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Summary The distribution of plant species in respect of heavy metal levels (pb, Zn) and heavy metal toxicity of soils was the subject of a detailed investigation at two metalliferous regions of the Eifel Mountains, Germany, and the adjacent areas of Belgium. Heavy metal toxicity, defined as the ratio of heavy metal to calcium in the ammonium acetate-soluble soil extract, gives a better indication of the sensitivity of plants to the toxic effects of lead and zinc than do the actual metal concentrations present in the soil, particularly in the case of lead. Highly lead-tolerant plants, such as the metallophytes Armeria maritima and Silene vulgaris , occur on soils in which the molar ratio of lead to calcium is greater than 1. Highly sensitive species are only found on such soils in exceptional cases. Certain species, for instance Agrostis capillaris and Festuca ovin° , occupy a broad spectrum of Pb/Ca values. An analogous situation exists in the case of zinc, although it is not as distinctive. The molar ratio of zinc to calcium separating highly sensitive species from more tolerant ones lies between 0.1 and 0.2.

In response to external Cd supply Cd-tolerant Silene vulgaris plants produce three times less phytochelatins than Cd-sensitive ones. Phytochelatin synthase activity in roots of both ecotypes was measured in order to determine whether a lower enzyme activity could be responsible for the lower phytochelatin production. The phytochelatin synthase activity in tolerant plants, grown in the absence or in the presence of Cd, tended to be slightly lower than that in sensitive ones. However, the difference was too small to account for the differential phytochelatin contents observed. Observations on phytochelatin synthesis in excised roots and on the recovery of the level of glutathione, the precursor of phytochelatins, after arresting the Cd exposure, suggested that tolerant plants did not exhibit a decreased capacity to synthesize glutathione. Furthermore, the relative decrease in the phytochelatin concentration after arresting the Cd-exposure was identical for both populations, indicating that the difference in phytochelatin concentrations was not the result of a differential rate of phytochelatin degradation.

Highland (altitude 1600 m above sea level) and lowland (altitude -2 m below sea level) populations of the perennial herb Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, were tested on their response to elevated levels of UV-B radiation. Highland populations typically receive high natural UV-B fluxes, whereas lowland populations receive a lower natural UV-B dose. Adaptation to high UV-B levels of the highland population is to be expected. Experimental comparison of growth rates, gas exchange rates, transpiration and biochemical parameters using adult plants as well as seedlings did not show a difference in the response to elevated UV-B levels between the two populations. Individuals of both populations were relatively insensitive to elevated UV-B radiation. The response of alpine and lowland populations of Silene vulgaris is discussed in relation to the dispersal of this species after the last ice age.

Summary The UV-B radiation tolerant perennial herb Silene vulgaris was tested on the influence of incident UV-B fluxes during growth on the synthesis of UV-B absorbing pigments in the leaves. Analysis of methanolic leaf extracts showed a stimulating effect of UV-B on the absorbing ability of leaf extracts. HPLC analysis made clear that UV-B radiation stimulated extractable flavonoid concentrations in leaves, but that UV-B absorption could only be partly attributed to these flavonoids. The contribution of flavonoids to UV-B absorption diminishes if plants mature. Other possible functions of flavonoids in plants growing under elevated UV-B conditions are discussed.

Four populations, two each of Silene inflata and Biscutella laevigata, characterized by different tolerances to lead (inducible and constitutional) were studied in terms of possible relationship among Pb-tolerance and tolerance to Ca-, Mg- and P-deficits, general nutrient stress and the respective Ca-, Mg- and P-status of the plants. Plants were grown in a growth chamber in solution cultures containing 5, 10 or 20 mg Pb dm−3. Both Silene populations were more Pb-tolerant than Biscutella. Root lead concentrations in all plants were several times higher than in shoots. Shoot lead concentrations were significantly higher in both Silene populations than in Biscutella. The high lead tolerance of the Silene populations was accompanied by their high Ca-status and high tolerance to calcium deficit. These features of calcium metabolism are characteristic of this species and were not found in the Biscutella populations, which indicates that it did not evolve with the development of inducible tolerance to lead. The possible role of calcium in lead tolerance is discussed.

Clones of Silene vulgaris ssp. maritima individuals from Dolfrwynog Bog, North Wales and from a coastal control site were propagated under standardised environmental conditions. After five months, cuttings were taken and tested for copper tolerance by means of root extension analysis in solutions of various different copper concentrations. Indices of tolerance suggested that individuals from the Dolfrwynog population were more resistant to elevated copper concentrations than were the control population individuals. Due to the initial five months under standardised conditions, it was assumed that the cloned plant material would have lost all plastic adaptive responses to its native environment. If this assumption was valid then the differences in copper tolerance observed between the two populations had a genetic basis and the Dolfrwynog Bog population is a copper tolerant ecotype.

Significant differences in nectar content were observed between hermaphrodite and female plants of the gynomonoeciousgynodioecious taxon, Silene vulgaris, from populations in northern lower Michigan. These differences in nectar sugar content were observable with a carbohydrate digestion technique involving sulfuric acid, phenol, and measurement of the color change with a spectrophotometer. A hand-held refractometer did not provide sufficient resolution to discern differences between the genders. Both genders were similar in the pattern of sugar content of nectar during floral development. A splitplot factorial design revealed significant differences both among individual plants and stages of floral phenology within each gender. The spectrophotometric technique and statistical analysis provided the needed resolution to discern differences between the genders that we relate to pollinator activity, levels of inbreeding depression, and the maintenance of gynodioecy in this taxon.

Most studies on heavy metal-enriched ecosystems deal with the effects of mineral wastes from recent mining activities. In Salzburg/Austria, however, mining sites that have been closed hundreds or thousands of years still show the effects of high copper concentrations. Although these sites have been thoroughly studied by biologists, archeologists, and geologists, most of the information collected has not been published in international journals. This chapter provides a geological and historical sketch of three historical mining sites, their contamination and their vegetation. Some plant species from the habitats in the Grossarl valley in the Hohe Tauern Mountains including the Schwarzwand in granite and in the Hochkonig/Mitterberg area on Greywacke, including a bog are likely resulting from ponds used by prehistoric miners, have been the subject of ecophysiological research concerning their metal household and tolerance. This chapter discusses some detailed studies on the vascular plants Silene vulgaris and Saxifraga stellaris and about the mosses Pohlia drummondi and Mielichhoferia spp.

Members of the angiosperm genus Silene are widely used in studies of ecology and evolution, but available genomic and population genetic resources within Silene remain limited. Deep transcriptome (i.e. expressed sequence tag or EST) sequencing has proven to be a rapid and cost-effective means to characterize gene content and identify polymorphic markers in non-model organisms. In this study, we report the results of 454 GS-FLX Titanium sequencing of a polyA-selected and normalized cDNA library from Silene vulgaris. The library was generated from a single pool of transcripts, combining RNA from leaf, root and floral tissue from three genetically divergent European subpopulations of S. vulgaris. A single full-plate 454 run produced 959,520 reads totalling 363.6 Mb of sequence data with an average read length of 379.0 bp after quality trimming and removal of custom library adaptors. We assembled 832,251 (86.7%) of these reads into 40,964 contigs, which have a total length of 25.4 Mb and can be organized into 18,178 graph-based clusters or 'isogroups'. Assembled sequences were annotated based on homology to genes in multiple public databases. Analysis of sequence variants identified 13,432 putative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 1320 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) that are candidates for microsatellite analysis. Estimates of nucleotide diversity from 1577 contigs were used to generate genome-wide distributions that revealed several outliers with high diversity. All of these resources are publicly available through NCBI and/or our website (http://silenegenomics.biology.virginia.edu) and should provide valuable genomic and population genetic tools for the Silene research community.

The paper reports meiotic studies on 50 populations comprising 12 species belonging to 5 genera of Caryophyllaceae from the Western Himalayas. The chromosome numbers in Arenaria kashmirica (n=20), Silene conoidea (n=20), S. edgeworthii (n=12 and n=24), S. moorcroftiana (n=24), S. nepalensis (n=12), Stellaria media (n=13), S. monosperma (n=13) and S. semivestita (n=13) are reported for the first time. The chromosome numbers in Lychnis coronaria (n=12) and Silene vulgaris (n=24) are given for the first time from India, along with Gypsophilla ceratioides (n=15) from the Western Himalayas. The course of meiosis varies from normal to abnormal in different populations of Silene conoidea, S. edgeworthii, S. vulgaris, Stellaria media, S. monosperma and S. semivestita. The course of meiosis was abnormal in all studied populations of Lychnis coronaria. Abnormal microsporogenesis (cytomixis, chromosomal stickiness, unoriented bivalents, formation of laggards and bridges) led to reduced pollen fertility and differences in pollen grain size.

Summary The uptake and transport of zinc in zinc-sensitive and zinc-tolerant Silene vulgaris were compared in a short-term experiment. Although the roots of tolerant plants contained more CaCl2-exchangeable zinc, tolerance can not result from exclusion through binding of zinc to the cell wall, because the total uptake of zinc was not significantly different between the populations. Compared at equal levels of zinc injury, measured by root-length growth inhibition, the uptake of zinc was much higher in the tolerant plants. Up to the NOEC for root-length growth of sensitive plants, an equal zinc concentration of the roots was found in sensitive and tolerant plants, but at a higher supply the zinc concentration of the roots was higher in tolerant plants. In sensitive plants the zinc concentration of the shoot was higher than in tolerant ones, except after 3 and 7 days at the highest zinc supply, the percentage of zinc allocated to the shoot was higher at all external zinc concentrations. The results of a split-root experiment clearly show that zinc has a direct inhibitory effect on root growth. Zinc tolerance seems to result from an efficient sequestration of zinc inside the root cells. This probably causes a lower transport of zinc to the shoot.

Copper tolerance in Silene vulgaris seems to be controlled by two major genes. One segregates only in crosses to non-tolerants but never in crosses between tolerants originating from different isolated populations. The second segregates only in crosses to plants from the most tolerant population. The level of tolerance in tolerant plants seems to be controlled by two additional genes, which are hypostatic to the first major gene. They segregate in crosses to non-tolerants but not in crosses between equally homozygous tolerant plants from different populations. It is argued that all the genes are involved in the control of an exclusion mechanism operating at the plasmalemma.

subsp. aeoniopsis growing in Turkey by means of GC-MS. The oil yields were obtained 2.9% in S. vulgaris and 2.8% in S. cserei subsp. aeoniopsis. The composition of the fatty acids of the seed oils and their relative percentages are given in Table 1. Seventeen components representing 90.8% of S. vulgaris seed oil and 97.8% of S. cserei subsp. aeoniopsis seed oil were identified. The unsaturated fatty acid contents in these seed oils were found to be higher in S. cserei subsp. aeoniopsis (87%) than in S. vulgaris (68%). The ratio of unsaturated fatty acids to the saturated (U/S ratio) was found to be 0.3 in S. vulgaris and

its female function. In the present study of a gynodioecious population of Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae) I show that hermaphrodites not only benefit from outcrossing, in that progeny from outcrossed flowers are more vigorous than those from selfed flowers within an individual plant, but they also suffer heavily from self-pollination between different flowers of the same individuals, which could be demonstrated in experimentally made male-sterile (emasculated) individuals. Seeds from the emasculation period were heavier and germinated better than when the same individual was an intact hermaphrodite. Naturally male-sterile (female) individuals produced more fruits due to flowers staying open longer for pollen to arrive via some vector. However, the higher seed number alone could not provide the fitness advantage needed for females to be maintained in the population, but females also produced heavier seeds as compared to the hermaphrodites. Differences in seed survival and seedling establishment in the field are expected to add the advantages necessary for female plants to be selectively plausible.

1 Hadena moths drink nectar from, pollinate, and oviposit into the flowers of the genus Silene. In the gynodioecious Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke (Caryophyllaceae), eggs were laid by Hadena confusa (Hufn.) females both in male phase flowers, which could not be pollinated by the moth at the time of oviposition, and in female phase and female flowers that allowed pollination. 2 Flowers in which an egg had been laid had a lowered probability of receiving a second egg laid by another female during the same night. 3 The degree of flower discrimination by the moth with respect to the presence of eggs was positively correlated with the proportion of flowers containing eggs. 4 The oviposition behaviour of H.confusa is moulded by four factors: (1) a high probability of chosen male phase flowers later becoming pollinated by other moths, (2) the presence of conspecific eggs and risk for larval competition, (3) probability of presence of conspecific eggs also in neighbouring flowers, (4) capability of larvae to move to adjacent flowers.

Plants from nontolerant and copper-tolerant populations of Silene vulgaris both produce phytochelatins upon exposure to copper. The threshold copper concentration for induction of phytochelatin and the copper concentration at which maximum phytochelatin contents occurs increase proportionally with the level of tolerance to copper. When exposed to their own highest no-effect concentration or 50%-effect concentration of copper for root growth, tolerant and nontolerant plants exhibit equal phytochelatin contents in the root apex, which is the primary copper target. This also holds for distinctly tolerant nonsegregating F(3) families, derived from a single cross of a nontolerant plant to a tolerant one. Therefore, the phytochelatin content of the root apex can be used as a quantitative tolerance-independent measure of the degree of toxicity experienced by the plant. Differential copper tolerance in S. vulgaris does not appear to rely on differential phytochelatin production.

The genetic control of heavy metal tolerance in higher plants is poorly understood, possibly in part because of several inherent properties of tolerance tests and tolerance measures. In this study we compared different methods of testing for copper tolerance in Silene vulgaris. A new type of multiple concentration test has been used to analyse the genetic control of copper tolerance in this species. Provisional results indicate that the occurrence of any tolerance, relative to a non-tolerant reference population from uncontaminated soil, is governed by a single major gene. The level of tolerance, however, seems to be controlled by a number of modifiers, which are completely hypostatic to the major gene. This model agrees with that proposed for Mimulus guttatus by Macnair (1983).

Mercury is a highly toxic pollutant with expensive clean up, because of its accumulative and persistent character in the biota. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of Silene vulgaris , facultative metallophyte which have populations on both non-contaminated and metalliferous soils, to uptake Hg from artificially polluted soils. A pot experiment was carried out in a rain shelter for a full growth period. Two soils (C pH = 8.55 O.M. 0.63% and A pH = 7.07 O.M. 0.16%) were used, previously contaminated with Hg as HgCl 2 (0.6 and 5.5 mg Hg kg −1 soil). Plants grew healthy and showed good appearance throughout the study without significantly decreasing biomass production. Mercury uptake by plants increased with the mercury concentration found in both soils. Differences were statistically significant between high dosage and untreated soil. The fact that S. vulgaris retains more mercury in root than in shoot and also, the well known effectiveness of these plants in the recovering of contaminated soils makes S. vulgaris a good candidate to phytostabilization technologies.

The sex chromosomes of the plant species Silene latifolia (white campion) are very young (only 5-10 My old), and all 11 X-linked genes so far described have Y-linked homo logues. Theory predicts that X chromosomes should accumulate a nonrandom set of genes. However, little is known about the importance of gene movements between the X and the autosomes in plants, or in any very young sex chromosome system. Here, we isolate from cDNA a new gene, Slcyt, on the S. latifolia X, which encodes a cytochrome B protein. We genetically mapped SlCyt and found that it is located similar to 1 cM from the pseudoautosomal region. Genes in this region of the X chromosome have low divergence values from their homologous Y-linked genes, indicating (hat the X only recently stopped recombining with the Y. Genetic mapping in Silene vulgaris suggests that Slcyt originally belonged to a different linkage group from that of the other S. latifolia X-linked genes. Silene latifolia has no Y-linked homologue of Slcyt, and also no autosomal paralogues seem to exist. Slcyt moved from an autosome to the X very recently, as the Cyt gene is also X linked in Silene dioica, the sister species to S. latifolia, but is probably autosomal in Silene diclinis, implying that a translocation to the X probably occurred after the split between S. diclinis and S. latifolial Slcyt dioica. Diversity at Slcyt is extremely low (pi(syn) = 0.16%), and we find an excess of high frequency-derived variants and a negative Tajinia's D, suggesting that the translocation was driven by selection.

Tolerance of three Slovak populations of Silene vulgaris [from the localities "Harmanec" (total soil Cu 34.1 mg kg⁻¹), "Lubietova"; (total soil Cu 831.6 mg kg⁻¹) and "Spania dolina" (total soil Cu 1368.7 mg kg⁻¹) referred as SV1, SV2, and SV3, respectively] and Silene dioica (SD; from the locality "Spania dolina") exposed to 60 μM Cu for 7 days has been studied. Respective controls with 0.21 μM Cu were also cultured. SV3 and SD contained higher total shoot Cu than SV1. Methanol-soluble shoot Cu represented 60, 59, 59, and 55% from total shoot Cu and roots contained 16.7-, 20.4-, 9.9- and 28.9-fold more Cu than shoots in SV1, SV2, SV3, and SD, respectively. Soluble proteins were the least affected in SV3 and SD when Cu-exposed and control plants were compared. Root hydrogen peroxide and superoxide showed similar trend and were correlated with enhancement of ascorbate- and guaiacol-peroxidase activities. Malondialdehyde accumulation increased in SV1 and SV2. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity and total soluble phenols were higher in SV3 Cu-exposed plants compared to SV1 and SV2. Shikimate dehydrogenase activity was enhanced in all Cu-exposed populations. Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity and root lignin content were not affected and polyphenol oxidase activity was not detected. Within 14 detected free amino acids, majority of them decreased preferentially in the roots. Only serine increased in shoots and decreased in roots of all populations. Potassium content was not affected in SV3. Na, Ca, and Fe increased in roots of Cu-exposed plants of all populations, while Mg was the least affected and Zn increased in SV2 and SV3 shoots and roots. This study revealed the highest tolerance in population from the locality with the highest soil Cu content. Present findings as complex metabolic responses to Cu stress with special emphasis on phenolic metabolism are discussed.

In this study we have evaluated the heavy metals accumulation in the leaves of Silene vulgaris and its influence on glutathione, free amino acids and anthocyanins concentrations.Glutathione is a tripeptide (γ-Glu-Cys-Gly) which is involved in many metabolic processes of a plant cell. It is related to the sequestration of xenobiotics and heavy metals and it is also an essential component of the antioxidant system, which keeps reactive oxygen species under control. The accumulation of anthocyanin pigments in the leaves can be induced by environmental and anthropogenic stressors, such as pollution, osmotic stress, and nutrients deficiency. The positive role of anthocyanins as well as amino acids and organic acids in metal sequestration is suggested. Samples of Silene vulgaris leaves were collected in May and July 2003–2005 from the heavy metals contaminated sites – from the nearest vicinity of non-ferrous metal smelter Szopienice at the distance of 50, 250, 450 m, from zinc wastes heap in Katowice and from a former calamine site in Dąbrowa Górnicza (the South of Poland). In the previous study we noted that the nearest vicinity of non-ferrous metal smelter Szopienice was more polluted than the other areas. The highest Zn, Cd and Pb accumulation in the leaves of Silene vulgaris was noted in the plants collected in the nearest vicinity of the non-ferrous metal smelter Szopienice. The free amino acids concentrations have differed in the vegetative season. It was higher in the most polluted sites (50 and 250 m) in July. Higher content of the reduced form of glutathione was estimated in the plant leaves collected in the distance of 250 m from the emitter in July than at the beginning of the study. Also the highest anthocyanins accumulation in Silene vulgaris leaves was noticed in July and in plants from the most polluted area (250 m). The estimations, especially glutathione content, seem to be promising in ecophysiological research connected with heavy metals stress in plants growing in the postindustrial areas.

WOS: 000268029600009 Otlu (herby) cheese, a traditional Turkish dairy product, is commonly made in Eastern Anatolia in Turkey. It is consumed in the various parts of Turkey, especially in the eastern and southeastern parts. Its popularity has been increasing because of industrialization of its production. It is manufactured from raw milk, is salty in taste and has a herby intense aroma because of the added herbs. The unusual processing steps of the cheese are that it is firmly filled in a plastic cheese container and stored under the soil during ripening. The flavour becomes highly acceptable after 3 months of ripening. The most common herbs used in the cheese are wild garlic (Allium sp.) but other herbs (Ferula sp., Prangos sp., Thymus sp., Mentha sp., Chaerophyllum macropodum and Silene vulgaris) are also used individually or as appropriate mixtures. The herbs give the cheese its flavour, but also extend the shelf life of the cheese. The aim of this review was to outline the manufacture and chemical, biochemical and antimicrobial properties of Otlu herby cheese.

El presente trabajo estudia el efecto de la salinidad sobre el crecimiento de cuatro especies autóctonas, Moricandia arvensis (L.) DC., Portulaca oleracea L., Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. y Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke., en un sistema de cultivo hidropónico (“Floating System”). Para ello se aplicaron cinco tratamientos (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5) con diferentes concentraciones de ClNa. Además del ensayo realizado en invernadero en “Floating System” se realizó un ensayo en tres cámaras de cultivo programadas. Escuela Técnica superior de Ingeniería Agronómica

The effect of copper on the uptake of nitrogen and the tissue contents of inorganic nitrogen, amino acids and proteins were studied in cooper-sensitive Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, grown at different nitrogen sources (NH4+ or NO3-). All the toxic copper levels tested, i.e. 4, 8, 16 μM Cu2+, strongly inhibited the uptake of nitrogen, especially of NO3-, and decreased the content of NO3-, amino acids and proteins. Especially at 4 and 8 μM Cu2+, NH4+ accumulated in the plants, suggesting that the conversion of NH4- into amino acids was inhibited.

Summary: Experiments were conducted to examine the up take, translocation and metabolism by S. vulgaris of two distinctly different herbicides: 2,4-D, a phenoxyalkanoic acid with growth regulator activity to which this species exhibits complete tolerance, and chlorsulfuron, a sul-fonylurea to which S. vulgaris is highly sensitive. Despite their structural dissimilarities 2,4-D and chlorsulfuron was readily absorbed by S. vulgaris with 65 and 69%, respectively, of the applied dosage being absorbed within 72 hours after treatment. Approximately 35% of the 2,4-D and 10% of the chlorsulfuron label was translocated out of the treated leaf after 72 hours. Neither herbicide accumulated in the terminal bud. Seventy-two hours after treatment 63% of the recovered 14C remained as unaltered 2,4-D in S. vulgaris, while in tomato, a 2,4-D sensitive species, 65% of the recovered 14C remained as intact herbicide. In S. vulgaris approximately 86% of the radioactivity remained as intact chlorsulfuron 72 hours after treatment compared to 12% in the tolerant wheat. The tolerance of S. vulgaris to 2,4-D could not be accounted for by limited absorption, translocation nor metabolic degradation of the herbicide. The sensitivity of S. vulgaris to chlorsulfuron would appear to be related to the inability of this species to metabolize the herbicide molecule. Resume: Des essais ont eie conduits pour etudier l'ab sorption, la translocation et le metabolisme par Silene vulgaris de deux herbicides tres differents: 2,4-D, un acide phenoxyalkanoique avec une activite de regulateur de croissance pour lequel cette espece exprime une tolerance complete, et le chlorsulfuron, une sulfonyluree a laquelle S. vulgaris est hautement sensible. En depit de leur disparite stnicturale le 2,4-D et le chlorsulfuron etaient facilement absorbes par S. vulgarisa 65 et 69% respectivement de la dose appliquee dans les 72 heures suivant le traitement. Environ 35% du 2,4-D et 10% du chlorsulfuron marqueetait vehicule hors de la feuille traitee apres 12 h. Aucun herbicide ne s'est accumule dans le bourgeon terminal. 72 h apres le traitement 63% du C14 retrouve correspondait a du 2,4-D inaltere chez S. vulgaris, tandis que chez la tomate, espece sensible au 2,4-D, 65% du C14 retrouve correspondait a l'herbicide intact. Chez S. vulgaris approximativement 86% de la radioactivitd correspondait a du chlorsulfuron intact 72 h apres le traitement comparte 12% chez le We tolerant. La tolerance de S. vulgaris au 2,4-D ne peut etre attribuee ni a une absorption limitee, ni au transport ni h une degradation metabolique. La sensibilite de S. vulgaris au chlorsulfuron serait liee a I'inaptitude a metaboliser la molecule herbicide chez cette espece. Zusammenfassung: Die beiden Herbizide sind fur Silene vulgaris deutlich verschieden: Gegenuber dem als Wuchsstoff wirkenden Phenoxyalkyl-Herbizid 2,4-D ist diese Pflanzenart vollstandig tolerant, gegen den Sulfonylharnstoff Chlorsulfuron sehr empfindlich. Trotz ihrer strukturellen Unterschiede wurden 2,4-D und Chlorsulfuron von S. vulgaris schnell aufgenommen (65 bzw. 69% der Aufwandmenge innerhalb 72 h nach der Behandlung). Etwa 35% des 2,4-D und 10% des Chlorsulfurons waren nach derselben Zeit aus den behandelten Blattern transloziert worden. Keines der Herbizide wurde in der Terminal-knospe akkumuliert. 72 h nach der Behandlung waren bei S. vulgaris 63% des wiedergefundenen 14C unverandertes 2,4-D, bei der gegen 2,4-D empfindlichen Tomate 65%. Nach einer Behandlung mit radioaktiv markiertem Chlorsulfuron waren nach 72 h bei 5. vulgaris rund 86% der Radioaktivitat auf intaktes Chlorsulfuron zuruckzufuhren, beim toleranten Weizen 12%. Die Toleranz von S. vulgaris gegenuber 2,4-D lies sich weder auf eingeschrankte Aufnahme oder Translokation noch auf Abbau des Herbizids zuruckfuhren. Die Empfindlichkeit von S. vulgaris gegenuber Chlorsulfuron konnte auf dem Unvermogen dieser Pflanzenart, das Herbizidmolekul abzubauen, beruhen.

Pollination and seed predation were studied in Silene vulgaris populations during two seasons, one with much lower pollinator abundance than the other. Among the pollinators, noctuid moths of the genus Hadena also acted as seed predators. Nectar-foraging female moths oviposited in flowers, and their larvae consumed flowers and seed capsules. Despite a lower percentage of pollinated flowers in the year of low pollinator abundance, similar numbers of flowers set fruit in both years, because fewer flower buds and flowers were eaten by Hadena larvae during the year of low pollinator visitation. The number of seed capsules preyed upon was also lower in the year with low pollinator abundance, resulting in a higher seed set. The positive correlation between the percentage of pollinated flowers and the percentage of seed capsules destroyed was also observed when comparing flowers opening in different parts of the season. Early flowering plant individuals had the same pollination success but suffered higher seed predation than late flowering ones. Selection for maximized pollination success through synchronous flowering, is probably the main reason for the compressed flowering period in 5. vulgaris, but the high level of predation early in the season may further increase the reproductive success of synchronous flowering individuals.

We used a crossing experiment to investigate post-zygotic barriers that might limit introgression between a pair of closely-related, gynodioecious plant species--the widespread weed Silene vulgaris and the local Swedish endemic S. uniflora ssp. petraea. The study not only considered the effects of hybridization on conventionally-used (primary) fitness components such as seed set and progeny survival, but also provided a test for the effects of interspecific hybridization on characters with more subtle or habitat-specific effects on fitness. We detected highly significant paternal effects on seed germination properties, with the germination characteristics of hybrid seed resembling those of the species that served as the pollen donor. These paternal effects on germination represent a potentially strong barrier to interspecific introgression in the two species' natural habitats, where an inappropriate germination response in the habitat of the maternal parent may lead to the failure of seedling establishment. Interspecific crosses had weak or variable effects on progeny survival, flowering and sex ratio, but these effects could not be interpreted in terms of barriers to introgression. Our results indicate that nuclear restorers in S. vulgaris have the capacity to suppress cytoplasmic male-sterility genes in its endemic congener.

La colleja es un cultivo tradicional, poco extendido en la actualidad, pero que puede servir de alternativa a los principales cultivos foliáceos. El cultivo en bandejas flotantes resulta una técnica sencilla e interesante para la producción de hortalizas de hoja de pequeño tamaño tipo “baby leaf”, ofreciendo una buena posibilidad en el manejo y control de la solución nutritiva, por lo que puede ser usada para producir verduras con bajos contenidos en nitratos y oxalatos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar el efecto de diferentes ratios nitrato/amonio en la calidad y producción de colleja (Silene vulgaris) tipo “baby leaf” en bandejas flotantes (floating system), a través de la determinación de concentraciones de nitratos, oxalatos, vitamina C y variables de crecimiento vegetativo. En este trabajo se realizaron dos ensayos en fechas distintas, en ambos ensayos se utilizó una variedad de colleja de la accesión local 04-404, proveniente del banco de germoplasma de la UPCT. La siembra del primer ensayo se realizó el 29 de Febrero de 2008, en bandejas tipo styrofloat, con una duración de cultivo de 42 días. La siembra del segundo ensayo se realizó el 10 de Abril de 2008, en bandejas tipo styrofloat, con una duración de cultivo de 36 días. Se ensayaron cuatro soluciones nutritivas distintas conteniendo todas ellas 12 mmol/L de N, con los siguientes ratios (NO3 -/ NH4 +): 100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75. Los resultados demuestran que disminuyendo la proporción de nitratos en la solución nutritiva se consigue reducir la concentración de nitratos y oxalatos en las hojas. Se puede concluir que resulta interesante aportar el nitrógeno de la solución nutritiva en una ratio nitrato/amonio de 25:75, ya que se consigue reducir la concentración de nitratos y oxalatos en hojas (que en exceso son perjudiciales para el hombre), sin afectar la calidad y producción de colleja, es decir sin afectar las características agronómicas importantes para el productor, y el contenido en vitamina C importante para la salud humana. Escuela Técnica superior de Ingeniería Agronómica

Species expanding into new ranges will experience stochastic effects of colonization and must either be preadapted or evolve adaptations to survive and reproduce in a novel environment. Biological invasions provide natural experiments for investigating these issues. This dissertation used the 200 year old invasion of North America by Silene vulgaris, a weedy plant native to Europe, to address how invasions are impacted by (1) evolutionary history in the native range, (2) the genetic composition of the invasion inoculum, (3) the match in ecological niche between ranges, and (4) post-invasion evolution. A phylogenetic investigation of chloroplast DNA supported a history of range expansion in Europe from Mediterranean glacial refugia. However, there was no detectable signature of isolation among native range geographic regions in this locus. In a multi-locus analysis of the nuclear genome, amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) revealed five divergent demes that were regionally structured in Europe. Both cpDNA and AFLP supported a genetically diverse inoculum, probably the result of multiple introductions. Founder effects were evident in shifted deme frequencies and in the mismatching of genotypes from the ecological niche predicted by demes in the native range. As the invasion progressed, S. vulgaris expanded its range to fill and eventually exceed the predicted niche, consistent with a scenario of adaptive evolution. This hypothesis was tested by planting 1600 individuals from both ranges into common gardens in Ontario and Virginia. North American genotypes were genetically divergent for several traits, including having a faster reproductive maturity, and greater overall fecundity and survival compared to European genotypes. Phenotypic clines with latitude were also evident among families collected from both ranges. Incorporating null iii expectations using AFLP confirmed that divergence between and within ranges was due in part to post-invasion evolution. However, demes themselves also differed in performance regardless of continent of origin. Coupled with the shift in deme frequencies due to founder effect, this indicated that total phenotypic divergence resulted from a combination of adaptive and stochastic processes. Collectively, these results demonstrate that evolution during invasion is a multi-dimensional process, affected by prior evolutionary history, chance sampling events, and adaptation to the introduced environment. Note: Abstract extracted from PDF text

Rearing techniques and results of preliminary host range tests are reported forHadena perplexa (Denis & Schiffermuller) (Lep.: Phalaenidae) a candidate biocontrol agent against the weed bladder campion,Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, in Manitoba, Canada. In the laboratory, it was necessary to pipette a 15% honey solution in water into the flowers as food for the adult moths. When reared singly to avoid cannibalism, 56% of the 1st instar larvae developed to pupae. Larvae fed on a natural diet for 10 days can then be reared on either one of 2 artificial diets. Choice oviposition tests and no-choice larval feeding tests were conducted with plant species closely related toS. vulgaris in the generaSilene, Dianthus, Gypsophila, Lychnis, Saponaria. Species in 4 of 5 of these genera were accepted for oviposition, and species in all 5 genera supported the development of 1st instar larvae to the pupal stage.H. perplexa should not be introduced into Canada.

Summary: Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, grown from seed or from crown buds, exhibited three dis tinct growth phases; establishment, reproduc tive and post-reproductive. The establishment phase was characterized by rapid accumulation of shoot biomass, high relative growth rates (RGRs) and leaf area ratios (LARs). The sexual reproductive phase was characterized by a rapid increase in floral and seed biomass, minimal root development, and declining RGRs and LARs. In the post-reproductive phase, root and crown biomass increased rapidly concomitant with the development of regenerative buds; low RGR and LAR values occurred during this phase. Although similar growth phases were identified in both the first (grown from seed) and second years (grown from crown buds) of growth, LARs and RGRs were lower in the second than in the first year. In the second year of growth, plants exhibited a continual increase in below-ground biomass throughout growth, including the flowering period, a feature which was absent in the first year of growth.

Plant and soil samples from a mining area in Carinthia (Austria) were investigated for their heavy metal content. In the soil surrounding roots of plants (Minuartia verna and Silene vulgaris) growing on the mining dumps, high concentrations of lead and zinc are to be expected. The two species (Minuartia and Silene) show very different heavy metal concentrations in their above- and belowground organs. From these observations it can be concluded that the divergent distribution of heavy metals within the plants is an important mechanism of tolerance to heavy metals.

Summary: Growth indices describing the nature of the competitive relationship between Silene vulgaris and alfalfa during crop establishment were determined from experiments conducted outdoors in southem Manitoba in 1986 and 1987. The results of the experiments indicated that alfalfa dry matter yields were influenced more by intra- than interspecific competition. In comparison S. vulgaris was affected more by interspecific competition. Replacement diagrams and aggressivity indices both demonstrated that alfalfa and S. vulgaris were the aggressor and sub-ordinate species, respectively. Relative replacement rates for alfalfa versus S. vulgaris were significantly greater than unity, indicating that alfalfa exerted a greater replacement pressure on S. vulgaris than did S. vulgaris on alfalfa. Over time alfalfa could be expected to replace S. vulgaris as the dominant species within a population. Barley was more competitive than alfalfa with S. vulgaris. Not only was S. vulgaris shoot dry weight reduced more by barley than by alfalfa during the establishment year, but fewer S. vulgaris seedlings emerged the following year in plots that had been seeded to barley than in those that had been seeded to alfalfa. Resume: Des indices de croissance decrivant la nature des relations de competition entre Silene vulgaris et la luzerne pendant l'etablisement de la culture ont ete determinea partir d'essais conduits en exterieur dans le sud de Manitoba en 1986 et 1987. Les resultats des essais montrent que les rendements en matifere seche de luzerne sont plus influences par la competition intra qu'interspecifique. En comparaison S. vulgaris est plus affecte par la competition interspecifique. Des diagrammes de substitution et les indices d'agressivite ont demontre que la luzerne et S. vulgarisetaient respectivement l'agresseur et l'espece dominee. Les taux de substitution relative de luzeme contre S. vulgaris ont ete significativement plus eleves que l'unite, montrant que la luzerne exerce une pression de substitution sur S. vulgaris plus elevee que celle exercee sur S. vulgaris sur luzeme. Au bout du compte la luzeme pourrait remplacer S. vulgaris comme espece dominante au sein d'une population. L'orge est plus competitive que la luzerne vis a vis de S. vulgaris. Non seulement le poids sec des pieds de S. vulgaris a ete plus reduit par l'orge que par la luzerne pendant Tannee de mise en place, mais encore moins de plantules de S. vulgaris ont leve l'annee suivante dans les parcelles qui avaient ete ensemencees en orge, que dans celles qui avaient 4eAte ensemencees en luzerne. Zusammenfassung: In Freilandversuchen im sudlichen Manitoba in den Jahren 1986 und 1987 wurden Wachstumswerte zur Beschreibung des Konkurrenzverhaltnisses zwischen Silene vulgaris und Luzerne erfast. Dabei zeigte sich, das die Trockenmasse der Luzerne starker durch intra-als durch interspezifische Konkurrenz beeinflust wird. Silene vulgaris unterlag mehr der interspezifischen Konkurrenz. Austauschdiagramme und Aggressivitatsindices erwiesen die Luzerne als die dominante Art und Silene vulgaris als die untergeordnete. Bei unterschiedlichen Austauschraten ergab sich ein signifikant groserer Konkurrenzdruck der Luzerne gegenuber Silene vulgaris als umgekehrt. Mit der Zeit verdrangte innerhalb eines Bestandes die Luzerne als dominante Art das Unkraut. Gerste war noch konkurrenzstarker als Luzerne. Nicht nur die Trockenmassebildung von Silene vulgaris war im ersten Kulturjahr durch Gerste starker als durch Luzerne beeintrachtigt, sondern auch die Keimpflanzendichte im Folgejahr.

Cucubalus behen Linnaeus, Species Plantarum 1: 414. 1753. "Habitat in Europae septentrionalioris pratis siccis." RCN: 3224. Lectotype (Aeschimann & Bocquet in Candollea 38: 204, photo 1. 1983): Herb. Linn. No. 582.4 (LINN). Current name: Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke subsp. vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae)., Published as part of Jarvis, Charlie, 2007, Chapter 7: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types (part C), pp. 370-473 in Order out of Chaos. Linnaean Plant Types and their Types, London :Linnaean Society of London in association with the Natural History Museum on page 463, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.291971

The taxonomic status of Microbotryum species on Silene vulgaris, Lychnis viscaria, and L. alpina is discussed. A new species on Lychnis viscaria, Microbotryum lagerheimii, is described and illustrated.

A comparative food ethnobotanical study was carried out in twenty-one local communities in Italy, fourteen of which were located in Northern Italy, one in Central Italy, one in Sardinia, and four in Southern Italy. 549 informants were asked to name and describe food uses of wild botanicals they currently gather and consume. Data showed that gathering, processing and consuming wild food plants are still important activities in all the selected areas. A few botanicals were quoted and cited in multiple areas, demonstrating that there are ethnobotanical contact points among the various Italian regions (Asparagus acutifolius, Reichardia picroides, Cichorium intybus, Foeniculum vulgare, Sambucus nigra, Silene vulgaris, Taraxacum officinale, Urtica dioica, Sonchus and Valerianella spp.). One taxon (Borago officinalis) in particular was found to be among the most quoted taxa in both the Southern and the Northern Italian sites. However, when we took into account data regarding the fifteen most quoted taxa in each site and compared and statistically analysed these, we observed that there were a few differences in the gathering and consumption of wild food plants between Northern and Southern Italy. In the North, Rosaceae species prevailed, whereas in the South, taxa belonging to the Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, and Liliaceae s.l. families were most frequently cited. We proposed the hypothesis that these differences may be due to the likelihood that in Southern Italy the erosion of TK on wild vegetables is taking place more slowly, and also to the likelihood that Southern Italians' have a higher appreciation of wild vegetables that have a strong and bitter taste. A correspondence analysis confirmed that the differences in the frequencies of quotation of wild plants within the Northern and the Southern Italian sites could be ascribed only partially to ethnic/cultural issues. An additional factor could be recent socio-economic shifts, which may be having a continued effort on people's knowledge of wild food plants and the way they use them. Finally, after having compared the collected data with the most important international and national food ethnobotanical databases that focus on wild edible plants, we pointed out a few uncommon plant food uses (e.g. Celtis aetnensis fruits, Cicerbita alpine shoots, Helichrysum italicum leaves, Lonicera caprifolium fruits, Symphytum officinale leaves), which are new, or have thus far been recorded only rarely.

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke (Caryophyllaceae) is widely distributed in North America and contains bioactive oleanane-type saponins. In order to investigate in vitro production of triterpenoid saponins, hairy root cultures of S. vulgaris were established by infecting leaf explants with five strains of Agrobacterium rhizogenes (LBA9402, R1000, A4, 13333, and 15834). The A. rhizogenes strain LBA9402 had an infection of 100% frequency and induced the most hairy roots per plant. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-induced changes in triterpenoid saponins in S. vulgaris hairy roots were analyzed. Accumulation of segetalic acid and gypsogenic acid after MeJA treatment was 5-and 2-fold higher, respectively, than that of control root. We suggest that hairy root cultures of S. vulgaris could be an important alternative approach to the production of saponins.

Fine scale spatial structure (FSSS) of cytoplasmic genes in plants is thought to be generated via founder events and can be amplified when seeds germinate close to their mother. In gynodioecious species these processes are expected to generate FSSS in sex ratio because maternally inherited cytoplasmic male sterility genes partially influence sex expression. Here we document a striking example of FSSS in both mitochondrial genetic markers and sex in roadside populations of Silene vulgaris. We show that in one population FSSS of sexes influences relative fruit production of females compared to hermaphrodites. Furthermore, FSSS in sex ratio is expected to persist into future generations because offspring sex ratios from females are female-biased whereas offspring sex ratios from hermaphrodites are hermaphrodite-biased. Earlier studies indicated that pollen limitation is the most likely mechanism underlying negative frequency dependent fitness of females. Our results support the theoretical predictions that FSSS in sex ratio can reduce female fitness by decreasing the frequency at which females experience hermaphrodites. We argue that the influence of FSSS on female fitness is complementary to the influence of larger scale population structure on female fitness, and that population structure at both scales will act to decrease female frequencies in gynodioecious species. Better comprehension of the spatial structure of genders and genes controlling sex expression at a local scale is required for future progress toward understanding sex ratio evolution in gynodioecious plants.

Serpentine soils provide a difficult substrate for plant colonization and growth and therefore represent an ideal system for studying the genetics of habitat adaptation and the evolution of plant-ecotypes. Using an F2 mapping population derived from an intraspecific cross between a serpentine and a nonserpentine ecotype of Silene vulgaris, the genetic architecture of seven morphological, physiological and life-history traits was explored. A quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis identified 23 QTLs, 15 of which were classified as major QTLs. The observed genetic architecture suggests that traits potentially involved in habitat adaptation are controlled by few genes of major effect and have evolved under consistent directional selection. Several linkage groups harboured overlapping QTLs for different traits, which can be due to either pleiotropy or linkage. The potential roles of these factors and of the time available for habitat adaptation and ecological speciation on serpentine are discussed.

Annals of Botany, 98 (2), ISSN:1095-8290, ISSN:0305-7364

• Background and Aims Pollen and seed dispersal in herbaceous insect-pollinated plants are often restricted, inducing strong population structure. To what extent this influences mating within and among patches is poorly understood. This study investigates the influence of population structure on pollen performance using controlled pollinations and genetic markers. • Methods Population structure was investigated in a patchily distributed population of gynodioecious Silene vulgaris in Switzerland using polymorphic microsatellite markers. Experimental pollinations were performed on 21 hermaphrodite recipients using pollen donors at three spatial scales: (a) self-pollination; (b) within-patch cross-pollinations; and (c) between-patch cross-pollinations. Pollen performance was then compared with respect to crossing distance. • Key Results The population of S. vulgaris was characterized by a high degree of genetic sub-structure, with neighbouring plants more related to one another than to distant individuals. Inbreeding probably results from both selfing and biparental inbreeding. Pollen performance increased with distance between mates. Between-patch pollen performed significantly better than both self- and within-patch pollen donors. However, no significant difference was detected between self- and within-patch pollen donors. • Conclusions The results suggest that population structure in animal-pollinated plants is likely to influence mating patterns by favouring cross-pollinations between unrelated plants. However, the extent to which this mechanism could be effective as a pre-zygotic barrier preventing inbred mating depends on the patterns of pollinator foraging and their influence on pollen dispersal.