Search

This review covers about 40 species of the genus Sinularia, in which many compounds with novel chemical structures have been isolated, characterised and bioassayed for various activities since the beginning of marine chemistry until now. The bioactivities of the metabolites have been reported in the tables wherever found in the literature.

The effects of natural hybridization on secondary metabolite production and diversification have only recently been studied in plants and have essentially been overlooked in marine organisms. Chemical investigation of the hybrid soft coral Sinularia maxima x S. polydactyla resulted in the isolation of five new terpenoids, 7E-polymaxenolide (1), 7E-5-epipolymaxenolide (2), and polymaxenolides A-C (3-5), possessing a cembrane-africanane skeleton. Their structures were established by detailed analysis of NMR and MS data. The contentious issue of defining the absolute configuration at the stereogenic centers of the conformationally mobile cembrane macrocyclic ring was addressed by joint application of electronic circular dichroism and X-ray diffraction analyses.

Soft corals of the genusSinulariaare being increasingly adopted to treat a wide variety of disease processes. However, the mechanism underlying its activity against human oral cancer cells is poorly understood. This study evaluates the cyototoxicity effects of the genusSinulariaextracts (S. grandilobata, S. parva, S. triangula, S. scabra, S. nanolobataandS. gibberosa) by SCC25 and HaCaT cells. The cell adhesion assay indicates that extracts reduce the cell attachment. Extracts exhibit a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect using MTS assay.Treatment of extracts to observe the morphological alterations in cells, membrane blebbing, nuclear condensation, and apoptotic bodies is demonstrated. Flow cytometry shows that extracts sensitized the cells in theG0/G1andG2/Mphases with a concomitant significantly increased sub-G1fraction, suggesting cell death by apoptosis. Extracts of the genusSinulariathus apparently cause apoptosis of SCC25 and HaCaT cells, and warrant further research investigating the possible antioral cancer compounds in these soft corals.

Increased age will affect the bacterial population of the human digestive tract, in which many bacteria will adapt and colonize different sites. Combining probiotics and prebiotics in what has been called a synbiotic could beneficially affect the host by improving survival and implantation/adhesion of live microbial dietary supplements in the gastrointestinal flora. Probiotic bacteria are expected to survive in the digestive tract to give health effects to the host by balancing the intestinal microflora. The addition of fructo-oligosaccharides is expected to increase viability and growth of probiotics in the digestive tract. The objective of the current research is to investigate the effect of probiotic yoghurt and synbiotic yoghurt of Etawa Breed Cross Saanen (PESA) goats together with fructo-oligosaccharides, on female rats and to study the stability of probiotic bacteria in the digestive tracts. The results showed that synbiotic yoghurt intake had no significant influence (p>0.05) on ration consumption, body weight gain, feed conversion, final body weight and mortality. The synbiotic intake significantly increased the population of Bifidobacterium longum (p

Two new sesquiterpenoids, sinularioperoxide E (1), ethyl 5-[(2′S,5′E)-2′, 6′-dimethylocta-5′,7′-dienyl]furan-3-carboxylate (3), and a new C11 terpenoid-related carboxylic acid, (3S,6E)-3,7-dimethyl-nona-6,8-dienoic acid (2) were isolated from a Formosan soft coral Sinularia sp. The structures of 1-3 were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses and by comparison of the spectral data with those of the related metabolites.

The new cembranoid diterpene danielid (1) along with 3alpha-ethoxyfuranocembranoid 2, pukalide (3), 13alpha-acetoxypukalide (4), furanocembranoid 5, and furanosesquiterpene 6 have been isolated from the soft coral Sinularia asterolobata. The furanocembranoid diterpene 11beta,12beta-epoxypukalide (7) and the sesquiterpene (-)-bicyclogermacrene (8) have been obtained from the soft coral Litophyton arboreum. The structures were elucidated primarily by NMR spectroscopy. The furanocembranoids 2, 4, and 5 show good antiproliferative activities against the cell lines L-929 and K-562, and weak cytotoxic effects on HeLa cells.

Five new polyoxygenated steroids 1–5 have been isolated from a Formosan soft coral Sinularia facile. The structures of new metabolites were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analys...

Four new cembranoids, querciformolides A-D (1-4), along with two known cembranoids, 7 and 8, have been isolated from the soft coral Sinularia querciformis. Furthermore, chemical investigation of Sinularia granosa has afforded three new cembranoids, querciformolide B (2) and granosolides A (5) and B (6). The structures of the new metabolites were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic methods, and that of 2 was further confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis. The absolute configurations of 1 and 2 were determined by a modified Mosher's method. Among these metabolites, 2-6 are rarely found cembranoids possessing a tetrahydrofuran moiety with a 4,7-ether linkage; in addition, 1 is the first epsilon-lactone cembrane found that possesses a tetrahydropyran moiety with a 4,8-ether linkage. None of these compounds were found to be cytotoxic toward a limited panel of cancer cell lines. However, compounds 3, 7, and 8 significantly inhibited the accumulation of the pro-inflammatory iNOS and COX-2 proteins in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells.

Two new diterpenes, sinulodurin A (1) and sinulodurin B (2), along with two known sterols, 24 S-methyl cholesterol and 24-methylene cholesterol, were isolated from the Palau soft coral Sinularia dura. The structures of the new metabolites were determined on the basis of spectroscopic methods and by comparison of NMR data with those of related metabolites. Sinulodurin A (1) and sinulodurin B (2) showed antiproliferative activity against highly malignant +SA mammary epithelial cells with an IC 50 range of 20-30 microM. They also displayed anti-invasive activity against human highly metastatic prostate cancer PC-3M-CT+ cells in the spheroid disaggregation assay. Furthermore, the antimicrobial activities of the isolates were tested.

A platform reef at Bach Long Vi Island (Gulf of Tonkin in the South China Sea) was investigated for the first time. In all, 264 species of corals and their accompanying species of macrobenthos were found. Among the scleractinian corals, acroporids, poritids, and mussids dominated. Monospecific aggregations of alcyonarians Sinularia and Lobophytum and the hydroid Millepora were rather numerous. Based on its geomorphological characteristics, coral species diversity and zonal distribution, the investigated reef is comparable with ribbon and platform reefs on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and in the Indian Ocean.

The relationship between taxonomic position and the lipid composition of octocorals from coastal waters of Vietnam was investigated. The principal component analysis of the total fatty acid (FA) composition of 64 coral specimens showed that total FAs are markers at the family level. A good distinction was obtained between antipatarians, gorgonians, and alcyonarians. Azooxanthellate corals of the genus Dendronephthya formed a separate group. The alcyonarian genera Sinularia, Lobophytum, and Sarcophyton were distinguished only by the composition of polyunsaturated FAs. The taxon-specific composition of FAs in octocorals is likely to be determined by differences in the nutrition of food sources, symbiont composition, and the enzymatic activity of FA biosynthesis.

A collection of Sinularia specimens from Bremer and West Woody islands (Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia) is presented; thirteen different species were recognized, six of which are new to science and are described and figured: S. bremerensis, S. confusa, S. diffusa, S. linnei, S. papula and S. woodyensis.

A collection of Sinularia specimens from Palau has been studied, which represents 38 different species. Of these, 15 are new to science, which are described and figured: S. babeldaobensis; S. bisulca; S. crebra; S. digitata; S. finitima; S. flaccida; S. foliata; S. humilis; S. luxuriosa; S. siaesensis; S. sublimis; S. tumulosa; S. ultima; S. uniformis; S. verruca. S. larsonae Verseveldt, in Verseveldt & Alderslade, 1982, is synonymized with S. sobolifera Verseveldt & Tursch, 1979.

The present study describes antihyperglycaemic activity in the two soft corals Sinularia firma Tixier Durivault and Sinularia erecta Tixier Durivault (phylum: Coelentrata). The methanolic extracts of S. firma and S. erecta exert a blood-glucose-lowering effect of 14.5% and 16.1%, respectively, on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats at an oral dose of 250 mg/kg body weight. These extracts were also found to inhibit the postprandial increase in hyperglycemia in normal rats by 13.0% and 12.7%, respectively, post sucrose challenge. Many compounds were isolated from these extracts; however none of them have shown a promising inhibitory effect on the tested enzymes of the insulin/glucose/glycogen cascade, i.e., protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B, glucose-6-phosphatase, and glycogen phosphorylase, respectively.

5-episinuleptolide (1) is an abundant norcembranolide diterpene isolated from several species of the soft coral genus Sinularia. Biocatalytic transformation studies of 1 using Streptomyces lavendulea ATCC 8664 resulted in the isolation and characterization of two new metabolites 2 and 3. Compound 2, 6alpha-hydroxy-5-episinuleptolide was produced via a stereoselective reduction of 1 and was further metabolized into compound 3 which has a 3,8-bicylized cembranoid skeleton. The structures and configurations of the metabolites were determined by spectroscopic and X-ray crystallographic analyses.

The Sinularia fauna of Ambon and Seram is presented. Five new species are described and figured: S. acuta, S. corpulentissima, S. curvata, S. kotanianensis, and S. longula. In addition, specimens of S. humesi Verseveldt, 1968, and S. slieringsi Ofwegen & Vennam, 1991, are discussed. In total, the Sinularia fauna of Ambon consists of 38 species, and that of Seram of 8 species.

Emerging diseases of marine invertebrates have been implicated as one of the major causes of the continuing decline in coral reefs worldwide. To date, most of the focus on marine diseases has been aimed at hard (scleractinian) corals, which are the main reef builders worldwide. However, soft (alcyonacean) corals are also essential components of tropical reefs, representing food, habitat and the 'glue' that consolidates reefs, and they are subject to the same stressors as hard corals. Sinularia maxima and S. polydactyla are the dominant soft corals on the shallow reefs of Guam, where they hybridize. In addition to both parent species, the hybrid soft coral population in Guam is particularly affected by Sinularia tissue loss disease. Using label-free shotgun proteomics, we identified differences in protein expression between healthy and diseased colonies of the hybrid S. maxima × S. polydactyla. This study provided qualitative and quantitative data on specific proteins that were differentially expressed under the stress of disease. In particular, metabolic proteins were down-regulated, whereas proteins related to stress and to symbiont photosynthesis were up-regulated in the diseased soft corals. These results indicate that soft corals are responding to pathogenesis at the level of the proteome, and that this label-free approach can be used to identify and quantify protein biomarkers of sub-lethal stress in studies of marine disease.

Six new casbane diterpenoids, sinularcasbanes G-L (1-6, resp.) were isolated from the soft coral Sinularia sp. Their structures were established by extensive spectroscopic analyses, especially 2D-NMR and HR-ESI-MS. The configuration was confirmed by CD analyses and by comparison with data reported in the literature. The compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity against ten human cancer cell lines (H1975, U937, K562, BGC823, MOLT-4, MCF-7, A549, HeLa, HL60, and Huh-7) and showed no activity.

A chromatographic and NMR spectroscopy-based fractionation on the acetone extracts of the soft coral Sinularia sandensis led to the isolation of a novel sesquiterpenoid, sandensone A (1). The structure of 1 was elucidated based on comprehensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data as well as HRESIMS spectrometry. The absolute configuration at C-12 of 1 was determined as R using a modified Mosher’s method. The cytotoxicity against A549 (human lung carcinoma), HT-29 (human colon adenocarcinoma), and P-388 (mouse lymphocytic leukemia) cancer cell lines as well as antiviral activity against HCMV (human cytomegalovirus) were evaluated in vitro.

New cembranoids 4-carbomethoxyl-10-epigyrosanoldie E (1), 7-acetylsinumaximol B (2), diepoxycembrene B (6), dihydromanaarenolide I (8), and isosinulaflexiolide K (9), along with 11 known related metabolites, were isolated from cultured soft corals Sinularia sandensis and Sinularia flexibilis. The structures were elucidated by means of infrared, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques, and the absolute configurations of 1, 4, 9, and 15 were further confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The absolute configurations of these coral metabolites and comparison with known analogues showed that one hypothesis (that cembrane diterpenes possessing an absolute configuration of an isopropyl group at C1 obtained from Alcyonacean soft corals belong to the α series, whereas analogues isolated from Gorgonacean corals belong to the β series) is not applicable for a small number of cembranoids. An in vitro anti-inflammatory study using LPS-stimulated macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7 revealed that compounds 9-14 significantly suppressed the accumulation of pro-inflammatory proteins, iNOS and COX-2. Structure-activity relationship analysis indicated that cembrane-type compounds with one seven-membered lactone moiety at C-1 are potential anti-inflammatory agents. This is the first culture system in the world that has successfully been used to farm S. sandensis.

Two novel dinormonoterpenes, designated as mollisolactones A and B, were discovered from the soft coral Sinularia mollis on the basis of a chromatographic and NMR spectroscopy-based fractionation. Their structures were solved through analysis of comprehensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data and HRESIMS experiments. The biological activities of the obtained metabolites were evaluated for cytotoxicity against A-459 (human lung carcinoma), HT-29 (human colon adenocarcinoma), and P-388 (mouse lymphocytic leukemia) cancer cell lines as well as antiviral activity against HCMV (human cytomegalovirus).

Soft corals contain bioactive compounds that can be used as a marine natural product. The puposes of this study was to determine of the soft corals inhibition potential for antibacterial activity. The methodology in this study included field sampling, extraction (in the solvent of n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol), antibacterial bioassay, and briefly describe the type of soft coral that possesed the highest inhibition. In sampling treatment, the biomass among wet samples and dry samples varied. The highest shrinkage due to drying was found in Nephthea, followed by Lobophytum and Sarcophyton, while the lowest was found in the genus of Sinularia. Extracted from 12 samples of soft coral, the lowest extract weight was found in the semi-polar solvent (EtOAc), while the extract weight of n-Hex and MeOH was vary. Inhibition power from all extract samples was found on soft coral extract in the EtOAc and MeOH solvents. The highest value of inhibition power was found in soft coral of Sinularia polydactyla and S. Flexibilis within strong catogery. Keywords: bioactive compounds, Lobophytum, Nephthea, Sarcophyton, Sinularia, soft coral

The cytotoxic activity of sinulariaoid A (+)-(I), sinulariaoid B (+)-(II), sinulariaoid C (+)-(III), sinulariaoid D (+)-(IV), capilloloid (V), dihydrosinularin (VI), sinularin (VII), and dihydrosinuflexolide (VIII) is evaluated with (+)-(I) being the most potent compound in vitro.

Fatty acids (FAs) of soft corals contain two very-long-chain tetracosapolyenoic acids (TPA, 24:5n-6 and 24:6n-3), which are chemotaxonomic markers of all species of the subclass Octocorallia. The distribution of TPA in molecular species of different phospholipid (PL) classes was investigated for the first time in the soft corals Sinularia macropodia and Capnella sp. From shallow waters of Vietnam. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylserine (PS), and phosphatidylinositol (PI) were the major PL classes of S. macropodia and Capnella sp. More than thirty two molecular species of these four PL classes were determined by high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. 18:1e/20:4 PE, 18:0e/20:4 PC, 18:0e/24:5 PS, and 18:0/24:5 PI were the major molecular species of PL in both coral species. PE, PC, and PS mainly consisted of alkyl acyl and alkenyl acyl forms, but diacyl forms predominated in PI. TPA were the principal FAs in PS and PI, whereas 20:4n-6 was more abundant in PE and PC. Selective incorporation of TPA in the molecules of PS and PI are supposed to be a specific feature of the biosynthesis of PL in alcyonarians. To study the trophic and symbiotic relationships of soft corals, some molecular species of PS and PI with TPA may be applied as lipid molecular markers of coral polyps.

Sinularia polydactyla, an abundant Indo-Pacific soft coral species, exhibits biochemical phenotypic plasticity, prompting investigations into differences in mRNA diversity and complexity in response to predation stress. Changes in transcriptome complexity of S. polydactyla cDNA libraries were measured using reannealing rate assays that employ an informatics-based analysis of kinetic profiles. This method allows for quick, high-throughput analysis of sequence complexity and has been used to compare transcriptome-level differences in other marine invertebrates. Here, S. polydactyla colonies were transplanted between two sites exhibiting high and low predation levels. Statistically significant differences between bite scar counts found on different transplant groups suggest site-specific variation in predation. Changes in mRNA pool complexity were quantified to indicate shifts in secondary metabolite concentration between treatment groups. Examining the complexity of the mRNA pool in this soft coral is one of the first steps toward understanding the mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity at a biochemical and molecular level.

Two new polyhydroxylated steroids, (2β,3β,4α,5α,8β,11β)-4-methylergost-24(28)-ene-2,3,8,11-tetrol-(1) and (3β,5α,6β)-ergosta-22,24(28)-diene-3,5,6,19-tetrol (3), together with the six known related steroids 2 and 4–8, were isolated from the Hainan soft coral Sinularia sp. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis and by comparison with previously reported data. The structure of the known compound 9 (hyrtiosterol) was revised as 2 by extensive analysis of the ROESY data and by the NOE difference experiment.

Two new sesquiterpenes, 1S*, 4R*, 5S*, 6R*, 7S*, 10S*-1(5), 6(7)-diepoxy-4-guaiol (1) and 1S*, 4S*, 5S*, 10R*-4,10-guaianediol (2) have been isolated from the ethyl acetate soluble portion of the soft coral Sinularia sp., and their stereostructure were determined by spectroscopic methods and by X-ray single crystal analysis. Both compounds showed antioxidant and cytotoxic activities.

Four novel cyclic peroxide-containing sesquiterpenes ( 1–4 ), with a γ-alkylidene-α-methyl-α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone moiety, have been isolated from a Formosan soft coral of the genus Sinularia. Their structures were elucidated mainly by extensive 1D and 2D NMR experiments.

Chemical examination of the soft coral Sinularia capillosa resulted in the isolation of eight new sesquiterpenoids named capillosananes S–Z (1–8) and six known sesquiterpenes. The structures of the new compounds were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis, including CD effects and Mosher method for the assignment of their absolute configurations. Capillosananes S–U (1–3) presented as the novel carbon skeletons with bicyclo[3,6,0] and bicyclo[4,5,0] systems, while capillosanane V (4) was characteristic of an unprecedented tricyclic skeleton. Capillosananes W–X (5–6) were assigned to the unusual dumortane-type sesquiterpenes. In addition, the absolute configurations of the stereoisomers of isodaucene-9,14-diol were assigned for the first time.

Two new 19-oxygenated polyhydroxy steroids, 24-methylcholesta-5, 24(28)-diene-3 beta, 7 beta, 19-triol-19-monoacetate (1), 24-methylcholesta-5, 24(28)-diene-3 beta, 7 beta, 19-triol-7 beta, 19-diacetate (3), together with a known steroid, 24-methylcholesta-5, 24(28)-diene-3 beta, 7 beta, 19-triol-7 beta-monoacetate (4), have been isolated from the soft coral Sinularia sp. collected from the South China Sea and characterized through interpretation of spectral data.

A repeated silica gel column chromatography followed by HPLC purification on the methanol extract of marine soft coral Sinularia dissecta , resulted in the isolation of fifteen polyhydroxylated steroids ( 1 – 15 ), involving six new C-18 functionalized steroids, 3β-acetoxy-1α,11α-dihydroxygorgost-5-en-18-oic acid ( 1 ), gorgost-5-en-1α,3β,11α,18-tetrol ( 2 ), 18-acetoxy-1α,3β,11α-trihydroxygorgost-5-ene ( 3 ), 24( S )-3β-acetoxy-1α, 11α-dihydroxyergost-5-en-18-oic acid ( 4 ), 24( S )-ergost-5-en-1α,3β,11α,18-tetrol ( 5 ), and dissectolide ( 6 ). The structures of the new compounds were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic data (IR, MS, 1 H and 13 C NMR, HMQC, HMBC, and NOESY) analysis. Compound 6 was found as an unusual sterol bearing a lactone functionality.

The deleterious effects of temperature-induced coral bleaching, a process by which corals lose their endosymbiotic algae (zooxanthellae; genus Symbiodinium) primarily at temperatures above mean yearly maximums, has not been well described for alcyonacean soft corals (Coelenterata, Octocorallia). The study of Symbiodinium cells lost from Sarcophyton ehrenbergi, Sinularia sp., and Xenia sp., which have not been compared in bleaching studies, indicate that the soft coral S. ehrenbergi released the greatest number of symbiont cells, however, it was less susceptible to heat stress surviving temperatures of 34 degrees C for > 39 h. Sinularia sp. showed intermediate levels of bleaching tolerance to elevated temperatures, surviving prolonged exposures at 32 degrees C, but dying within 24 h at 34 degrees C. Xenia sp., however, was the most vulnerable to high heat stress maximally releasing Symbiodinium at temperatures

The soft coral genus Sinularia is one of the most widely distributed soft corals. It constitutes a dominant portion of the biomass in the tropical reef environment. Sinularia elaborates a rich harvest of secondary metabolites including sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, polyhydroxylated steroids, and polyamine compounds. These metabolites were recently shown to possess a range of biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities. During the past decade, Sinularia has yielded many new structures with novel skeletons. Several of the previously published secondary metabolites have been reexamined for their pharmacological properties, and the results strongly support further investigations. The current article reviews the terpenoids of the soft coral genus Sinularia and their pharmacological significance.

We evaluated the role that demography may play in the formation of local aggregations of Sinularia flexibilis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833), a soft coral that commonly dominates inshore coral reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia. Two populations on inshore reefs of the Palm Islands were censused once a year for 3 years, starting 10 mo after the extensive bleaching mortality in early 1998. Larger colonies became more prevalent over time; mean colony size increasing by 35%, from 276 cm2 in 1998 to 373 cm2 in 2000. Growth rates were size dependent, with smaller colonies growing proportionally faster than larger colonies. Change in size relative to initial size indicated an expected mean annual growth of 128 cm2 for a 50-cm2 colony. Zero growth was predicted at 532±21cm2, with colonies larger than this likely to undergo fission or shrink. Forty-three percent of colonies were undergoing fission at any time at both localities. Most new colonies were produced by fission (70%, n=285), with the remainder produced by the recruitment of sexually produced larvae (19%) or by colony translocation (11%). The sexual and asexual recruitment rates were 0.24 and 1.0 recruits m- 2 year−1, respectively. Opportunistic recruitment and rapid growth following disturbances are commonly assumed to be the mechanisms leading soft corals to dominate locally. In this study, these mechanisms operated more slowly than expected, with no net change in population size.

The study of symbiont cells lost from bleached scleractinian corals Acropora hyacinthus, Favites complanata, and Porites solida and octocorals Sarcophyton ehrenbergi, Sinularia sp., and Xenia sp. using flow cytometry shows that Symbiodinium die from either apoptosis or necrosis. Despite the majority of lost Symbiodinium cells being viable at 28 °C, the predominance of apoptotic and necrotic symbiont cells at higher temperatures indicates that the proportion of live cells decreases with increasing temperature. This implies that reinfection of corals at high temperatures by Symbiodinium lost from scleractinian corals may be less frequent than previously described, since many of the symbiont cells exhibit nonreversible symptoms of approaching cell death. The fraction of viable Symbiodinium cells lost from S. ehrenbergi, Xenia sp., and Sinularia at 32 °C was greater than that at 28 °C. At 34 °C, the fraction of viable cells lost from S. ehrenbergi and Xenia sp. fell but not from Sinularia sp., which suggests that their symbionts have higher temperature tolerances. Thus, Symbiodinium from octocorals may represent “pools” of genetically resistant symbionts available for reinfection of other reef organisms. This has been proposed previously for Symbiodinium in some scleractinian corals, but this is the first evidence for such, particularly for an octocoral. Many of the viable cells, determined using Trypan blue staining techniques, are in fact actually undergoing apoptosis or necrosis, when examined using Annexin V-fluor and propidium iodide staining profiles. The characterization of more apoptotic and necrotic cells than viable cells is critical, as this indicates that the loss of Symbiodinium cells cannot be beneficial to other bleached corals for symbiotic reassociation.

One of the earliest quantitative surveys of soft corals, on a reef flat in Pago Pago Harbour, American Samoa, was repeated 85 years later. The alcyoniid communities there, which were the dominant benthic organisms during the initial survey, have suffered a drastic decline of 99% cover in the interim. The most likely causes of the decline are anthropogenic disturbance associated with reclamation along the harbour from the 1940s to early 1960s, compounded by chronic pollution from industrial wastewater discharge from the mid-1950s to late 1980s. The decline in one dominant species, Sinularia polydactyla, is likely to have serious consequences for the reef as unusually for a soft coral, this had been the major reef building species. Life-history traits of certain Sinularia and Sarcophyton, such as slow growth and low rates of sexual reproduction, mean they will be slower to recover from severe disturbance than many scleractinian corals.

Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) surveys at 465 sites on 11 reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) inventoried coral species, their relative abundances, and their distributions during 2000-2002. Surveys (462) around the 10 islands were in depths of a20 m, and three surveys on the sub- merged Raita Bank were in depths of 30-35 m. Data from 401 REA sites met criteria for quantitative analysis. Results include 11 first records for stony coral species in the Hawaiian Archipelago and 29 range extensions to the NWHI. Several species may be new to science. There are now 57 stony coral species known in the shallow subtropical waters of the NWHI, similar to the 59 shallow and deep-water species known in the better-studied and more tropical main Hawaiian Islands. Coral endemism is high in the NWHI: 17 endemic species (30%) account for 37-53% of the abundance of stony corals on each reef of the NWHI. Three genera (Montipora, Porites, Pocillopora) contain 15 of the 17 en- demic species and most of the endemic abundance. Seven Acropora species are now known from the central NWHI despite their near absence from the main Hawaiian Islands. Coral abundance and diversity are highest at the large, open atolls of the central NWHI (French Frigate, Maro, Lisianski) and decline gradually through the remaining atolls to the northwest (Pearl and Hermes, Midway, and Kure). Stony corals are also less abundant and less diverse off the exposed basalt islands to the southeast (Nihoa, Necker, La Perouse, Gardner), where soft corals (Sinularia, Palythoa) are more abundant. Exposure to severe wave action appears to limit coral development off these small islands and sur- rounding deep platforms. Temperature extremes and natural accumulation of lagoon sediments may contribute to decline of coral species and abundance at the northwestern end of the chain.

Sphingolipids and glycolipids including previously unknown (2S,3S,4R)-1,3,4-trihydroxy-2-(2-(R)-hydroxyoctadecanoylamino)octadec-8E-ene, (2S,3R)-1,3-dihydroxy-2-octadecanoylamino-4E,8E-hexadecadiene, and (2-hydroxy-3-hexadecyloxypropyl)-α-L-fucopyranoside were isolated from soft corals collected on the shelf near the Andaman Islands (Indian Ocean). The structures of all compounds were established by spectroscopic methods and chemical analyses. The lipids possessed antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus oryzae, and Candida albicans.

Chemical analysis of the Indonesian soft coral Sinularia sp. (order Alcyonacea, family Alcyoniidae) afforded two new alkaloids, named sinulasulfoxide (1) and sinulasulfone (2), characterized by an amide linkage between a phytanic acid moiety and an uncommon sulfur-containing unit. Their complete stereostructures were elucidated by interpretation of MS and NMR data along with CD analysis and chemical modifications. Sinulasulfoxide (1) proved to moderately inhibit LPS-induced NO release.

Species composition of soft corals from the Yaeyama and Miyako island groups, of Sakishima Is., located at the southern part of the Ryukyu Archipelago were studied during 1992 and 1993. SCUBA collections were carried out at 18 sites around the islands down to 30m. The collection, comprising approximately 200 specimens, yielded 45 species. The survey established two new species: Sinularia higai and S. tanakai, and in addition revealed 14 new zoogeographical records. Among the latter are Protodendron and Rhytisma species, which are the first records of these genera in the Ryukyu Archipelago. The obtained results along with a previous survey on Sesoko Is. show the genus Sinularia have the highest species diversity on the reefs, comprising 33-45% of total species number. Synthesizing the existing data for the south Ryukyu Archipelago yielded a total of 56 soft coral species (11 genera) of the families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, Alcyoniidae and Briareidae.Since the survey was conducted prior to the recent mass coral bleaching event (1998) in the region, it is of prime importance to monitor changes in soft coral species diversity and abundance there. Such data will indicate possible shifts in benthic community structure on the reefs and the rate of recovery.

The species composition of soft corals of the families Tubiporidae, Alcyoniidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae is presented for the Dahlak Archipelago (15-16oS) in the southern Red Sea in Eritrean waters. A comprehensive collection was made during several field trips (1993-2002) to various sites in this archipelago. Some unexamined specimens obtained during the Israeli South Red Sea expeditions (1962 and 1965) to the region were also included in the study. A systematic list of soft corals is presented, comprising 28 species based on the material and previous literature. The list includes five genera (Rhytisma, Sinularia, Paralemnalia, Scleronephthya, and Heteroxenia) and sixteen species recorded for the first time in the southern Red Sea. Seven of these species belong to the genus Sinularia and three to Ovabunda. All the species found belong to the Indo-Pacific faunistic province and have been previously recorded elsewhere in the Red Sea. A distinct north to south latitudinal diversity attenuation of soft cor...

Two new hydroxycembranes 1 and 2 and two known epoxycembrane 3 and isocembrol 4 have been isolated from a Formosan soft coral Sinularia facile. The structures of new metabolites were elucidated on ...

A novel compound, named sinutriangulin A (1), was isolated from the soft coral Sinularia triangula. The compound possesses a new carbon skeleton that is derived from the cubitane skeleton. The structure was determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses. In addition, compound 1 exhibited weak cytotoxicity toward human tumor cell lines CCRF-CEM and DLD-1.

Eight new compounds, sinulolides A–H (1–8), along with two known compounds, α-methoxy-2,3-dimethyl-butenolide (9) and sinularone D (10), were isolated from the soft coral Sinularia sp. The structures of these compounds were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis. The absolute configurations were determined on the basis of electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data analysis. Compounds 5 and 10 exhibited moderate effects for the inhibition of NF-κB activation.

Cytotoxic screening reveals that sinugyrosanolide A (I) displays moderate cytotoxicity against P-388 cell line, but shows no discernible activity against HCMV cells and no activity against bacteria (E.

A natural diastereomeric mixture of 5-(6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-chroman-2-yl)-2-methyl-pentanoic acid methyl ester (1), was isolated from the soft coral Sinularia arborea. The structure of 1 was elucidated by spectroscopic methods and 1 displayed a significantly inhibitory effect on the generation of superoxide anion by human neutrophils.

Two novel diterpenoids, sinularbols A (1) and B (2), which were found to possess a new carbon skeleton were isolated from the soft coral Sinularia arborea. The structures of compounds 1 and 2 were elucidated by spectroscopic methods and 2 displayed a moderately inhibitory effect on the generation of superoxide anion by human neutrophils.

Two field experiments were performed on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, at Orpheus Island and Lizard Island, respectively, to investigate the effects of allelopathic soft corals on survivorship and community structure of scleractinian coral spat. Ceramic tiles were placed around the allelopathic soft corals Sinularia flexibilis (Quoy & Gaimard 1833) and Sarcophyton glaucum (Quoy & Gaimard 1833), and controls. One control consisted of settlement plates surrounding a scleractinian coral (non-allelopathic planktivore); another control had no adult soft or scleractinian coral present. The experimental soft corals affected the recruitment of various taxonomic groups of coral spat differentially, as evidenced by the diversity of coral spat settling in treatments and controls. At Orpheus Island (O.I., n = 1038 spat) and Lizard Island (L.I., n = 7032 spat), there were significant differences between recruitment success of the two dominant coral taxa, Pocilloporidae (O.I., 61.4 %; L.I., 20.5 %) and Acroporidae (O.I., 33.7 %; L.I., 53 %). Settlement plates exposed to Sinularia flexibilis at either site had the lowest proportion of acroporid recruits. Diversity indices (Shannon-Wiener Indices) varied significantly between treatments at both Orpheus and Lizard Islands. This appears to be due to selective inhibition of acroporid spat by Sinularia flexibilis at both sites. Growth of coral spat was higher on settlement plates in the presence of Sarcophyton at Lizard Island. Settlement of most associated epibiota was generally inhibited under these conditions. Coral spat survivorship was highest in the presence of Sinularia at Orpheus ­Island; at Lizard Island, this was the case with the Sarcophyton treatment. Higher survivorship, and in some cases growth, of coral spat near soft corals was apparently due to reduced competition for space between spat and associated epibiota. This hypothesis is supported by the results of a sister experiment where a coating of Sinularia flexibilis extract on settlement tiles significantly decreased fouling by sessile epibiota. Soft corals have an allelopathic effect on recruitment and early development of scleractinian corals and, consequently, on early coral reef community succession.