of H + , H 2 + , O + , OH + , and H 2 O + and low concentrations of N + . The radial dependence of ion intensity profiles implies neutral gas densities sufficient to produce high loss rates of trapped ions from the middle and inner magnetosphere. ENA imaging has revealed a radiation belt that resides inward of the D ring and is probably the result of double charge exchange between the main radiation belt and the upper layers of Saturn's exosphere.

We present evidence of two icy satellite microsignatures in the Cassini LEMMS data. Just upstream of Enceladus, a deep and narrow decrease in the flux of several MeV electrons is consistent with a recent absorption by that moon. This microsignature is collocated with a deep depletion in the MeV proton flux. The proton feature is much wider than the satellite diameter, suggesting multiple interactions and/or losses to the E Ring and neutral gas. An observed increase in proton flux toward the planet suggests a possible inner magnetospheric source. A decrease in the low energy electron intensity downstream of Tethys is also consistent with a microsignature approximately the size of the satellite that has drifted slightly toward the planet near midnight. Modeling suggests that microsignatures near Tethys' orbit would persist for more than a complete rotation of Saturn and the radial diffusion coefficient is about 10 -9 R 2 S /s.

[1] We report on low energy electron microsignature observations by the Low Energy Magnetospheric Measurement System (LEMMS) in the vicinity of Tethys's L-shell, during the first seven orbits of the Cassini mission. Tethys, due to its large size, is the source of strong microsignatures. Shallower absorption features seen are the result of aged Tethys microsignatures rather than the effect of its small Lagrangian moons. Several remarkable observations are also discussed: the displacement of the microsignatures indicates that the drift shell deviation from axisymmetry is greater than previously expected. Midnight to dawn wakes have drifted toward the planet whereas noon to dusk ones have drifted outward, revealing possible magnetospheric convection effects. Double microsignatures seen for the first time, suggest low radial diffusion coefficients and point to dynamic events in the magnetosphere.

Two experiments investigated the tendency of groups with members under high (vs. low) need for cognitive closure to develop an autocratic leadership structure in which some members dominate the discussion, constitute the “hubs” of communication, and influence the group more than other members. The first experiment found that high (vs. low) need for closure groups, as assessed via dispositional measure of the need for closure, manifested greater asymmetry of conversational floor control, such that members with autocratic interactional style were more conversationally dominant and influential than less autocratic members. The second experiment manipulated the need for closure via time pressure and utilized a social network analysis. Consistent with expectation, groups under time pressure (vs. no pressure) showed a greater asymmetry of participation, of centrality, and of prestige among the group members, such that the more focal members were perceived to exert the greater influence over the groups’ decisions.

Three experiments investigated the consequences of the epistemic motivation toward closure on the emergence of creative interactions in small groups. In the first study, need for closure was manipulated via time pressure. Results showed that in groups under high need for closure (i.e. under time pressure) the percentage of creative acts during group discussion was reduced. The second study replicated this result using an individual differences operationalization of the need for closure. In the third study, groups composed of individuals high (versus low) in need for closure performed less creatively, and exhibited less ideational fluidity during group interaction. Moreover, it was demonstrated that conformity pressure mediates the negative relationship between dispositional need for closure and group creativity. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

cruise to Saturn. We cover 3 years (2000–2002) of data during the maximum of the solar cycle 23. Cassini’s heliocentric radial distance ranged from 2.5 to 8.0 AU. Energetic particle intensity enhancements were associated with either sporadic intense solar energetic particle events, the effects produced by recurrent corotating interaction regions, or the arrival of transient interplanetary shocks. High-energy (>25 MeV) ion intensity enhancements were exclusively associated with the prompt component of intense solar energetic particle events. The largest low-energy (

[1] We report on energetic particle measurements from the Low Energy Magnetospheric Measurement System (LEMMS) on board the Cassini spacecraft during the Jupiter flyby (October 2000 to April 2001). Cassini passed Jupiter on its way to Saturn on the dusk flank of the magnetosphere and explored for the first time the dusk-to-midnight magnetosheath of the planet. The flyby period can be divided into three distinct regimes where energetic particle parameter changes are observed. The first period (October 2000 to 10 January 2001) covers the approach phase toward the planet, including bow shock crossings in and out of the magnetosheath as well as the closest approach. In this period, LEMMS responded on solar wind pressure pulses and recorded the passing of two interplanetary shocks. Hours before the first bow shock crossing, low-energy particle intensity increases were observed, possibly with Jovian origin. Before the closest approach approach to the planet two inbound and one outbound bow shock crossings have been observed. The second period (9–10 January) is the period where Cassini briefly entered the magnetosphere twice at about 200 RJ. LEMMS data are only available during a large portion of the second encounter. Inside the magnetosphere the energetic electrons showed a bidirectional pitch angle distribution along the magnetic field, indicative of a closed magnetic field configuration predominantly in the north-south direction. In addition, quasi-periodic electron intensity variations with periods of ≈40 min were observed. The third period (January to April 2001) covers the distances between 205 and 800 RJ. The spacecraft was skimming along the bow shock boundary in the dusk-to-midnight sector. More than 44 inbound and outbound bow shock crossings have been observed. The most interesting magnetosheath encounter occurred between day 19 and day 28 at distances between 300 and 400 RJ. In that period, LEMMS observed strong intensification of MeV-electron fluxes to values similar to those measured inside the magnetosphere as reported by Krupp et al. [2002]. Most of these increases in electrons were associated with sign changes in the north-south component of the magnetic field. We interpret these observations in terms of magnetic dayside reconnection and particle leakage through the duskside magnetosheath.

The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is one of five Small Explorer (SMEX) missions undergoing Phase A study for NASA’s Office of Space Science. Around November 2004, NASA expects to select at least one of missions for development and flight. If selected, IBEX will provide the first global views of the Sun’s interstellar boundaries by taking a set of global energetic neutral atom (ENA) images at a variety of energies. Recent advances in ENA imaging have made it possible to remotely image space plasmas and ENA imaging is now poised to image the interstellar interactions and interstellar boundaries at the edge of our heliosphere. IBEX makes these exploratory ENA observations using two ultra‐high sensitivity ENA cameras on a simple spinning spacecraft. IBEX’s highly elliptical Earth orbit allows viewing of the outer heliosphere from beyond the Earth’s relatively bright magnetospheric ENA emissions. IBEX’s sole, focused science objective is to discover the global interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium. IBEX achieves this objective by answering four fundamental science questions: (1) What is the global strength and structure of the termination shock? (2) How are energetic protons accelerated at the termination shock? (3) What are the global properties of the solar wind flow beyond the termination shock and in the heliotail? and (4) How does the interstellar flow interact with the heliosphere beyond the heliopause? The IBEX objective is central to the Sun‐Earth Connection (SEC) theme as demonstrated by both the 2003 SEC Roadmap and 2002 NRC’s Decadal Survey and is specifically identified in the 2003 NASA‐wide Strategic Plan. In short, the IBEX mission provides the first global views of the Sun’s interstellar boundaries, unveiling the physics of the heliosphere’s interstellar interaction, providing a deeper understanding of the heliosphere and thereby astrospheres throughout the galaxy, and creating the opportunity to make even greater unanticipated discoveries.

Motivations to recycle have been extensively studied adopting an attitude approach and, in particular, the theory of planned behaviour frame (TPB Ajzen, 1998, 1991). However, several authors have provided evidence suggesting that self-identity dimensions can be a useful addition to the TPB within the domain of repeated behaviours such as recycling. To compare the predictive power of a new model of “Self-Expressive Behaviour” with the TPB, a study was conducted in which, besides the classic variables of the TPB model (such as attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control), similarity between personal identity and “identity of typical recyclers” was also taken into account. Two hundred and thirty Italian subjects were recruited to study behavioural intentions concerning household recycling in relation to the variables mentioned above, derived from TPB and from Identity theory. Data analysis, based on structural equation modelling, shows that personal identity contributes significantly and independently to the explanation of intentions to recycle.

Direct detection of interstellar neutrals is a powerful technique for enlarging our knowledge about the media surrounding our solar system. We present in this paper a combination of two telescopes and a pointing device that would enable precise and detailed measurements of the density, velocity, temperature, and composition of the neutral particles that penetrate through the heliospheric bow shock and the heliopause.

Interstellar Pathfinder (ISP), our first step into the interstellar medium, is a scientific investigation to study the outer boundary of our heliosphere and the interstellar matter that flows into it. A wind of interstellar neutral gas penetrates to within several astronomical units (AU) of the Sun, giving us a direct sample of present‐day galactic matter. ISP is a mission to this inner edge of the interstellar medium. Using highly sensitive instrumentation, ISP will determine the composition of our local interstellar environment. It will also take the first global images of the boundary region of the heliosphere at 100 to 150 AU. These measurements will allow ISP to answer fundamental questions about the origin of the solar system and the stars, about the evolution of our galaxy and of the universe, and about the characteristics of our local galactic environment and its influence on the heliosphere.

In the course of this decade, two NASA deep space mission to the inner and outer heliosphere, MESSENGER to the planet Mercury and New Horizons to the planet Pluto, will carry onboard energetic particle spectrometers. The combination of measurements near the Sun (0.3 AU), and from the outer heliosphere (up to almost 40 AU), will ideally complement the information available from Ulysses and from near‐Earth orbiting spacecraft, yielding boundary conditions on the processes that accelerate energetic particles. EPS is a hockey‐puck‐size Time‐of‐Flight (ToF) spectrometer that measures ions and electrons over a broad range of energies and pitch angles. Particle composition and energy spectra will be measured for H to Fe from 15 keV/nucleon to 3 MeV/nucleon and for electrons from 15 keV to 1 MeV. The ion section of EPS is a compact ToF telescope with two main components: a ToF section and a Solid State Detector (SSD) array to measure separately velocity and total energy of the incoming particles. Electrons are identified in EPS by the presence of an energy signal and by the absence of start or stop pulses, since energetic electrons have low efficiency for production of secondary electrons when passing through thin foils. For both ions and electrons the angle of arrival is determined by the position of the solid‐state detector that collects the particle.

Several planetary missions have reported1,2,3,4 the presence of substantial numbers of energetic ions and electrons surrounding Jupiter; relativistic electrons are observable up to several astronomical units (au) from the planet. A population of energetic (>30 keV) neutral particles also has been reported5, but the instrumentation was not able to determine the mass or charge state of the particles, which were subsequently labelled6 energetic neutral atoms. Although images showing the presence of the trace element sodium were obtained7, the source and identity of the neutral atoms—and their overall significance relative to the loss of charged particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere—were unknown. Here we report the discovery by the Cassini spacecraft of a fast (>103 km s-1) and hot magnetospheric neutral wind extending more than 0.5 au from Jupiter, and the presence of energetic neutral atoms (both hot and cold) that have been accelerated by the electric field in the solar wind. We suggest that these atoms originate in volcanic gases from Io, undergo significant evolution through various electromagnetic interactions, escape Jupiter's magnetosphere and then populate the environment around the planet. Thus a ‘nebula’ is created that extends outwards over hundreds of jovian radii.

The authors elaborate the complications and the opportunities inherent in the statistical analysis of small-group data. They begin by discussing nonindependence of group members' scores and then consider standard methods for the analysis of small-group data and determine that these methods do not take into account this nonindependence. A new method is proposed that uses multilevel modeling and allows for negative nonindependence and mutual influence. Finally, the complications of interactions, different group sizes, and differential effects are considered. The authors strongly urge that the analysis model of data from small-group studies should mirror the psychological processes that generate those data.

Measurement of suprathermal energy ions in the heliosphere has always been challenging because (1) these ions are situated in the energy regime only a few times higher than the solar wind plasma, where intensities are orders of magnitude higher and (2) ion energies are below or close to the threshold of state-of-art solid-state detectors. Suprathermal ions accelerated at coronal mass ejection-driven shocks propagate out ahead of the shocks. These shocks can cause geomagnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere that can affect spacecraft and ground-based power and communication systems. An instrument with sufficient sensitivity to measure these ions can be used to predict the arrival of the shocks and provide an advance warning for potentially geo-effective space weather. In this paper, we present a novel energy analyzer concept, the Suprathermal Ion Monitor (STIM) that is designed to measure suprathermal ions with high sensitivity. We show results from a laboratory prototype and demonstrate the feasibility of the concept. A list of key performances is given, as well as a discussion of various possible detectors at the back end. STIM is an ideal candidate for a future space weather monitor in orbit upstream of the near-earth environment, for example, around L1. A scaled-down version is suitable for a CubeSat mission. Such a platform allows proofing the concept and demonstrating its performance in the space environment.

International audience; The COSAC experiment on the Lander of the ESA mission ROSETTA is aimed at the in situ investigation of matter of a cometary nucleus (P/Wirtanen) with respect to its chemical and isotopic composition. Special emphasis is put on the identification of complex organic molecules including their chirality. The instrument, presently under development, will employ for analysis a multi-column gas-chromatograph and a high-resolution TOF mass spectrometer. These instruments can be controlled from ground and used either separately or in the GC/MS coupling mode. They are suited for analysis of the natural cometary atmosphere or pyrolytically generated gas from surface or near-surface samples.

Aim To evaluate the role of sexual dysfunctions in inducing the use of drug in young males Methods 185 former heroin addicts from 14 drug rehabilitation centres were invited to fill in a questionnaire with their personal data, toxicological history, sexual experiences as well as quality of performances. Results 60 subjects (32% ) of the sample claimed that their sexual disorder had influenced their decision to start taking drugs. Prior to first drug use the more severe the sexual dysfunction, the higher the percentage of those who stated that sexual dysfunction influenced their decision to start taking drugs. Among those with premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction this percentage rose to 58.6%. 39% of subject with E.D. used heroin to improve rigidity while among those with premature ejaculation 55% used heroin to improve ejaculation control. Conclusions • Sexual dysfunctions is a risk factor for addiction and can lead to first drug use • The more severe the sexual dysfunction the higher the risk • Heroin and other drugs are used to improve sexual performances and particularly to improve ejaculation control • These data highlight the possibility of primary prevention of substance abuse and addiction with sexual education and early treatment of sexual dysfunctions.

International audience; The Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis (ROSINA) will answer outstanding questions concerning the main objectives of the mission. To accomplish the very demanding objectives, ROSINA will have unprecedented capabilities, including: very wide mass range from 1 amu to >300 amu; very high mass resolution (ability to resolve CO from N2 and 13C from 12CH); very wide dynamic range and high sensitivity; the ability to determine cometary gas and ion flow velocities and temperatures.

Hispars is an European EUCLID investigation projected devoted to evaluation of Artificial Neural Networks for defense pattern applications. Three demonstrators representing three military operational contexts (Air-to- Ground, Ground Battlefield, Naval Threat Evaluation) have been defined and developed. A set of operational processing chains have been selected, and for each of them, ANN methods have been proposed and evaluated on real data set at each level of processing, in comparison to those classical techniques used in existing equipment.

In December 1995 the Galileo spacecraft reached the Jovian magnetosphere after more than 6 years travelling through the inner heliosphere. We report on first results of the Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) which is one of the scientific instruments aboard the spacecraft. EPD is designed to measure three-dimensional distributions of energetic electrons (15 keV–11 MeV) and ions (20 keV–55 MeV). Measurements in the Io-torus show “conic” distributions for sulfur and trapped distributions for protons which can be explained by charge exchange processes which are more effective for heavier ions than for protons. EPD discovered highly collimated field-aligned beams of electrons at closest approach to Io, which are related to the Io flux tube connecting the moon and the ionosphere of Jupiter. During the second encounter with Ganymede EPD could identify, together with plasma wave and magnetometer data, crossings of Ganymede’s magnetopause, a further proof for the first discovery of a magnetosphere within a magnetosphere. In addition EPD made measurements during the so-called first minitour, the first full orbit inside the Jovian magnetosphere with apojove near 115 Jovian radii (R J ) in the predawn sector. In this region, besides the predominantly corotating particles, bursts of ions moving radially outward from the planet were found.

We analyse three-dimensional distribution functions of solar wind alpha particles in velocity space and study their symmetry properties relative to the interplanetary magnetic field. We present convincing evidence for the occurrence of non-gyrotropic alpha-particle velocity distribution functions in the solar wind plasma. The three-dimensional distributions are obtained by measurements with high resolution (8 s for alpha particles and 2 s for protons) of the plasma experiment TAUS on the PHOBOS II mission to planet Mars. The measurements were made at heliocentric distances near 1.3 AU. In a detailed analysis of the distributions we show that non-gyrotropic features are related to a sizable fraction of phase space density in the alpha-particle distributions. These non-gyrotropic particles can be characterised as being gyro-phase bunched in velocity space. There are indications of a close relation between the non-gyrotropy of the core particles of a distribution and the large core temperature anisotropies (...

The SOHO Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS/SOHO) is composed of three reflecting telescopes with external and internal occultation and a spectrometer assembly consisting of two toric grating spectrometers and a visible light polarimeter. The purpose of the UVCS instrument is to provide a body of data that can be used to address a broad range of scientific questions regarding the nature of the solar corona and the generation of the solar wind. The primary scientific goals are the following: to locate and characterize the coronal source regions of the solar wind, to identify and understand the dominant physical processes that accelerate the solar wind, to understand how the coronal plasma is heated in solar wind acceleration regions, and to increase the knowledge of coronal phenomena that control the physical properties of the solar wind as determined by in situ measurements. To progress toward these goals, the UVCS will perform ultraviolet spectroscopy and visible polarimetry to be combined with plasma diagnostic analysis techniques to provide detailed empirical descriptions of the extended solar corona from the coronal base to a heliocentric height of 12 solar radii.

This paper describes an optical system, designed and realized by Officine Galileo, for contactiess control of reflective and semireflective surfaces.LINESCAN optical system is based on dark field illumination and it is able to detect scattered light from surface defects by means of a linear CCD array. A miniature composite prism combines the lighting and imaging channels, also providing dark field illumination and allowing to access into very small cavities.LINESCAN is capable to detect scratches, digs, rust stains and othersimilar defects, characterized by thickness greater than 10 microns,on spherical and toroidal surfaces. The system provides a fast restoration of the bidimensional surface defects image from a discrete set of monodimensional images.A stepping motor driven by a computer rotates the object. A typical industrial application of LINESCAN is the inspection of inner and outer ring races of ball bearings. LINESCAN allows to savesubstantial time in testing and assembling ball bearings.1. INTRODUCTIONGalileo LINESCAN is an opto—electronic system intended for non—contactinspection of toroidal concave surfaces, showing a circular symmetryaxis matching a rotational axis.

[1] For the first time, two spacecraft, Galileo and Cassini, observed Jupiter's magnetosphere simultaneously for nearly half a year between October 2000 and March 2001. This provided an unprecedented opportunity to disentangle spatial and temporal aspects of the dynamics of the Jovian magnetosphere. In this paper we report new results on the source of the leakage of energetic particles (electrons with energy 15 keV to several MeV and ions with energy > 30 keV) from the dusk side of the magnetosphere. The dual spacecraft measurements show clearly that magnetospheric particles leak directly into the interplanetary medium from the closed magnetosphere, and are the source for the “upstream” particle events [Baker et al., 1996; Zwickl et al., 1981; Krimigis, 1992; Haggerty and Armstrong, 1999; Anagnostopoulos et al., 1998] that have been reported from instruments during prior single spacecraft encounters with the planet. These events, consisting of high-energy particles of Jovian origin, have been observed throughout the heliosphere [Baker and Van Allen, 1976] and their propagation has recently been modelled [Fichtner et al., 2000; Ferreira et al., 2001]. Jupiter then is an important contributor to the interplanetary charged particle fluxes, especially within an astronomical unit of the planet.

It has become apparent during recent years that global magnetospheric imaging through the detection of energetic neutral atoms (ENA) will be a crucial tool for the advancement of magnetospheric research via remote sensing technique. This report presents model calculations of ENA precipitation as detectable from a satellite orbiting at low altitudes (

Magnetic field data measured by the MAGMA instrument in the Martian magnetotail lobes are compared with the ram pressure of the upstream solar wind observed by the TAUS instrument in the circular orbits of the Phobos 2 spacecraft. High correlation was found between the magnetic field intensity in the Martian magnetotail lobes and the solar wind ram pressure. From this relationship the average flaring angle of the Martian magnetotail was determined as approximately 13 deg, and the average magnetosonic Mach number was estimated as approximately 5. The observed relationship between the Martian magnetotail magnetic field intensity and the solar wind magnetic field reflects the correlation of the solar wind magnetic field to the ram pressure providing a value of approximately 7 for the average Alfvenic Mach number. The flaring angle obtained for the Martian magnetotail was found to be an intermediate value between the flaring angle of the magnetotail of the Earth and that of Venus at comparable distances.

Comprehensive energy density studies provide an important measure of the participation of various sources in energization processes and have been relatively rare in the literature. We present a statistical study of the energy density of the near-Earth magnetotail major ions (H(+), O(+), He(++), He(+)) during substorm expansion phase and discuss its implications for the solar wind/magnetosphere/ionosphere coupling. Our aim is to examine the relation between auroral activity and the particle energization during substorms through the correlation between the AE indices and the energy density of the major magnetospheric ions. The data we used here were collected by the charge-energy-mass (CHEM) spectrometer on board the Active Magnetospheric Particle Trace Explorer (AMPTE)/Charge Composition Explorer (CCE) satellite in the near-equatorial nightside magnetosphere, at geocentric distances approximately 7 to 9 R(sub E). CHEM provided the opportunity to conduct the first statistical study of energy density in the near-Earth magnetotail with multispecies particle data extending into the higher energy range (greater than or equal to 20 keV/E). the use of 1-min AE indices in this study should be emphasized, as the use (in previous statistical studies) of the (3-hour) Kp index or of long-time averages of AE indices essentially smoothed out all the information on substorms. Most distinct feature of our study is the excellent correlation of O(+) energy density with the AE index, in contrast with the remarkably poor He(++) energy density - AE index correlation. Furthermore, we examined the relation of the ion energy density to the electrojet activity during substorm growth phase. The O(+) energy density is strongly correlated with the pre-onset AU index, that is the eastward electrojet intensity, which represents the growth phase current system. Our investigation shows that the near-Earth magnetotail is increasingly fed with energetic ionospheric ions during periods of enhanced dissipation of auroral currents. The participation of the ionosphere in the substorm energization processes seems to be closely, although not solely, associated with the solar wind/magnetosphere coupling. That is, the ionosphere influences actively the substorm energization processes by responding to the increased solar wind/magnetosphere coupling as well as to the unloading dissipation of stored energy, with the increased feeding of new material into the magnetosphere.

Magnetic field and plasma measurements on board the Soviet spacecraft Phobos 2 have been analyzed during five elliptical orbits around Mars. The existence of at least one separate plasma boundary and an adjacent plasma layer, called the planetopause and the transition region, between the bow shock and the ionopause seems to be a characteristic feature of the solar wind interaction with an almost nonmagnetized planetary ionosphere. It is suggested that the planetopause is a multiple-ion discontinuity, where a large number of solar wind protons are deflected at an exospheric density ramp. Strong changes in magnetic field and plasma flow direction within the transition region are interpreted as signatures of current sheets or internal shocks. The detected eclipse boundary in the tail is perhaps an elongation of the ionopause found at Venus. New ideas concerning the formation of multiple-ion flow boundaries by electrostatic plasma-plasma interaction are discussed. Finally, a remarkable Deimos event has been detected during the fifth orbit. This is explained as an interaction of the subsonic solar wind with a thin cloud of charged dust particles.

The measurements of proton spectra obtained by the TAUS spectrometer on board the Phobos 2 spacecraft in elliptical orbits near Mars are presented. A strong deceleration of the solar wind upstream of the Martian bow shock was revealed. It can be caused by the mass loading of the plasma flow by ions originating from the hot oxygen/hydrogen corona of Mars and/or by protons specularly reflected from the bow shock. In the first case the deceleration of the solar wind by about 100 km/s implies that the hot oxygen corona of Mars could be several times denser than it was anticipated to be (at least during the observation period that was close to solar cycle maximum). Furthermore, the loss of planetary oxygen through the corona appears to be the main process of oxygen loss from Mars. The upper limit of loss rate for such a process is determined to be 1026 oxygen atoms or 2.5 kg of oxygen per second.

A microcomputer system for automated analysis of action potentials recorded from cardiac Purkinje fibers is described. The system is based upon a DMD 800 microcomputer built around a Z80 microprocessor. Two different sampling intervals are used for analog-to-digital conversion of action potential recorded from driven fibers. The following parameters can be obtained on-line: action potential amplitude; overshoot; maximum diastolic potential; action potential duration measured both at −60 mV and at 90% of complete repolarization; and maximum rate of rise of the upstroke. The digitized form of five consecutive action potentials can be stored on a floppy disk. The automated system eliminates hand measurements; the on-line analysis of the action potentials during pharmacological interventions allows a rapid appreciation of drug effects.

Mass-Separating Ion Spectrometer (MSIS) flown on the Ion Release Module of the AMPTE Mission was derived from a similar instrument (MASSWE) proposed and accepted for the United States spacecraft of the International Solar Polar Mission (Ulysses). It features an energy-per-charge range of 0.5 V to 14 kV, two separate systems for particle detection, each with a field of view of approximately 3° X 36°, and is distinguished from previously flown instruments by imaging capabilities in mass per charge which are employed for simultaneously detecting the ion species H+, 4He2+, 16O6+, 4He+, (7Li+; 56Fel0+; 56Fe8+), (16O2+; 56Fe7+; 56Fe6+), 16O+, (3He2+, or 137Ba+). Three different measurement modes make possible the adaption to low-energy particle measurements in an ion-release cloud, solar-wind investigations, and magnetospheric plasma measurements.

The Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun (ISIS) is a complete science investigation on the Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission, which flies to within nine solar radii of the Sun’s surface. ISIS comprises a two-instrument suite to measure energetic particles over a very broad energy range, as well as coordinated management, science operations, data processing, and scientific analysis. Together, ISIS observations allow us to explore the mechanisms of energetic particles dynamics, including their: (1) Origins—defining the seed populations and physical conditions necessary for energetic particle acceleration; (2) Acceleration—determining the roles of shocks, reconnection, waves, and turbulence in accelerating energetic particles; and (3) Transport—revealing how energetic particles propagate from the corona out into the heliosphere. The two ISIS Energetic Particle Instruments measure lower (EPI-Lo) and higher (EPI-Hi) energy particles. EPI-Lo measures ions and ion composition from ∼20 keV/nucleon–15 MeV total energy and electrons from ∼25–1000 keV. EPI-Hi measures ions from ∼1–200 MeV/nucleon and electrons from ∼0.5–6 MeV. EPI-Lo comprises 80 tiny apertures with fields-of-view (FOVs) that sample over nearly a complete hemisphere, while EPI-Hi combines three telescopes that together provide five large-FOV apertures. ISIS observes continuously inside of 0.25 AU with a high data collection rate and burst data (EPI-Lo) coordinated with the rest of the SPP payload; outside of 0.25 AU, ISIS runs in low-rate science mode whenever feasible to capture as complete a record as possible of the solar energetic particle environment and provide calibration and continuity for measurements closer in to the Sun. The ISIS Science Operations Center plans and executes commanding, receives and analyzes all ISIS data, and coordinates science observations and analyses with the rest of the SPP science investigations. Together, ISIS’ unique observations on SPP will enable the discovery, untangling, and understanding of the important physical processes that govern energetic particles in the innermost regions of our heliosphere, for the first time. This paper summarizes the ISIS investigation at the time of the SPP mission Preliminary Design Review in January 2014.

The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a small explorer mission that launched on 19 October 2008 with the sole, focused science objective to discover the global interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium. IBEX is designed to achieve this objective by answering four fundamental science questions: (1) What is the global strength and structure of the termination shock, (2) How are energetic protons accelerated at the termination shock, (3) What are the global properties of the solar wind flow beyond the termination shock and in the heliotail, and (4) How does the interstellar flow interact with the heliosphere beyond the heliopause? The answers to these questions rely on energy-resolved images of energetic neutral atoms (ENAs), which originate beyond the termination shock, in the inner heliosheath. To make these exploratory ENA observations IBEX carries two ultra-high sensitivity ENA cameras on a simple spinning spacecraft. IBEX’s very high apogee Earth orbit was achieved using a new and significantly enhanced method for launching small satellites; this orbit allows viewing of the outer heliosphere from beyond the Earth’s relatively bright magnetospheric ENA emissions. The combination of full-sky imaging and energy spectral measurements of ENAs over the range from ∼10 eV to 6 keV provides the critical information to allow us to achieve our science objective and understand this global interaction for the first time. The IBEX mission was developed to provide the first global views of the Sun’s interstellar boundaries, unveiling the physics of the heliosphere’s interstellar interaction, providing a deeper understanding of the heliosphere and thereby astrospheres throughout the galaxy, and creating the opportunity to make even greater unanticipated discoveries.

UNLIKE plasma instruments used on previous space missions to Mars, the TAUS instrument on Phobos 2 was designed so that the energy per charge and angular spectra of three species of ions could be measured separately. These species were H+ and He2+ characteristic of the solar wind, and 'heavy ions' collected in one integral channel covering the mass per charge (M/q) range 3 to infinite, which we anticipated to find predominantly in the near-martian regime. In all spacecraft orbits around Mars we found a sharp boundary, separating the shocked solar wind from the martian magnetosphere which was characterized by the absence of solar-wind-like plasma. As the plasma inside the magnetosphere, and particularly in the tail, was dominated by heavy ions with number densities orders of magnitude higher than found in the solar wind, we assumed it was mainly of martian origin. Typically, heavy ions of low tailward flow velocity were seen near the boundary of the magnetotail, whereas high-speed tailward plasma flows of such ions were detected deeper inside the tail, a region not investigated before. Near the centre of the martian magnetotail a plasma regime, comparable to the terrestrial as well as the venusian1 plasma sheet, was detected, characterized by highly supersonic tailward streams of heavy ions. The flux of planetary ions leaving Mars through its magnetotail is tentatively estimated to be of the order of a few times 1025 s-1. Such loss rates would be significant for the dissipation of the martian atmosphere on cosmological timescales.

The collisional relaxation of a bi-Maxwellian and a double-beam distribution is studied in order to assess the reliability of the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) operator in comparison with the full Fokker-Planck Coulomb collision operator. If a velocity-dependent relaxation rate is employed, qualitative agreement can be achieved between both models. Using the friction rate ${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{F}$ in the BGK model yields numerical results most similar to those of the exact Fokker-Planck model. However, in quantitative terms the collisional relaxation of higher moments is only poorly described. In particular, for the skewness or heat flux the numerical differences are intolerable. For this and other reasons detailed in the paper, the BGK model cannot serve as a reliable calculation of transport properties. Nevertheless, it may have merits in qualitatively assessing collisional effects in inhomogeneous systems which otherwise have to be treated as entirely collision-free.