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A thorough examination of the cardiovascular system is an integral part of a physical examination in the horse. The normal equine cardiovascular parameters are discussed, with an emphasis on auscultatory findings. The availability and application of other diagnostic techniques are discussed based upon findings of the physical examination.

Both veterinary surgeon and dog breeder should be involved in assessing the whelping capability of brood bitches as one essential point in the selection of sound stock. Normal parturition is described in a manner that might be used in the instruction of breeders and nursing auxiliaries in midwifery. In its classical three stages, the mechanics and hydraulics are explained in simple terms and the hormonal changes discussed in relation to each stage. The type of co-operation desired between veterinary surgeon and breeder is discussed and the instruction to be given on the recognition of dystocia is outlined. Some commonly met dystocias are described. Simple digitally-assisted delivery by the midwife/breeder is described as are the forceps techniques which may be applied by the veterinary surgeon in the course of diagnosis and delivery.

Beef and dairy cows (n = 1,053) were tested for pregnancy on 7 farms by ultrasonic scanning. Accuracy was verified by comparison with rectal palpation. Rectal palpation was done 40 to 75 days after breeding and was considered 100% accurate for comparison purposes. Although diagnostic accuracy of the ultrasonic scanning technique was less than 100%, a confidence interval no larger than 2.3% indicated a high degree of precision for pregnant cows. The confidence interval in the nonpregnant category ranged from 9.2% to 11.8%, which was small in relation to the variation in ultrasonic scanning accuracy. However, considering the large number of cows and the experimental bias that was purposely introduced, the lower accuracy of the ultrasonic method was not unexpected. Cystic ovaries, partially involuted uteri, metritis, and high milk production prevalent at one location accounted for much of the variation observed and lowered the overall accuracy for all cows tested. The ultrasonic analyzer has potential in testing cows for pregnancy; however, technical improvements in machine configuration must be made and additional testing in controlled experiments and field trials must be conducted before an accurate analysis of this method can be made. At the present state of development, ultrasonic amplitude depth analysis cannot replace rectal palpation for diagnosis of pregnancy in cattle.

Diagnostic tests in horses showing signs of gastrointestinal diseases are reviewed. The use of rectal exploration is emphasized, and paracentesis as a diagnostic aid is mentioned. Special attention is given to the absorption tests as they are easy to conduct and give a relative measure of the absorptive capability of the intestinal epithelium. Glucose, D(+)-xylose and carbohydrate digestion-absorption tests are compared, and the D(+)-xylose absorption test is preferred because of the univocal curve of absorption (see Figure 1 and 2). The absorption curve in a horse suffering from alimentary lymphosarcoma (Figure 3) is shown. In assessing gastrointestinal protein loss, utilization of labelled albumin and gammaglobulins is of great importance, and the use of isotopes such as 131I and 51Cr is reviewed. Finally, a more extensive use of alkaline phosphatase as a diagnostic aid is proposed.

The clinical features of pregnancy for each month of gestation were studied and the findings recorded in respect of six pregnant camels which were subjected to rectal and vaginal examinations at weekly intervals over a period of 13 months. A comparison of the findings was made with those previously recorded for the cow.

It should be obvious from the above discussion that the physical examination of animals is not a simple task. The details that must be performed are numerous. Even more numerous are the abnormalities that can be discovered by the careful observer. My attempt was not to list all the abnormalities that can be detected during a physical exam, but rather to develop an organized approach to looking at your patients so that the most may be gained from the effort expended. If you know normal anatomy and physiology and study healthy animals thoroughly, significant abnormalities will become obvious. Your physical examination skills will continue to grow with each patient examined. Your data base of disease findings will be constantly expanding, and your diagnostic accuracy will improve every year of your practice life.

Thirty-five complete oestrous cycles were studied in five nonpregnant camels (Camelus dromedarius) over a period of 15 months. The oestrous cycle did not have a luteal phase. During the cycle of 28 days the ovarian activity was strictly follicular. Follicles matured in six days, maintained their size for 13 days and regressed in eight days. Ovulation was non-spontaneous and required the stimulus of coitus. Manual stimulation of the cervix for 15 minutes did not induce ovulation. The external manifestations of the oestrous cycle as well as the changes in the ovaries and the genital tract were also studied.

The recto-abdominal palpation method of ovine pregnancy diagnosis described by Hulet (1972) was carried out on 167 ewes in three flocks. The results showed a virtual 100 per cent accuracy of diagnosis between pregnancy and non-pregnancy and approximately 70 per cent overall accuracy in differentiating single from multiple pregnancies. At least 34 ewes aborted and five died. It was concluded that the method as carried out was neither safe nor accurate enough to justify any savings consequent upon more efficient food usage.

The genital tract of 106 cows was evaluated after parturition by rectal palpation and by visual inspection of vaginal discharges. Analysis of these results revealed a significant (P less than 0.01) correlation with the ratings of endometrial biopsies. The most frequent bacterial isolations included Corynebacterium pyogenes, coliforms, or streptococci, or combinations thereof. Abnormal ratings obtained by gross evaluation and by histologic examination were associated principally with C pyogenes. Purulent discharges in particular were highly correlated (P less than 0.01) with infection caused by C pyogenes. Neither the gross genital tract condition nor the uterine histopathology rating was positively correlated with conception rate; however, the association between days open and conception rate was significant (P less than 0.05). Bacterial infections significantly (P less than 0.05) increased the number of services required for conception and significantly (P less than 0.01) increased the number of cows culled because of infertility. Cows up to 4 years old had a 61% 1st-service conception rate compared with 35% for older cows, and this difference was significant (P less than 0.05). The development of one or more postpartum diseases significantly (P less than 0.05) reduced 1st-service conception rate, whereas milk production was negatively correlated (P less than 0.05) with conception.

Twenty-one pregnant mares with single or twin conceptuses between 41 and 65 days of gestational age were allotted to 5 treatment groups. A ventral median celiotomy was performed in all mares. In group-1 mares (3 mares, single conceptus), the uterus and fetus were palpated for 5 minutes. In group-2 mares (3 mares, single conceptus, flunixin meglumine), 250 ml of sterile placental fluid was injected into the nongravid uterine horn. In group-3 mares (4 mares, unicornuate twin conceptuses), group-4 mares (3 mares, unicornuate twin conceptuses, flunixin meglumine), and group-5 mares (8 mares, bicornuate twin conceptuses, flunixin meglumine), 1 conceptus was removed from the uterus via hysterotomy. All mares received progesterone prophylactically until day 100 of gestation or until the fetus died. The 3 mares in group 1 delivered clinically normal, live foals. The mean prostaglandin F2 alpha metabolite (PGFM) plasma concentration peaked at 180 +/- 5.2 pg/ml during uterine manipulation and fetal palpation, then declined to baseline by 1 hour. Free placental fluid (group 2) undermined the chorioallantois ventrally and resulted in fetal death within 3 hours after surgery. The mean PGFM plasma concentration peaked at 39 +/- 4 pg/ml following injection of placental fluid. None of the remaining fetuses in the 7 mares with unicornuate twin conceptuses (groups 3 and 4) survived. Five mares with unicornuate twin conceptuses (group 5) delivered single viable foals. In another mare in group 5, the fetus was alive 4 days after surgery, when the mare was euthanatized for a fractured femur.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

In a study involving 7,477 pregnant cows (5,426 Holstein-Friesians and 2,051 Guernseys), each pregnancy was diagnosed by rectal palpation, using the membrane slip technique. Each cow was examined twice, first by a veterinary student, then by a clinician. Of the cows diagnosed pregnant, 7,058 (94.4%) calved. The embryonic death rate in cows examined during the first 50 days of gestation was significantly (P less than 0.001) greater than that associated with examinations after 50 days of gestation. A significant difference was found between herds in different years (P less than 0.05). There was no conclusive indication that embryonic loss at the time of or shortly after early examination was iatrogenic abortion resulting from the membrane slip technique.

A study was undertaken in a California dairy to estimate the risk of transmission of bovine leukemia virus associated with rectal palpation of cows. The probability of seroconversion within 3 months after rectal palpation was examined as a function of the prevalence of infection in cows at the time of palpation. It was hypothesized that the probability of seroconversion within 3 months after palpation would be higher for cows in a group with high prevalence of infection than for cows in a group with low prevalence. The probability of seroconversion after rectal palpation was equal to 0.034, and results of logistic regression, using data from 1,116 noninfected and 1,047 infected cows, did not indicate any significant association between probability of seroconversion after rectal palpation and prevalence of infection (P = 0.189). Results of this study suggest that risk of bovine leukemia virus transmission by rectal palpation typically used in reproductive tract examination of cows either does not occur or is uncommon.

A detailed description is given of the abdominal viscera which are palpated through the walls of the rumen and reticulum of the live dairy cow surgically prepared with a permanent fistula. Transruminal and transreticular palpation can be complementary to transrectal and transcolonic examination in gaining detailed knowledge of the topography of abdominal viscera in the live dairy cow.