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When I first started in general practice in 1946 a man of about 80 came to see me and, as it was my first contact with him, I asked a few leading questions about his health and his smoking habits. He replied–“I smokes a pipe and it's all the fault of you doctors.” Sensing a story, I asked for an explanation. …

In this article we reply to Davis-Blake and Pfeffer's (1989) critique of dispositional research in organizational behavior and their suggestions for what it would take for dispositional research to make a valid contribution to the field. Based on a review of studies of different populations in various settings and the different assessments of dispositional we conclude that the evidence presents a compelling argument for incorporating dispositional theory into explanations of behavior in organizations.

The article reviews the book “The Behavioral Science of Leadership: An Inter-Disciplinary Japanese Research Program,” by Jyuji Misumi.

Previous reports have shown that exposure of murine splenic lymphocytes to the substituted anthraquinone 1,4-bis[(2-aminoethyl)amino]-5,8-dihydroxy-9,10-anthracenedione dihydrochloride (AEAD) results in a persistent, strong immunosuppression which is limited to induction of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL). In the present study the cellular mechanism of this specificity was examined in detail. Proliferation of T-lymphocytes is inhibited by in vitro exposure to AEAD, with suggestive evidence that this inhibition may be selective for the CTL precursor cells. Activation and differentiation of CTL precursors into functional CTL, as well as the function of T-helper lymphocytes, was unaffected by AEAD exposure. Rather, the committed CTL precursor cells are prevented from clonal proliferation, resulting in a much smaller population of antigen-induced CTL effectors. Finally, it was shown that AEAD is unable to prevent the anamnestic response of CTL memory cells to eliciting antigen. Taken together these data provide strong evidence that AEAD-induced CTL suppression results from its antiproliferative effect, directed primarily toward the CTL precursor subpopulation. This effect is manifested as decreased CTL function due to lower absolute number of specific CTL, since AEAD has no significant direct effect on expression of either specific or polyclonal cytolysis by T-lymphocytes.

It has previously been demonstrated that the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo(a)pyrene (B[a]P), suppresses the terminal step in B-cell differentiation, resulting in a decrease in antibody production to T-dependent and B-2 T-independent antigens. The purpose of this study was to ascertain if this effect was common to carcinogenic PAHs or specific for B[a]P. The PAH 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) was administered to B6C3F1 female mice by ten sc injections of 0.5, 5, or 10 micrograms/g over a 2-week period (i.e., total dose of 5, 50, and 100 micrograms/g). Immune function and host resistance assays were performed 3 to 5 days following the last injection. The 10 micrograms/g dosage resulted in a marked decrease in spleen weights and spleen and bone marrow cellularity, while thymus and body weights were not significantly altered. The ability to generate B-lymphocyte colonies in vitro from spleen precursor cells was also suppressed at the 10 micrograms/g dose. Exposure to DMBA at 5 micrograms/g or greater resulted in a reduction of up to 97% in the number of IgM plaque-forming cells in response to the T-dependent antigen sheep red blood cells (SRBC). The IgG response to SRBC was similarly depressed. The IgM response to the hapten-conjugated T-independent antigens trinitrophenyl-lipopolysaccharide (TNP-LPS) (specific for B-1 cells) and trinitrophenyl (TNP)-Ficoll (specific for B-2 cells) was also depressed (88 and 97%, respectively) at 10 micrograms/g. DMBA exposure resulted in an increased susceptibility to challenge with the PYB6 transplantable sarcoma and the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, in contrast to B[a]P exposure, which had no effect on host resistance assays. Thus, DMBA, a more potent carcinogen than B[a]P, produces a more extensive B-cell suppression than B[a]P as well as alters host resistance to tumor and bacterial challenge.

Many countries are currently experiencing severe problems because of high and increasing prices for fossil fuels. As these fuels become scarcer and even more expensive, these problems will grow worse. Consequently, more attention is being given to the development of fuels derived from renewable resources. But to reach that time when automobile and other needs are being met on a large scale by fuel from renewable resources, many important developments will be required. Brazil's National Alcohol Program is an extensive program to develop the systems required for producing alcohol from sugarcane and other crops and for developing engines to use alcohol as a fuel. It involves the development of improved varieties of sugarcane, getting them into production, increasing total cultivated land area, increasing milling capacity, instituting a system of paying for cane by sucrose content instead of weight, developing improved distillation technologies, increasing distillation capacity, increasing the means for blending alcohol with gasoline, and developing new engines to use alcohol as a fuel. One of the major Brazilian agencies involved in the National Program used interpretive structural modeling in defining its obligations in the program. This paper describes how that was done.

The development of expectancy theory is described and 14 alternative models of expectancy are contrasted. It is argued that the essence of the theory in work and motivation is the choice of work behavior. As such, it is shown that the present formulation of theory in industrial and organizational psychology, and consequently the empirical research based on it, ignores the rationality assumptions underlying this choice behavior. Some of these assumptions are specified. It is pointed out that the major constructs of the theory (expectancy and valence) lack the necessary theoretical classification. Several issues in need for further research are discussed. The concept of instrumentality is found to be ambiguous and difficult to operationalize. Finally, it is shown that the typical formulation of the theory is based on optimization choice criteria (maximizing or satisficing) and the empirical validity of these criteria is questioned. Alternative criteria are proposed. The empirical findings in the field are interpreted in light of the discussion.

INTRODUCTION 670 POWER MOTIVE 672 The Power Motive Construct 672 Correlates of The Power Motive..... 673 Gender Similarities 674 The Need For Power and Managerial Performance 675 The Leadership Motive Pattern 675 Health Implications 677 Conclusions 677 LEADERSHIP 678 Established Theories 678 New Theories. ........ 681 Conclusions. ........ ......... 688 EXECUTIVE SUCCESSION 692 Causes of Executive Succession.. 692 Effects o f Executive Succession on Organizational Peiformance 696 Inside Versus Outside Succession 697 Executive Succession and Power 697 Conclusions 699 DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATIONS 699 Rational C� oice an� E,,!pirical Observations of Decision Making In OrgamzatlOns 700 Garbage-Can Models of Decision Making in Organizations 701 Recent Research Trends 704 Conclusions 707 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN AN EVOLUTIONARY CONTEXT 708 Selection. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 708 Imitation and Learning.. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 709 Institutionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 710 SUMMARY 711

Three issues arising from the job characteristics model of motivation (J. R. Hackman & G. R. Oldham, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 1976, 16, 250–279) are addressed: (1) the validity of the motivating potential score (MPS) formula based on the hypothesis that all three psychological states are necessary for internal motivation to exist; (2) the validity of the hypothesized two-stage moderating effect of growth need strength (GNS); and (3) the effects of valences of the psychological states upon personal and work outcomes. Analytic techniques employed by previous researchers are shown to be inadequate. Hierarchical multiple regression techniques are outlined which permit valid tests of the model. Results from a sample of 90 respondents indicate: (1) no support for the current MPS formulation; (2) some support for the GNS moderating effect on the job dimensions-psychological states relationship, but no support for the moderating effect of GNS on the psychological states-outcomes relationship; (3) evidence for an interaction of psychological states and valences of psychological states in influencing internal motivation.

The technique of factor analysis is applied to a situation in which result data from multiple objective policy analysis need to be reduced to a subset of information for policy makers. Use of factor analysis in this context is developed in some detail, and the process is applied to results of pricing policy simulations from a model of the agricultural sector of the Dominican Republic. It is concluded that factor analysis can be a useful first step for the analyst to determine the relationships among groups of variables. The technique also aids the process of data reduction to allow graphical presentation of tradeoffs.

The immune response of murine splenic lymphocytes was characterized following both in vivo and in vitro exposure to the novel and highly-substituted anthraquinone AEAD. Gross indicators of toxicity such as changes in body weight, lymphoid organ weights or lymphoid organ cellularity were unaffected. Similarly, the antibody plaque-forming cell response and natural killer cell function were unaltered. The most consistent effect noted was the selective suppression of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response, which persisted for an extended period of time following in vivo exposure at concentrations of 0.75–3.0 μg/g. In contrast to the CTL suppression induced by the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]-anthracene, AEAD-induced CTL suppression could not be restored by addition of exogenous interleukin-2. Studies are currently underway to further characterize AEAD-induced immunosuppression at the cellular and molecular levels.

Exposure of murine lymphocytes to the highly-substituted anthraquinone 1,4-bis[(2-amino-ethyl)amino]-5,8-dihydroxy-9,10-anthracenedione dihydrochloride (AEAD) results in a profound suppression of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte function. This immunosuppression is confined to CTL induction and cannot be restored by addition of exogenous interleukin-2 (IL-2), suggesting a defect at the level of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte precursor (CTLp) cell. Production of both IL-1 and IL-2 were normal, and responsiveness to IL-1 was unaltered, although lymphocytes displayed a reduced responsiveness to IL-2. Cell surface marker analysis demonstrated no changes in relative numbers of lymphoid cell subsets, implying functional rather than population changes. The ability to activate CTLp with lectins was markedly reduced, as was CTL induction in thymocytes lacking functional T-helper cells. These data suggest that CTL suppression following in vivo or in vitro exposure to AEAD is due primarily to a direct effect on the CTLp cell.

In the past few years significant changes in computer technology have taken place. The development of the mini and micro computer for business applications has occurred in the past five years. New mass storage devices, faster central processing units and more sophisticated input/output devices have also been developed recently. These technological developments have fostered further use of the computer in the management of physical distribution operations. This paper describes the nature of the changes in distribution operations and in the distributions manager's use of the computer to control distribution activities. The survey reported in this paper explores the changes in the use of the computer to control all distribution management activities. Comparisons are drawn with a similar survey conducted in 1972. The paper also presents more detailed information about the use of the computer as a diagnostic and planning tool than has been presented before.

A paradigm development strategy of research consists of: fitting data into a theoretical framework with general laws to explain the data; deducing hypotheses from the general laws; and subjecting these hypotheses to empirical test. Deductive-nomological reasoning, crucial experiments, and typology of experimental control strategies are presented. Methods of strong inference are discussed, followed by a description of paradigm development research. Examples illustrate the strategy of paradigm research.

This paper (1) theoretically examines the various definitions and operationalizations of leader Initiating Structure and finds important differences in the extent to which the various measures are concerned with autocratic, punitive, arbitrary, and production-oriented leader behaviors; (2) resolves some apparent inconsistencies in the research literature through a categorization of results and conclusions according to the measuring instrument used; (3) empirically demonstrates that respondents perceive the different measures of Structure in different ways; (4) tests four hypotheses concerning leader behavior (as measured in different ways) and subordinate role clarity and satisfaction; and (5) briefly considers additional problems attendant to conceptualizing and measuring Structure.

The current cry for “relevance” in management education is examined in light of the concept of prevailing truth. There are dangers in succumbing to the demand for short term practical relevance. Th...

A radioisotopic incorporation assay utilizing [125I]iododeoxyuridine was compared to the standard mouse ear swelling test (MEST) for the strong sensitizers dinitrofluorobenzene and oxazolone, and for the three weak sensitizers ethylenediamine (EDA), glutaraldehyde, and nickel sulfate. Mice were sensitized epicutaneously on the abdomen for 4 consecutive days prior to challenging the left ear with the test agent and the right ear with the vehicle. A comparison of the mean difference between the test and the control ears showed that measuring reactivity 48 hr postchallenge on Day 7 is the most sensitive time period in the radioisotopic incorporation method. Both the isotopic and MEST assays gave positive results with the potent sensitizers, although the response detected by isotopic labeling of emigrating cells was up to 1000-fold greater than that determined by ear swelling measurements. No response was detected to the moderate to weak sensitizer EDA in either assay. Reactivity to glutaraldehyde was not detected by the radioisotopic assay but was minimally responsive and significant by the MEST. The opposite was true for nickel sulfate where minimal but significant reactivity was seen in the isotopic assay but not in the MEST. Although the radioisotopic assay had the advantages of being more quantitative and of having improved sensitivity, it was of no greater value than the MEST for detecting weak sensitizers. It was concluded that the mouse was not a suitable model for routinely detecting reactivity to weak sensitizers regardless of which of the two assays were used.

beta-HCH, an isomeric contaminant formed during the manufacture of the insecticide lindane, is a persistent environmental and food chain pollutant which has been reported to exhibit estrogenic activity in rodents and in fish. To investigate potential toxic effects on the reproductive and immune systems, beta-HCH was fed to female B6C3F1 mice for 30 days. Mice exposed to 0, 100, or 300 mg of beta-HCH/kg of diet were evaluated for changes in ovarian and uterine histology, body weight, lymphoid organ weight and histology, splenic cellularity, antigen-specific IgM and IgG plaque-forming cells (PFC), proliferative responses to mitogens, natural killer (NK) cell activity, and induction of cytolytic T lymphocytes. The ovaries and endometrial epithelium exhibited normal architecture. No alterations were observed in body weight, lymphoid organ weight and histology, or splenic cellularity whereas significant changes were found in several immune functions at the 300 mg/kg dose. Proliferation of splenocytes to the mitogens LPS, PHA, and Con A was decreased by 39, 43, and 57%, respectively. T-lymphocyte-mediated cytolysis of tumor targets was decreased by 25% with a concurrent reduction of 45% in NK activity. There was no significant reduction in the number of IgM or IgG PFC in exposed animals. These data indicate that beta-HCH causes nonestrogenic immune function changes in the adult mouse without gross changes in lymphoid organ weight, histology, or cellularity.

β-HCH, an isomeric contaminant formed during the manufacture of the insecticide lindane, is a persistent environmental and food chain pollutant which has been reported to exhibit estrogenic activity in rodents and in fish. To investigate potential toxic effects on the reproductive and immune systems, β-HCH was fed to female B6C3F1 mice for 30 days. Mice exposed to 0, 100, or 300 mg of β-HCH/kg of diet were evaluated for changes in ovarian and uterine histology, body weight, lymphoid organ weight and histology, splenic cellularity, antigen-specific IgM and IgG plaque-forming cells (PFC), proliferative responses to mitogens, natural killer (NK) cell activity, and induction of cytolytic T lymphocytes. The ovaries and endometrial epithelium exhibited normal architecture. No alterations were observed in body weight, lymphoid organ weight and histology, or splenic cellularity whereas significant changes were found in several immune functions at the 200 mg/kg dose. Proliferation of splenocytes to the mitogens LPS, PHA, and Con A was decreased by 39, 43, and 57%, respectively. T-lymphocyte-mediated cytolysis of tumor targets was decreased by 25% with a concurrent reduction of 45% in NK activity. There was no significant reduction in the number of IgM or IgG PFC in exposed animals. These data indicate that β-HCH causes nonestrogenic immune function changes in the adult mouse without gross changes in lymphoid organ weight, histology, or cellularity.

This paper presents first a broad overview of the process of technological innovation. The process is partitioned into four phases as follows: pre-production; production; distribution; and utilization. Within each phase, elements that are important for carrying out the phase are defined and elaborated. Following the discussion of the technological innovation process, a procedure is presented for planning and managing the transfer of technology in a variety of contexts. The procedure is presented in six steps. Each of these steps is described in some detail. They are associated in a direct way to the technological innovation process described in the first part. The procedure is intended to improve the probability of the transfer being accomplished successfully. Following the discussion of the six step procedure, some methods for helping to implement the six steps are presented. These include behavioral and computational considerations.

A series of immune function and host resistance parameters were examined in female B6C3F1 mice following a 21-day (6 hr/day) inhalation exposure to 15 ppm of formaldehyde (HCHO). Immune parameters examined included delayed hypersensitivity to keyhole limpet hemocyanin, antibody plaque-forming cell response to sheep erythrocytes (T-lymphocyte-dependent antigen) and TNP-Ficoll (T-lymphocyte-independent antigen), lymphoid organ weights and histopathology, routine hematology, bone marrow cellularity and CFU progenitor cell enumeration, lymphocyte subpopulation quantitation by cell surface markers, mitogen-induced lymphocyte blastogenesis, macrophage function parameters, and host resistance to challenge with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes and transplantable tumor cells. Lymphoid organ weight, bone marrow cellularity, and hematology parameters were unchanged in HCHO exposed mice. Similarly, the percentage of T and B lymphocytes and their proliferative responses to mitogens were not significantly altered. Antibody (IgM) plaque-forming cell response following antigen challenge was unchanged. Macrophage function was normal although some evidence of enhanced H2O2 production associated with elevated bactericidal activity was observed in resident macrophages. Resistance to challenge with the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes was significantly enhanced, while resistance to tumor challenge remained unchanged. No evidence of immunosuppression following short-term exposure to HCHO was observed.

Habitat conditions and use by anadromous salmonids were evaluated in five reaches of Upper Lobster Creek, a major stream system in the central Oregon Coast Range, to determine the effect of different levels of stream cleaning. Stream clearance associated with post-World War II logging practices and a 100-year flood event that occured in 1964 severely altered channel configurations and loading patterns of large woody debris. This caused the subsequent removal of log jams. An uncleaned reach had large amounts of woody debris and the highest density of pools, greatest percentage of off-channel habitat, and highest salmonid use. In contrast, a totally cleaned reach had the lowest density of pools and lowest salmonid use. Rehabilitated sections of a reach that had been partially cleaned showed increases in density of pools and salmonid use compared to the remainder of the partially cleaned reach. Retention of standing timber in the riparian zone and maintenance in instream accumulations of large woody debris is recommended to allow streams to reach their productive potential for anadromous salmonids. West. J. Appl. For. 2(3):84-87, July 1987.

This paper reports the results of a partial test and extension of the job characteristic model of motivation using data from supervisors and managers of an automobile assembly plant. The model has also been extended to include an expectancy theory type of outcome in addition to the ones outlined in the original formulation. The individual moderating effects of growth need strength and need for achievement are also investigated. The results provide partial support for the hypothesized relationships. Job characteristics relations with outcome measures were low but statistically significant. The correlations with expectancy type outcomes were encouraging given their exploratory nature in the model. The moderator effects of growth need strength, to the extent tested, showed rather weak relationships while need for achievement had no such effects. The validity and superiority of the double multiplicative model has also been tested but found unsupported.

In a logistics system the number of possible applications of qualitative and quantitative modelling efforts is practically infinite. The situations or problems which can be analysed range from micro operations (e.g., analysing alternative order picking systems) to macro planning issues (e.g., determining the number and location of warehouses to be employed in a future distribution system). This range of potential applications not only reflects the scope of the models (micro to macro) but it also incorporates another relevant dimension: planning. The planning axis is anchored at one end by operations models which are constructed to analyse daily operating practices. The other end of the continuum is represented by long range planning models. These models are used to aid logistics managers in their attempts to design systems to cope with the future. In many situations exact classification of individual models along these two dimensions is difficult. However, this categorisation is a useful framework within which to view the scope of the modelling discussed in this paper. This presentation will focus on the macro planning models that are being employed both in military and industrial logistics to aid the systems planner in his attempts to structure logistics systems for the future.

One of the major areas of disagreement between shippers, carriers, and the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) concerns the costs (in both dollars and time) experienced by motor carriers in handling shipments over the terminal platform. A more sophisticated method of analysis than the method currently used by the ICC to estimate the effects of shipment characteristics on platform handling time is presented in this paper. Analysis of data obtained in the ICCs platform study revealed that the factors of shipment weight and density, which have been believed to be major determinants of shipment platform handling time, actually have relatively minor impact on variations in platform handling time. Shipment characteristics, such as the shipment's degree of unitization and number of pieces, are the major determinants of platform handling time. Motor carrier cost formulae and the classification system should be revised to place greater emphasis on these shipment characteristics.

merely as a necessity to that end. The fact remains, however, that it is the daily rehearsal period which provides focus and continuity of learning activity, and thus serves as the principal laboratory for building musicianship. Active music-making is the most rewarding route to musicianship. The aural and verbal analysis of music, although extremely useful in achieving historical and stylistic understanding, is quite liable to be abortive unless direct application can be made through the production of music. Indeed, the fact is often overlooked that the performer also listens, and the intensive rehearsal of a piece of music gives the performer a chance to listen thoroughly. Only through singing and playing does one achieve concrete experience with the values of tonal and rhythmic accuracy, correct intonation, melodic clarity, proper style, and dynamics, and utter familiarity with the structural devices of music.

Information about discussions held during a workshop on educating managers is presented. The Chairman of the committee, Harold Koontz, discussed the need for worthwhile information to be gleaned fr...

The purpose of this study is to report the development and tests of a model of organizational behavior. The model was developed out of theory, research, and an interpretation of interview findings in the firm studied. A characterization of the firm is made in terms of current theory and research. Questionnaires and measurement scales designed to test the model are described. Measures of organizational and leadership practices served as predictors. Dependent measures were satisfaction, perceived effectiveness, anxiety, and propensity to leave. Role conflict and role ambiguity scales were treated as predictor, intervening, and as dependent variables in the model. Selected hypotheses are presented and tested. Predictors tended to relate in expected directions to role measures and dependent variables. Role measure hypotheses were generally supported, and role ambiguity was a better predictor and intervening (partialled) variable than role conflict.

Franchise relationships are based on the potential for greater gains through groin membership; the very nature of this relationship raises questions concerning latitude for independent action and constraints on decision authority. Key issues concern the degree of autonomy the franchisee should have, the nature of the franchise contract, and the management of conflict. The authors conclude that there is little or no virtue in a high degree of franchisee autonomy; that the inherent dangers of power concentration can be minimized via appropriate contract design; and that one critical aspect of the channel administrator's task is intelligent handling of conflict, particularly situations that can impair efficiency.

This paper is a report of an analytical attempt to measure and explain the essential factors inherent in the determination of compensation and status for managerial jobs. This study is an outgrowth...

The debate continues concerning the worth of T-Group training, a powerful tool for changing behavior. It has been attacked on the basis that it is not training and that it is harmful to some participants. It has been defended on the grounds that the harm is minimal and that it can develop new inner resources of value to both individual and organization. This article summarizes the results of acceptable studies. In the light of the evidence, the author feels top management should answer seven questions before deciding whether this kind of training is appropriate for members of the organization. Four of the questions concern effective use and three concern ethical issues. The author also makes recommendations intended to minimize the risk and maximize the benefits.

The general purpose of this paper is to discuss some philosophy of science concepts as they apply to the development of management theory. The need for agreement on scientific criteria within any field is apparent. It the Academy of Management is to serve the function of directing and encouraging the development of management theory, it appears mandatory that members agree on at least the fundamental requirements for valid generalization and contribution to theory. Such agreement cannot be developed overnight. In a field advancing as rapidly as ours, (with elements of pure and applied research, social and physical sciences, philosophical judgments as well as empirical evidence and contributors who are both academicians and practitioners), such agreement will require substantial dialogue in this meeting, in future meetings and in the literature. Hopefully, this session on management research will encourage such a dialogue. The specific purposes of this paper are to: a. clarify, for panel and audience discu...