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The major theme in theorizing about the development of perfectionism is that it is a product of perfectionistic and demanding parents. The two studies reported here represent the first attempt to test this assumption. In study 1, perfectionism was measured in both daughters and their parents. In study 2, perfectionism in both daughters and their parents, related parental characteristics, and levels of psychopathology among daughters were measured. The findings from both studies indicated that mothers' perfectionism, but not fathers', was associated with perfectionism among daughters. In addition, daughters' ratings of fathers' harshness, but not fathers' self-reported harshness, were associated with daughters' perfectionism. For mothers, daughters' ratings of mothers' harshness and mothers' self-reported harshness were associated with perfectionism among daughters. A combination of mothers' Overall Perfectionism and mothers' self-reported harshness accounted for 30% of the variance in daughters' Overall Perfectionism. Additional findings suggested that mothers' perfectionism was associated with greater symptoms of psychopathology among daughters, while fathers' perfectionism was associated with lower levels of symptomatology.

Neurons in many regions of the CNS (e.g., cortical areas, thalamic nuclei) are heterogeneous with regard to their afferent and efferent connections. Using the hamster retinofugal system as a model, we investigated the mechanisms by which such connectional heterogeneity arises during ontogeny. Retinal ganglion cell axons were labeled with 1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (Dil) in paraformaldehyde-fixed tissue. The fluorescent label was photoconverted to a diaminobenzidine reaction product. The morphology of the axons, including their trajectories, branching patterns, and growth cones, was studied at the level of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGd) from embryonic day 14 to adulthood. In adult hamsters, axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are spatially segregated at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus into a superficial optic tract, situated just beneath the pia, and an internal optic tract consisting of fascicles running parallel to the pia within the geniculate. All retinofugal axons project to the midbrain, but only superficial optic tract axons emit collaterals to the LGd. During development, axons in both divisions of the optic tract emit collaterals to the LGd, but by postnatal day 15, collaterals of internal optic tract axons are virtually entirely eliminated, whereas those of superficial optic tract axons have elaborated terminal arbors. Thus, the heterogeneity among different classes of RGCs with respect to their efferent connections emerges by the selective stabilization, by each class, of a unique subset of connections from an initially widespread set shared by all classes. Thalamic collaterals of RGC axons emerge along established axon trunks, not by bifurcation of the growing tip. This occurs after the axons have grown past the thalamus and, presumably, entered their targets in the midbrain. Growth cones at the tips of elongating axon trunks are larger in size and have a more “complex” morphology compared to the growth cones on collaterals. Axons of RGCs develop in 3 morphologically distinct growth states. First, they elongate to their most distant targets in the midbrain. Then, they simultaneously emit unbranched or poorly branched collaterals to multiple targets. Finally, they elaborate terminal arbors in their definitive targets and eliminate their other collaterals. This developmental strategy may be paradigmatic for the formation of long CNS pathways with multiple targets. Furthermore, these data document, at the single-axon level, the steps in the elaboration and withdrawal of transient neuronal projections.

The present paper describes the development and validation of the Hoarding Rating Scale-Interview (HRS-I), a brief (5-10 minute) 5-item semi-structured interview that assesses the features of compulsive hoarding (clutter, difficulty discarding, acquisition, distress, and impairment). Trained interviewers administered the HRS-I to 136 adults (73 compulsive hoarding, 19 OCD, 44 non-clinical controls) along with a battery of self-report measures. An initial assessment was conducted in the clinic, and a second assessment was conducted in participants' homes. The HRS-I showed high internal consistency and reliability across time and context. The HRS-I clearly differentiated hoarding and non-hoarding participants, and was strongly associated with other measures of hoarding. It is concluded that the HRS-I is a promising measure for determining the presence and severity of compulsive hoarding.

TrkB is an important receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and NT4, members of the neurotrophin family. TrkB signaling is crucial in many activity-dependent and activity-independent processes of neural development. Here, we investigate the role of trkB signaling in the development of two distinct, organizational features of retinal projections--the segregation of crossed and uncrossed retinal inputs along the "lines of projection" that represent a single point in the visual field and the "retinotopic" mapping of retinofugal axons within their cerebral targets. Using anterograde tracing, we obtained quantitative measures of the distribution of retinal projections in the dorsal nucleus of the lateral geniculate body (LGd) and superior colliculus (SC) of wild-type mice and mice homozygous for constitutive null mutation (knockout) of the full-length trkB receptor (trkB(FL)(-/-)). In trkB(FL)(-/-) mice, uncrossed retinal projections cluster normally but there is a topographic expansion in the distribution of these clusters across the SC. By contrast, the absence of trkB signaling has no significant effect on the segregation of crossed and uncrossed retinal projections along the lines of projection in LGd or SC. We conclude that the normal topographic organization of uncrossed retinal projections depends upon trkB signaling, whereas the segregation of crossed and uncrossed retinal projections is trkB-independent. We also found that in trkB(FL)(-/-) mice, neuronal number was reduced in the LGd and SC and in the caudate-putamen. Previous studies by ourselves and others have shown that the number of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is unchanged in trkB(FL)(-/-) mice. Together, these results demonstrate that there is no matching of the numbers of RGCs with neuronal numbers in the LGd or SC.

Perfectionism, the tendency to set high standards and to evaluate oneself in an overly critical fashion, has been hypothesized to be associated with a host of psychological problems, yet little research has been done on it. This study examined the role of perfectionism in cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to an evaluated writing task. Compared to nonperfectionists, perfectionists assigned the task greater importance at the outset, reported higher levels of negative affect when the evaluative component of the task was emphasized, and, following the task, were more likely to report that they should have done better. Moreover, their work was judged to be lower in quality. Further research on perfectionism and task performance is warranted.

Perfectionism is a major diagnostic criterion for one DSM-III diagnosis, and it has been hypothesized to play a major role in a wide variety of psychopathologies. Yet there is no precise definition of, and there is a paucity of research on, this construct. Based on what has been theorized about perfectionism, a multidimensional measure was developed and several hypotheses regarding the nature of perfectionism were tested in four separate studies. The major dimension of this measure was excessive concern over making mistakes. Five other dimensions were identified, including high personal standards, the perception of high parental expectations, the perception of high parental criticism, the doubting of the quality of one's actions, and a preference for order and organization. Perfectionism and certain of its subscales were correlated with a wide variety of psychopathological symptoms. There was also an association between perfectionism and procrastination. Several subscales of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), personal standards and organization, were associated with positive achievement striving and work habits. The MPS was highly correlated with one of the existing measures of perfectionism. Two other existing measures were only moderately correlated with the MPS and with each other. Future studies of perfectionism should take into account the multidimensional nature of the construct.

Despite dramatic growth in the use of videotape replay in clinical and educational settings, not much is known about how people process information gained from watching themselves on videotape. There is some indication that videotape feedback poses a potential for negative as well as positive impact. Little research exists on the circumstances and individual characteristics which determine the reactions to and effectiveness of videotape review techniques, however. The present study tested hypotheses derived from video review literature and self-awareness theory regarding the effects of viewing oneself on videotape. Forty-six subjects participated in a mock job interview which was videotaped. Approximately 4 days later they evaluated their performance in the interview based on (1) their recollection of the interview, or (2) a review of the videotape. Dysphoric subjects who viewed a videotape of their interview were more critical of their performance than dysphoric subjects who simply recalled their intervi...

Compulsive hoarding, the acquisition of and failure to discard large numbers of possessions, is associated with substantial health risk, impairment in functioning, and economic burden. Despite clear indications that hoarding has a detrimental effect on people living with or near someone with a hoarding problem, no empirical research has examined these harmful effects. The aim of the present study was to examine the burden of hoarding on family members. Six hundred sixty-five family informants who reported having a family member or friend with hoarding behaviors completed an internet-based survey. Living with an individual who hoards during childhood was associated with elevated reports of childhood distress and family strain. Family members reported high levels of patient rejection attitudes, suggesting high levels of family frustration and hostility. Rejecting attitudes were predicted by severity of hoarding symptoms, the individual's perceived lack of insight into the behavior, and having lived in a cluttered environment during childhood. These results suggest that compulsive hoarding adversely impacts not only the hoarding individual, but also those living with them.

The aim of the present study was to determine the economic and social burden of compulsive hoarding in a large sample of individuals with self-identified hoarding, as well as a separate sample of family members of individuals who hoard. Self-identified hoarding participants ( N =864, 94% female, 65% met research criteria for clinically relevant compulsive hoarding) and family informants ( N =655, 58% described a relative who appeared to meet research criteria for compulsive hoarding), completed an internet survey. Questions were derived in part from those used in the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS), and when possible, hoarding participants were compared to NCS participants. Compulsive hoarding was associated with an average 7.0 work impairment days in the past month, equivalent to that reported by individuals with psychotic disorders and significantly greater than that reported by female NCS participants with all other anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders. Severity of hoarding predicted the degree of work impairment after controlling for age, sex, and non-psychiatric medical conditions. Hoarding participants were nearly three times as likely to be overweight or obese as were family members. Compared to female NCS participants, hoarding participants were significantly more likely to report a broad range of chronic and severe medical concerns and had a five-fold higher rate of mental health service utilization. Eight to 12% had been evicted or threatened with eviction due to hoarding, and 0.1–3.0% had a child or elder removed from the home. These results suggest that compulsive hoarding represents a profound public health burden in terms of occupational impairment, poor physical health, and social service involvement.

There is some evidence that compulsive hoarding is associated with social impairment, which may contribute to poor functional outcomes among hoarding patients. In this study, individuals with compulsive hoarding (n = 30) were compared to nonhoarding anxious or depressed patients (n = 30) and nonclinical community participants (n = 30) with respect to clinical characteristics, interpersonal difficulties, and emotional intelligence. All participants were diagnosed using a semi-structured interview and completed self-report measures. Participants with compulsive hoarding endorsed more depression and schizotypal personality disorder symptoms than participants in both comparison groups. Hoarding participants also reported more interpersonal difficulties than community volunteers, but they did not differ significantly from nonhoarding participants with an anxiety or mood disorder. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that hoarding-related beliefs were marginally related to increased interpersonal problems over and above the effect of depression and anxiety. The groups did not differ significantly with respect to emotional intelligence.

Cue-reactivity has received increased attention in addiction research, though not for gambling in particular. We examined cue reactivity in 18 problem gamblers by accompanying them to a gaming casino and measuring their subjective urge to gamble over a 1-h period. Half of the sample was additionally exposed to a gambling-specific negative mood induction (NMI) manipulation via guided imagery. Overall, about two-thirds of the sample reported moderate to high-gambling urges during the casino exposure. Additionally, the NMI reduced cue-reactivity. Finally, gambling urges in both groups decreased over the course of the exposure sessions. These findings suggest that a majority of problem gamblers experience the urge to gamble when exposed to gambling cues and that the intensity of these urges decrease with time, especially in the presence of a gambling-relevant NMI. Cue exposure should be studied further as a potential tool in the treatment of problem gambling.

The aim of the present study was to provide preliminary data on the efficacy of a new cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) for compulsive hoarding. Fourteen adults with compulsive hoarding (10 treatment completers) were seen in two specialty CBT clinics. Participants were included if they met research criteria for compulsive hoarding according to a semistructured interview, were age 18 or above, considered hoarding their main psychiatric problem, and were not receiving mental health treatment. Patients received 26 individual sessions of CBT, including frequent home visits, over a 7–12 month period between December 2003-February 2005. Primary outcome measures were the Saving Inventory-Revised (SI-R), Clutter Image Rating (CIR), and Clinician’s Global Impression (CGI). Significant decreases from pre- to post-treatment were noted on the SI-R and CIR, but not the CGI-severity rating. CGI-Improvement ratings indicated that at mid-treatment, 40% (n = 4) of treatment completers were rated “much improved” or “very much improved;” at post-treatment, 50% (n = 5) received this rating. Adherence to homework assignments was strongly related to symptom improvement. CBT with specialized components to address problems with motivation, organizing, acquiring and removing clutter appears to be a promising intervention for compulsive hoarding, a condition traditionally thought to be resistant to treatment.

Publisher Summary Compulsive hoarding problems pose a challenge for many sectors of society, including public health, housing, elder services, and clinical and mental health providers. There are three major manifestations of hoarding, difficulty discarding, clutter, and acquisition. The hallmark of hoarding is inability to discard possessions, even those that would appear worthless. This behavior can look delusional because the patient insists on keeping something that would seem obviously worthless, such as rotten food, nail clippings, or other trash. The people who hoard assign greater instrumental, sentimental, and intrinsic value to almost everything they own, reflecting the beliefs they hold about these possessions. The current conceptual model incorporates biological and psychological vulnerabilities, cognitive processing problems, problematic beliefs, and both positive and negative emotional states. Treatment is delivered individually in the clinic, at home, and at locations where the client has trouble in controlling acquisitions. The cognitive and behavioral activities of therapy occur during attempts to sort, discard, or not acquire possessions. Much of the treatment relies on the therapists' and clients' design and completion of behavioral experiments. Treatment based on this model shows considerable promise in terms of improving the lives of individuals with this difficult condition.

The literature examining the relation between perfectionism and eating disorders was reviewed and content and methodological comparisons were made with the perfectionism literature in anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. A PsychInfo search using the key words "perfectionism/perfect/perfectionistic," "anorexia," "bulimia," and "eating disorders" was performed and the generated list of papers was supplemented based on a review of reference lists in the papers. A total of 55 papers published between 1990 and 2005 were identified that assessed perfectionism among individuals with diagnosed eating disorders. The key research questions were distilled from these publications and empirical findings were summarized for each question, followed by a comparison with perfectionism papers in the anxiety and depressive disorder literatures. Also, key research design methodological parameters were identified and comparisons made across the three literatures: eating disorders, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders. The current review concludes with conceptual and methodological recommendations for researchers interested in perfectionism and eating disorders.

The Obsessive Belief Questionnaire (OBQ) and the Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory (III) were designed to assess beliefs and appraisals considered critical to the pathogenesis of obsessions. In previous reports we have described the construction and psychometric properties of these measures. In this study a battery of questionnaires assessing anxiety, depression, and obsessive compulsive symptoms was completed by 410 outpatients diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder, 105 non-obsessional anxious patients, 87 non-clinical adults from the community, and 291 undergraduate students. Items from 6 theoretically derived subscales of the OBQ were submitted to factor analysis. Three factors emerged reflecting (1) Responsibility and threat estimation, (2) Perfectionism and intolerance for uncertainty, and (3) Importance and control of thoughts. A 44-item version (OBQ-44) composed of high-loading items from the 3 factors showed good internal consistency and criterion-related validity in clinical and non-clinical samples. Subscales showed less overlap than original scales. Factor analysis of the III yielded a single factor, suggesting the total score be used in lieu of the 3 rationally derived subscales. The scales performed well on tests of convergent validity. Discriminant validity was promising; hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the OBQ subscales and III generally predicted OC symptoms after controlling for general distress. A revision of the OBQ, the OBQ-44, is included in the appendix.

Although compulsive hoarding appears to be a chronic, progressive disorder, little is known about its onset and course. The current study employed retrospective assessment of 51 individuals with compulsive hoarding difficulties to determine onset of various hoarding symptoms (clutter, acquisition, difficulty discarding), as well as the individual's degree of recognition of the problem at various times throughout his or her life. Participants were asked to describe life events from each decade that occurred at the time hoarding symptoms were developing. Symptoms of clutter and difficulty discarding appeared to begin at approximately the same age, whereas acquiring problems began slightly later. Recognition of the problem developed significantly later than any of the symptoms themselves. A portion of participants reported that their hoarding symptoms were reduced at some point in their lives, but few reported full remission of hoarding at any point. Survival analysis of age of onset of hoarding symptoms indicated that individuals who reported a stressful event when saving behavior started had a significantly later age of onset than those who reported no events at the age of onset. Perhaps for some individuals compulsive hoarding is a lifelong characterological phenomenon, whereas for others hoarding behavior develops later as a reaction to stress or loss.

Until recently most high-resolution autoregressive spectral analysis techniques have been applied to analysis of either single-channel waveforms or multichannel vector processes. However, the use of data prediction autoregressive spectral analysis permits the application of some high-resolution single-channel methods to high-resolution spectral analysis of data fields in two or more dimensions. The technique consists of extrapolating observed data beyond the observation window by means of an autoregressive data-generation model. High-resolution spectral analyses are then obtained by conventional discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) of the extrapolated data.

Maximum a posteriori (MAP) receivers are derived for the optimum demodulation of multiple amplitude and angle-modulated signals with overlapping radio-frequency spectra. It is assumed that the signals have known frequencies and modulation formats. The received waveform is represented as a complex quantity leading to a receiver that eliminates unwanted "twice carrier-frequency" terms that can cause in-band foldover in sampled data systems. The MAP receiver is shown to employ demodulators matched to each known signal type; the output of each demodulator is remodulated and coherently subtracted from the input to every other demodulator except its own. Computer simulations show that the MAP receiver can successfully demodulate an amplitude and phase-modulated signal simultaneously or two spectrally overlapped phase-modulated signals simultaneously.

This paper presents a fully two-dimensional high-resolution spectral analysis technique. The method consists of extrapolating observed data beyond the observation window by means of 2-D least squares prediction filters. High-resolution spectral analysis is then obtained by a discrete Fourier transform of the extrapolated data. Previously, methods of obtaining a high-resolution spectrum analysis on 2-D data have applied 1-D high-resolution analyses sequentially to each dimension. The fully 2-D method presented here permits the use of nearly the square of the number of extrapolation coefficients that can be used by the sequential 1-D analyses. The advantage of the new procedure is that more coefficients permit extrapolating more 2-D sinusoids in the data and also provide reduced sensitivity to noise, thereby allowing operation at lower SNR's. A second technique for improving the performance of high-resolution spectral analysis in a chosen region of the transformed data is also presented. The technique consists of filtering the data with a 2-D FIR bandpass filter prior to the high-resolution transform. This method is also effective in reducing the sensitivity of the high-resolution analysis to noise and other sinusoids.

This paper investigates the use of a new technique due to Shan and Kailath [1] to reject multipath impinging on linear sensor arrays. The new technique uses switched subarrays to decorrelate the multipath arrival from the signal of interest. After this preprocessing, adaptive arrays can reject the multipath as well as other uncorrelated interferers. Using phase interferometry as an example, it is found that the new technique is most effective when the subarrays can be spatially switched over a distance chosen to fully decorrelate the multipath from the desired signal.

Memory problems have been hypothesized to underlie compulsive hoarding behavior [Frost and Hartl, 1996: Behav Res Ther 34:341-350]. This study examined memory performance, memory confidence, and memory beliefs in 22 individuals with severe hoarding symptoms and 24 matched normal control subjects. Participants were administered two measures of learning and memory that required strategic planning and organization for successful performance: the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (RCFT) and California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT). Self-reports of memory confidence, perceived consequences of forgetting, importance of remembering, and need to keep possessions in sight also were assessed. In comparison to controls, participants with compulsive hoarding recalled less information on delayed recall of the RCFT and CVLT and used less effective organizational strategies on the RCFT but not the CVLT. Hoarders also reported significantly less confidence in their memory, more catastrophic assessments of the consequences of forgetting, and a stronger desire to keep possessions in sight. Results provide initial evidence of learning and memory impairment and poor memory confidence in subjects with compulsive hoarding.

The current study investigated aspects of post-traumatic stress disorder and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among hoarders. Compared to a sample of 36 controls, hoarders (n=26) reported a significantly greater number of different types of trauma, more frequent traumatic experiences, more symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and greater comfort derived from possessions. These findings are consistent with previous reports of extensive comorbidity associated with hoarding behaviors, and may reflect the potential usefulness of assessing PTSD and ADHD symptoms at the outset of hoarding treatments, as well as considering alternative pharmacological interventions.

Lesions of cerebral targets of the retina in newborn hamsters, when combined with transection of lemniscal pathways to the primary auditory or somatosensory thalamic nuclei or the secondary thalamic visual nucleus, can induce the formation of permanent retinal projections to the deafferented non-visual structures. These projections are retinotopically organized and form functional synapses. Consequently, neurons in the auditory or somatosensory cortices, which normally are not driven by visual stimuli, become visually responsive and have receptive field properties that ressemble, in several important ways, those of neurons in the visual cortex of normal animals. The surgically-induced retinothalamo-cortical pathways can mediate visually guided behaviors whose normal substrate, the pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex via the thalamic dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, is missing.

Hoarding behaviors occur in many clinical syndromes but are most commonly linked to obsessive compulsive disorder. Surprisingly little empirical work has examined the nature of hoarding behaviors despite their association with significant distress and impairment. The current study examined hoarding in 563 unselected college students. Using principal components analysis, we identified four domains of hoarding behaviors as measured by the 26-item Saving Inventory-Revised: Difficulty Discarding, Acquisition Problems, Clutter, and Interference/Distress. All four domains and total hoarding behaviors were strongly related to hoarding beliefs and to obsessive compulsive (OC) symptoms. Hoarding behaviors were most strongly correlated with subscales of an OC disorder (OCD) measure assessing hoarding and obsessions and least strongly correlated with the washing subscale. Hoarding behaviors also showed significant, but more modest, correlations with social anxiety, depressive symptoms, and worry. However, worry was not found to contribute unique variance to the prediction of hoarding behaviors. Of greatest note, hoarding behaviors showed a surprisingly strong relationship with anxiety sensitivity, similar in magnitude to the relationship between hoarding and OCD symptoms. Results are interpreted and lines of future research are proposed, with particular emphasis on further elucidating the relationship between hoarding behaviors and anxiety sensitivity.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on perfectionism in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Theorists have linked perfectionism with obsessive compulsive disorder. Despite differences in the measurement of perfectionism, it is clear from the research that perfectionism is related to OCD. The sense of imperfection subsequently leads to a need for perfection in perceptions and behavior to overcome feelings of uncertainty. Cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of perfectionism in understanding OCD. Some theorists suggest that perfectionism develops in an attempt to avoid uncertainty or in an attempt to establish control, while others suggest that perfectionism produces uncertainty and the desire to control one's own environment. However, the research linking perfectionism and OCD has not been much useful limited. Neither have the studies examined the influence of the different levels of perfectionism treatment, nor whether addressing perfectionism directly in therapy would be beneficial. Such evidence is collected with respect to other disorders; such as eating disorders and depression and suggests that specifically addressing perfectionistic thinking may be an important component of treatment. Higher levels of perfectionism may interfere with OCD patients' ability to endure exposure and carefully examine evidence regarding the beliefs about intrusive thoughts. Treatments specifically designed to modify perfectionistic thinking may be a useful for OCD treatment.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses cognitions in compulsive hoarding. Hoarding refers to the stocking or amassing of possessions, a phenomenon encountered commonly throughout the community. Compulsive hoarding is a serious psychiatric problem that disrupts the lifestyle of hoarders and often the lives of friends, family, and the community in general. Hoarding behaviors have been observed in a range of non-clinical populations, including students, community controls, and the elderly. Hoarding is closely associated with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). A great deal of research evidence is cited in support of biological models of compulsive behavior. Biological models of hoarding are extensions of OCD research and animal studies. But Biological and ethological theories fail because the majority of cases of human compulsive hoarding involves non-food stuffs, considered by most people to be useless or of limited value. However, newly devised measures of hoarding cognitions are developed to be used in conjunction with the Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group for the identification of cognitive patterns relevant to individual patients presenting hoarding in the presence or absence of OCD.

Publisher Summary Cognitive theory regarding obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) holds that certain general belief domains are trait-like and form a general predisposition for OCD and probably for other disorders. Some of these are also thought to occur in the context of immediate appraisals of ongoing processes and are thereby more state-like. The theoretical models described in the chapter indicate a sequence of experiences thought to give rise to obsessions and compulsions. Intrusive internal experiences in the form of thoughts, images, impulses, and even physical sensations are followed by interpretations or appraisals of these experiences. When these interpretations are negative, they are accompanied by unpleasant emotions such as guilt, anxiety, frustration, and sadness. The individual seeks to reduce these emotions and gain control over the original intrusions by avoidance and also by mental or behavioral acts that become compulsive habits as they are repeated. A number of factors contribute to the negative interpretations, including preexisting negative mood and beliefs based on parental teachings and modeling and prior experiences.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the development and validation of instruments for measuring intrusions and beliefs in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Cognitive factors may be central to this disorder. These factors include: (1) cognitive processing (attention, memory, and information processing), and (2) cognitive appraisals or interpretations of internal and external events. The studies to examine the effects of cognitive treatments on OCD patients used Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) to alter irrational beliefs about obsessions. Perfectionism, guilt, and superstitious beliefs are considered closely associated to OCD but by no means specific to this disorder. Perfectionism is related to OCD and OCD symptoms. Guilt is the emotion most closely related to beliefs about responsibility and may be especially relevant for OCD. Although superstitious beliefs are not necessarily characteristic of individuals with OCD, they may be relevant for some individuals. The challenge of testing the measures for psychometric properties also benefited from the size and range of skill among group members. Collaborative instrument development and testing have distinct advantages over individual investigations.

Quantitative studies of ontogenetic changes in the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and its effector, BDNF protein, are not available for the retinal projection system. We used an electrochemiluminescence immunoassay to measure developmental changes in the tissue concentration of BDNF within the hamster retina and superior colliculus (SC). In the SC, we first detected BDNF (about 9 pg/mg tissue) on embryonic day 14 (E14). BDNF protein concentration in the SC rises about fourfold between (E14) and postnatal day 4 (P4), remains at a plateau through P15, then declines by about one-third to attain its adult level by P18. By contrast, BDNF protein concentration in the retina remains low (about 1 pg/mg tissue) through P12, then increases 4.5-fold to attain its adult level on P18. The developmental changes in retinal and collicular BDNF protein concentrations are temporally correlated with multiple events in the structural and functional maturation of the hamster retinal projection system. Our data suggest roles for BDNF in the cellular mechanisms underlying some of these events and are crucial to the design of experiments to examine those roles. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 49: 173–187, 2001

The results of this study support the notion that pathological gamblers drawn from the community would score higher on all three scores from the YBOCS than light gamblers. Consistent with hypotheses, pathological gamblers (lottery and scratch ticket) reported more obsessions, compulsions, and avoidance behavior than the light gamblers, and also reported having more urges to engage in injurious behaviors to themselves and others. These findings provide evidence that pathological gambling falls in a spectrum or family of disorders which have obsessive-compulsive disorder at its core. These findings support McElroy, Hudson, Philips, et al.'s (1993) suggestions of similarities between OCD and Impulse Control Disorders, and extend Blaszczynski (1999) findings of overlap between pathological gamblers and OCD in a treatment population. Heavy gamblers also reported significantly more hoarding symptoms and compulsive buying than light gamblers. More research in this area may show further evidence of a spectrum of disorders with obsessive compulsive disorder at its core, and show further links between impulse control disorders (such as pathological gambling) and OCD.

We studied visually guided behavior and the visual response properties of single auditory cortex (A1) neurons in neonatally operated hamsters with surgically induced, permanent, ectopic retinal projections to auditory thalamic nuclei and to visual thalamic nuclei which normally receive little direct retinal input. The surgically induced retino-thalamo-cortical pathways can mediate visual guided behaviors whose normal substrate, the pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex via the primary thalamic visual nucleus, is missing. The visually evoked response properties of A1 neurons resemble in many respects those of neurons in V1 of normal hamsters: many A1 neurons have well-defined visual receptive fields and preferences for orientation or direction of movement. In addition, some visually responsive cells in A1 are bimodal--they also respond to auditory stimuli. The visually responsive neurons in A1 probably account for the capacity of the auditory cortex to mediate visual behavior in 'rewired hamsters'.

Hoarding behaviour has been defined as the accumulation of possessions that are useless and that interfere with the ability to function. Severe hoarding may endanger not only the health and safety of the individual, but also their surrounding community. However, little information exists regarding the frequency and seriousness of this problem. This study represents the first attempt to determine the frequency of complaints about hoarding behaviour to responding health departments in one state (Massachusetts) and to explore the nature of these complaints. Eighty-eight health officers, serving a population of 1.79 million people, responded to a survey of complaints to local boards of health about hoarding behaviour. Sixty-four percent of the health officers reported at least one hoarding complaint during the five years under study; 471 case complaints were reported. In-depth information on the nature and circumstances of complaints was collected for 58 cases. Complaints typically involved multiple community agencies and occasionally resulted in significant cost to the community. Only half of the hoarders recognized the lack of sanitation in their home, and fewer than one third of complainants willingly co-operated to resolve the complaint against them. Hoarding behaviours were judged to seriously jeopardize the health of the individual and those around them. Hoarding behaviour that involved collecting animals was more serious and difficult to deal with than non-animal hoarding.

Although hoarding has been studied in adults, little is known about problems of hoarding by elderly people. This study used a structured telephone interview with elder services providers to investigate hoarding behaviors in relation to functional impairment, cognitive deficits, and physical and psychological conditions in 62 elderly clients. Most elderly hoarders were female, unmarried, and lived alone. Extensive clutter was associated with significant impairment, interfering with basic hygiene, and posing a serious physical threat for many elderly clients. Clients were rarely insightful about their collecting and often resisted change, rendering interventions generally ineffective. Never-married status was associated with more severe hoarding and greater impairment and possibly with worse outcomes of intervention efforts. Health and mental health implications of hoarding by elderly people and implications for treatment are discussed.

The expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and the secretion of BDNF protein are tightly regulated by neuronal activity. Thus, BDNF has been proposed as a mediator of activity-dependent neural plasticity. Previous studies showed that dark rearing (DR) reduces BDNF mRNA levels in the primary visual cortex (V1), but the effects of visual experience on BDNF protein levels are unknown. We report that rearing in constant light or DR alters BDNF mRNA and protein levels in the retina, superior colliculus (SC), V1, hippocampus (HIPP), and cerebellum (CBL), although the changes in mRNA and protein are not always correlated. Most notably, DR increases BDNF protein levels in V1 although BDNF mRNA is decreased. BDNF protein levels also undergo diurnal changes. In the retina, V1, and SC, BDNF protein levels are higher during the light phase of the circadian cycle than during the dark phase. By contrast, in HIPP and CBL, the tissue concentration of BDNF protein is higher during the dark phase. The discrepancies between the experience-dependent changes in BDNF mRNA and protein suggest that via its effects on neuronal activity, early sensory experience alters the trafficking, as well as the synthesis, of BDNF protein. The circadian changes in BDNF protein suggest that BDNF could cause the diurnal modulation of synaptic efficacy in some neural circuits. The fluctuations in BDNF levels in nonvisual structures suggest a potential role of BDNF in mediating plasticity induced by hormones or motor activity.

We studied visually guided behavior and the visual response properties of single auditory cortex (A1) neurons in neonatally operated hamsters with surgically induced, permanent, ectopic retinal projections to auditory thalamic nuclei and to visual thalamic nuclei which normally receive little direct retinal input. The surgically induced retino-thalamo-cortical pathways can mediate visual guided behaviors whose normal substrate, the pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex via the primary thalamic visual nucleus, is missing. The visually evoked response properties of A1 neurons resemble in many respects those of neurons in V1 of normal hamsters: many A1 neurons have well-defined visual receptive fields and preferences for orientation or direction of movement. In addition, some visually responsive cells in A1 are bimodal--they also respond to auditory stimuli. The visually responsive neurons in A1 probably account for the capacity of the auditory cortex to mediate visual behavior in 'rewired hamsters'.

Neurotrophins are a family of secreted molecules that have multiple, profound actions on the structure and function of both developing and mature neurons. Neurotrophins exert their influences by signaling through the trk family of receptor tyrosine kinases and the p75 low affinity neurotrophin receptor. Here we review the contributions of neurotrophins to the development of neural circuitry in the mammalian visual system. We emphasize: (1) the role of neurotrophins as components of the cellular mechanisms by which neuroelectric activity sculpts pattern of brain connectivity; and (2) the results of recent experiments suggesting that the trafficking of neurotrophin proteins may be activity dependent.

Exposure of the developing brain to methamphetamine has well-studied biochemical and behavioral consequences. We review: (1) the effects of methamphetamine on mature serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways; (2) the mechanisms of methamphetamine neurotoxicity and (3) the role of serotonergic and dopaminergic signaling in sculpting developing neural circuitry. Consideration of these data suggest the types of neural circuit alterations that may result from exposure of the developing brain to methamphetamine and that may underlie functional defects.

Combined lesions of retinal targets and ascending auditory pathways can induce, in developing animals, permanent retinal projections to auditory thalamic nuclei and to visual thalamic nuclei that normally receive little direct retinal input. Neurons in the auditory cortex of such animals have visual response properties that resemble those of neurons in the primary visual cortex of normal animals. Therefore, we investigated the behavioral function of the surgically induced retino-thalamo-cortical pathways. We showed that both surgically induced pathways can mediate visually guided behaviors whose normal substrate, the pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex via the primary thalamic visual nucleus, is missing.

Drugs used to treat affective disorders exert their effects largely through their actions on various neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitters are important regulators of neural development. Thus, even limited periods of drug use/exposure during fetal- or postnatal brain ontogeny, which continues to the end of the second decade, can, potentially, cause enduring, functionally significant changes in neuronal circuitry. The duration and timing of drug treatment are critical in determining long-term effects (Popa et al, 2008), owing to developmental changes in the neural substrates on which the drugs act. Stress, which is associated with affective disorders, adversely impacts neural development during fetal life and postnatally, and is ameliorated by therapies that improve affect. Thus, potential, adverse, long-term effects of exposing the developing brain to medication must be weighed against the deleterious impact of stress elevation as a result of interrupted pharmacotherapy of pregnant women, or not treating children or adolescents. Human studies have revealed few effects of fetal antidepressant drug (ADD) exposure that endure beyond infancy. By contrast, adult rodents exposed to ADDs only during stages corresponding to fetal life, childhood, or adolescence in humans exhibit a spectrum of abnormalities, many of which are, surprisingly, components of depression. Similar, long-term, ‘mirror image' effects (that is, drug-induced increases in disease components that are reduced by pharmacological treatment of adults) occur after early-life anxiolytic treatment (Depino et al, 2008). Early exposure to atypical antipsychotic drugs, used to treat bipolar disorder in children and adolescents, induces significant, long-lasting cognitive deficits (Zuo et al, 2008) and morphological abnormalities (Frost et al, 2009). Why do rodent and human data seem discrepant? In rodents, the behavioral syndromes induced by early ADD (Ansorge et al, 2008) or anxiolytic (Depino et al, 2008) treatment are progressive and emerge fully only in early adulthood. This is because early-life brain insults induce a cascade of effects over the course of development. Human studies of the effects on progeny of maternal ADD treatment during pregnancy so far reach only up to 7–10 years of age—too early to characterize long-term outcomes. Early-life experience and environmental factors are emerging as additional, important modulators of the effects of psychotropic medications. We recently showed that, in rats, some of the enduring behavioral consequences of fetal exposure to fluoxetine do not occur if exposed infants are subjected to behavioral testing, which, by its nature, provides supplemental sensory stimulation and exercise (R Gibb, DO Frost and B Kolb, unpublished data). A provocative, parallel finding has recently been reported in humans: In infants who are not breast fed, maternal SSRI use during pregnancy is associated with altered hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) stress responses, whereas breast feeding abolishes this effect of fetal SSRI exposure by 3 months of age (Oberlander et al, 2008). The mode of feeding seems to act epigenetically: breast-fed infants have lower methylation (and probably higher expression) of the glucocorticoid receptor gene NR3C1 than nonbreast-fed infants (Oberlander et al, 2008). Animal and human studies are consistent in demonstrating that environment and experience during fetal and postnatal brain maturation interact with early-life psychotropic drug exposure to shape the ontogeny of behavior and neural circuitry. Epigenetic modulation of gene expression appears to be one important mediator of these effects. These findings suggest possibilities for designing new therapeutic strategies that mitigate the effects of early-life ADD exposure.

Permanent, novel retinal projections to the principal thalamic somatosensory (ventrobasal) or auditory (medial geniculate) nuclei can be produced in adult hamsters if the superior colliculus is ablated bilaterally and the somatosensory and auditory lemniscal axons are transected unilaterally on the day of birth. We studied the development of those novel projections by labeling retinal axons with the fluorescent tracer 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3', 3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate to examine the relative roles of intrinsic factors and axon-target interactions in the specification of retinal axon connections. Our principal findings are as follows: (1) In hamsters operated on the day of birth to produce the novel retinal projections, retinal ganglion cell axons projecting to the ventrobasal or medial geniculate nuclei develop in three morphologically distinct stages, i.e., elongation, collateralization, and arborization, as do retinal axons projecting to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, the principal thalamic visual nucleus, in normal hamsters. (2) In both the ventrobasal and medial geniculate nuclei of operated hamsters, as in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of normal hamsters, collateral branches were initially formed by retinal ganglion cell axons in both the superficial and internal components of the optic tract and only collaterals from the superficial component formed permanent projections. (3) The retinofugal axon terminal arbors in the ventrobasal and medial geniculate nuclei of mature, operated hamsters resemble the same three morphologic classes that are observed in the lateral geniculate nucleus of normal hamsters, although their absolute size appears to be altered. These data suggest that both superficial and internal optic tract axons can produce thalamic collaterals during development but that only superficial optic tract axons can permanently retain thalamic collaterals. Furthermore, the same morphologic types of retinofugal axons appear to contribute to normal and surgically induced retinal projections.

Mrs. T. is a 40-year-old white female with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessivecompulsive personality disorder (OCPD) who is married to a 40-year-old man with bipolar disorder and obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD). She was referred for resumption of psychotherapy following a 1-year period during which treatment was managed solely by her psychopharmacologist. Mrs. T. had experienced a difficult termination with her previous therapist, but she and her psychopharmacologist believed that she would now benefit from further treatment. The tone of the new therapy was established the day before the first session, when Mrs. T. paged the therapist to inform him that she was feeling anxious and overwhelmed by a new crisis in her housing situation. This situation was to dominate the next 7 months of therapy. The patient’s landlady was threatening eviction because of uncleared piles of belongings stacked about the couple’s apartment, resulting in possible violation of fire codes. This clutter was the result of Mrs. T.’s lifelong pattern of hoarding; she had been unable to dispose of anything-old magazines, clothing, books, or almost any other nonperishable item-that might hold meaning for her. Mrs. T. had weathered a few similar eviction threats in the past by placing her excess belongings in storage as a temporizing measure. On two occasions, these

The present case study describes a cognitive-behavioral intervention directed at helping a 53 year old female suffering from compulsive hoarding decrease clutter and improve decision-making and sorting techniques. The intervention focused on decision-making training, exposure and response prevention, and cognitive restructuring. Ratios of cluttered space to overall space were calculated for floor and furniture tops for each of five rooms over a period of 17 months. Clutter decreased substantially in each of the rooms targeted for intervention, while clutter ratios remained stable for a room used as a baseline control (no intervention). In addition, D.'s scores on self-report measures of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology decreased after 9 months of intervention suggesting that the treatment protocol affected symptoms of hoarding distress, as well as clutter. Despite previously reported difficulties in the treatment of compulsive hoarding, our results provide preliminary evidence that a cognitive-behavioral intervention can be successful in reducing hoarding symptoms. Suggestions for future research include streamlining the treatment program and testing its efficacy on large clinical samples.

Several types of beliefs have been hypothesized to be associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), including responsibility for harm, need to control thoughts, overestimates of threat, intolerance of uncertainty, and beliefs about the consequences of anxiety and capacity to cope. The present study compared 62 subjects with OCD, 45 with other anxiety disorders (AD) and 34 controls, using 3 measures of OCD-related beliefs. OCD subjects scored higher than AD and control samples on 2 general belief measures. A closer analysis of specific belief domains indicated that OCD subjects scored higher than AD and control subjects on all 6 specific belief domains (responsibility, control, estimation of threat, tolerance of uncertainty, beliefs about the consequences of anxiety, and the capacity to cope). Four of the 6 domains showed reasonable convergent and discriminant validity with measures of OCD symptoms compared to other psychopathology; anxiety and coping beliefs were the exceptions. In regression analyses, cognitive measures contributed significant explanatory power beyond mood state and worry with uncertainty predicting severity of OCD symptoms above all other belief domains. Further research on OCD-relevant belief domains in etiology, maintenance and treatment is warranted.

Two studies examined hypotheses about compulsive hoarding, compulsive buying and beliefs about saving and discarding derived from the cognitive-behavioral model of compulsive hoarding [Frost, R. O. and Hartl, T. (1996). A cognitive behavioral model of compulsive hoarding. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 341-350.]. Study 1 examined the hypotheses in a college student population, while study 2 compared members of a support group for hoarding and clutter-related problems with a nonclinical control. Across studies the hypotheses were supported. Compulsive hoarding was associated with compulsive buying and the frequency of acquisition of possessions discarded by others, suggesting that compulsive acquisition may be a broader construct than compulsive buying among people with hoarding problems. Regarding its association with OCD symptoms, hoarding was most closely associated with the impaired mental control features of OCD. Finally, offa hoarding-related task, hoarding was associated with a greater frequency of reasons to save, but was not associated with fewer reasons to discard a target possession.