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We aimed to establish whether recall of elements of the neurological examination can be improved by use of a simple patient assessment score. In a previous study we demonstrated that in-patients referred to neurology at two United Kingdom (UK) hospitals were not fully examined prior to referral; we therefore designed a larger quality improvement report with 80% power to detect a 10% increase in tendon hammer or ophthalmoscope use following an educational intervention. In-patients referred to neurology over a four month period (in hospitals in the UK (10), Jordan (1), Sweden (2), and the United Arab Emirates (1)) were asked whether they recalled being examined with a tendon hammer (T), ophthalmoscope (O), and stethoscope (S) since admission. The results were disseminated to local medical teams using various techniques (including Grand Round presentations, email, posters, discounted equipment). Data were then collected for a further four month period post-intervention. Pre-intervention and post-intervention data were available for 11 centres with 407 & 391 patients in each arm respectively. Median age of patients was 51 (range 13-100) and 49 (range 16-95) years respectively, with 44.72% and 44.76% being male in each group. 264 patients (64.86%) recalled being examined with a tendon hammer in the pre-intervention arm, which significantly improved to 298 (76.21%) (p

Summary Antibodies targeting major gangliosides that are broadly distributed in the nervous system are some- times associated with clinical symptoms that imply selective nerve damage. For example, anti-GD1a anti- bodies are associated with acute motor axonal neuropa- thy (AMAN), a form of Guillain-Barresyndrome that selectively affects motor nerves, despite reports that GD1a is present in human axons and myelin and is not expressed differentially in motor versus sensory roots. We used a series of high-affinity monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the major nervous system gangliosides GM1, GD1a, GD1b and GT1b to test whether any of them bind motor or sensory fibres differentially in rodent and human peripheral nerves. The following observations were made. (i) Some of the anti-GD1a antibodies preferentially stained motor fibres, support- ing the association of human anti-GD1a antibodies with predominant motor neuropathies such as AMAN. (ii) A GD1b antibody preferentially stained the large dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurones, in keeping with the pro- posed role of human anti-GD1b antibodies in sensory ataxic neuropathies. (iii) Two mAbs with broad struc- tural cross-reactivity bound to both gangliosides and peripheral nerve proteins. (iv) Myelin was poorly stained; all clones stained axons nearly exclusively. Our findings suggest that anti-ganglioside antibody fine specificity as well as differences in ganglioside access- ibility in axons and myelin influence the selectivity of injury to different fibre systems and cell types in human autoimmune neuropathies.

Staphylococcal protein A immunoadsorption and plasma exchange were compared for treating chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. In a single patient, plasma exchange had a more beneficial effect than immunoadsorption on clinical outcome measures. Serum IgM antibody activity to peripheral nerve fell significantly following plasma exchange. Serum IgM and IgA fell more and IgG less after plasma exchange than after immunoadsorption. The superior efficacy of plasma exchange to immunoadsorption in this case may have been the result of removal of an IgM antibody.

Anti-Ma2 associated paraneoplastic syndrome usually presents as limbic encephalitis in association with testicular tumours.1 2 Only four patients have been reported with involvement outside the CNS, two of whom also had limbic or brainstem encephalitis.2 3 We report a man with anti-Ma2 associated myeloradiculopathy and previous testicular cancer whose neurological syndrome stabilised and anti-Ma2 titres fell following orchidectomy of a microscopically normal testis. A 46-year-old dentist noticed weakness of pincer movement in the left hand. Six weeks later he developed sequential finger drop of the 4th, 5th and 3rd fingers of the left hand over days. During the subsequent weeks the fingers of his right hand also dropped. He had a prior history of left orchidectomy for stage I testicular seminoma and had been well on surveillance for 5 years. MRI brain, cervical spine and brachial plexii were normal. A diagnosis of multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block was considered. Neurophysiology of the upper limbs demonstrated reduced motor amplitudes and acute and chronic denervation but no conduction block. Neurophysiology of the lower limbs was normal. He was given a trial of intravenous immunoglobulin without response. Some weeks later he developed an unusual itchy sensation spreading across his back and shoulders. On examination there was head drop with weakness of neck flexion. There was wasting of both forearms and intrinsic hand muscles, with some fasciculations in the biceps and triceps. Tone was normal. There was asymmetric patchy proximal and distal weakness of both arms with finger drop. Reflexes were brisk …

VEGF is diagnostically markedly elevated in patients with POEMS syndrome and is also a disease biomarker. However, VEGF can be elevated in other illnesses, which might be misleading. We asssayed serum VEGF levels from clinical requests in samples from 206 consecutive patients with a neuropathy at Queen Square. Sensitivity and specificity of VEGF in the diagnosis of POEMS were calculated and other potential causes of VEGF elevation explored. Elevated sVEGF had a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 90% for the diagnosis of POEMS syndrome, with positive and negative predictive values of 60% and 100%. sVEGF was much higher in POEMS syndrome and higher in CIDP and anti-MAG neuropathy. Multiple logistic regression showed anaemia with low iron and COPD/OSAHS were significant predictors for elevated sVEGF. There was a tendency for cancers, anti-MAG neuropathy and Waldenstrom9s disease to be predictors of elevated sVEGF, which are supported by previous studies. Other potential factors for VEGF elevation have been described, but not identified in this cohort. We confirmed the high sensitivity and specificity of elevated VEGF for POEMS syndrome diagnosis. However, when VEGF is significantly elevated, anaemia with low iron, cancers, haematological malignancies, OSAHS, COPD and chronic inflammatory diseases should be excluded.

Gangliosides, sialic acid-bearing glycosphingolipids, are highly enriched in the vertebrate nervous system. Anti-ganglioside antibodies are associated with various human neuropathies, although the pathogenicity of these antibodies remains unproven. Testing the pathogenic role of anti-ganglioside antibodies will be facilitated by developing high-affinity IgG-class complement-fixing monoclonal anti-bodies against major brain gangliosides, a goal that has been difficult to achieve. In this study, mice lacking complex gangliosides were used as immune-naive hosts to raise anti-ganglioside antibodies. Wild-type mice and knockout mice with a disrupted gene for GM2/GD2 synthase (UDP-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine : GM3/GD3 N-acetyl-D-glactosaminyltransferase) were immunized with GD1a conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The knockout mice produced a vigorous anti-GD1a IgG response, whereas wildtype littermates failed to do so. Fusion of spleen cells from an immunized knockout mouse with myeloma cells yielded numerous IgG anti-GD1a antibody-producing colonies. Ganglioside binding studies revealed two specificity classes; one colony representing each class was cloned and characterized. High-affinity monoclonal antibody was produced by each hybridoma : an IgG1 that bound nearly exclusively to GD1a and an IgG2b that bound GD1a, GT1b, and GT1aalpha. Both antibodies readily readily detected gangliosides via ELISA, TLC immune overlay, immunohistochemistry, and immunocytochemistry. In contrast to prior reports using anti-GD1a and anti-GT1b IgM class monoclonal antibodies, the new antibodies bound avidly to granule neurons in brain tissue sections and cell cultures. Mice lacking complex gangliosides are improved hosts for raising high-affinity, high-titer anti-ganglioside IgG antibodies for probing for the distribution and physiology of gangliosides and the pathophysiology of anti-ganglioside antibodies.

It is generally accepted that while inflammatory demyelinating neuropathies often cause patchy demyelination resulting in conduction block, temporal dispersion and variation in conduction velocities, demyelinating hereditary neuropathies such as Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease type 1A are usually characterised by homogeneous slow conduction. X-linked CMT is caused by mutations in the gap junction beta 1 ( GJB1 ) gene encoding connexin 32, a gap junction protein, resulting in intermediate conduction velocities. At our institution, mean median nerve conduction velocity in men with GJB1 mutations is 33.2 ± 7.5 m/s (n = 13) and 47.7 ± 7.0 m/s in women (n = 8), similar to other recent series.1 2 There is increasing evidence that nerve conduction is not always homogeneous in GJB1 associated CMT.1–4 Here we present three cases in which the neurophysiology suggested an inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy, but who failed to respond to treatment and were subsequently found to have mutations in GJB1 . ### Case No 1 A 23-year-old man presented with parasthesia affecting both feet that progressed to mild hand parasthesia and weakness over 6 months. Although slightly clumsy, he had been good at sport as a teenager. He had minimal wasting but normal power in his hands, he was areflexic and had reduced vibration and pinprick distally. CSF was acellular, with a raised protein of 0.78 g/l. His initial nerve conduction studies (NCS) (done elsewhere) suggested chronic …

Although there are now widely accepted diagnostic criteria for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) there are few epidemiological data. A prevalence study was performed in the four Thames health regions, population 14 049 850. The prevalence date was 1 January 1995. Data were from a national consultant neurologist surveillance programme and the personal case series of two investigators. A diagnosis of CIDP was made according to definite, probable, possible, or suggestive diagnostic criteria. A wide difference in prevalence rates between the four health regions was noted, probably due to reporting bias. In the South East Thames Region, from which the data were most comprehensive the prevalence for definite and probable cases was 1.00/100 000; the highest total prevalence (if possible and suggestive cases were included) would have been 1.24/100 000. On the prevalence date 13% of patients required aid to walk and 54% were still receiving treatment.

Introduction In recent years an increasing range of neurological syndromes has been associated with the emergence of novel influenza A:H1N1 (2009), and other influenza viruses. We aimed to describe the features of adults and children with neurological manifestations associated with influenza in the UK. Method A surveillance study was performed in conjunction with the BNSU and BPNSU* over a 24–month period (February 2011 to February 2013). Inclusion criteria specified acute neurological illness within 1 month of proven influenza infection and prospective case definitions were applied. Results Twenty–five cases were identified: 4 adults and 21 children [6 (23%) with pre–existing neurological disorders]. Four (16%) cases (all with encephalopathy syndromes) died. Twenty cases (80%) required admission to intensive care. Seventeen (68%) had Glasgow Outcome Scores of 2–5 indicating poor outcome. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of respiratory secretions identified: influenza A in 21 (20 H1N1) and influenza B in 4 cases. Two had co–infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae (one adult with septicaemia; one child with meningitis). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) revealed a pleocytosis in 3 out of 18 cases (median 184×106 cells/litre [range 16–900]). Influenza PCR was negative in all 10 CSF samples tested. Cerebral magnetic resonance imaging was performed in 3 cases, computerised tomography in 6, and 14 had both. Recognised acute encephalopathy syndromes were seen in 5, and non–specific changes including cerebral oedema and/or diffusion restriction in 5. For the 4 adults, 2 presented with acute extrapyramidal movement disorders, 1 with Guillain–Barre syndrome and 1 with acute encephalopathy. Of the 21 children, 17 presented with acute encephalopathy, 3 with encephalitis and 1 with acute dyskinesia. Encephalopathy syndromes were documented in 7 cases (6 children, 1 adult). They were characterised by their clinical presentation and neuroimaging and included 4 with Acute Necrotising Encephalopathy (ANE), 1 Acute Infantile Encephalopathy Predominantly Affecting the Frontal Lobes (AIEF), 1 Haemorrhagic Shock & Encephalopathy (HSE) syndrome and 1 Acute Haemorrhagic Leukoencephalopathy (AHL). Treatments included: systemic steroids in 4 cases, 1 had intravenous immunoglobulin, and 3 cases received both. None received plasma exchange. Influenza vaccination was indicated in eight cases, but none had received it. Conclusion This paediatric and adult UK cohort identified a severity of influenza related neurological manifestation not reported previously. Cases were more common in children, particularly those with underlying neurological conditions. Encephalopathy syndromes such as ANE, AIEF, HSE and AHL were seen more frequently in children and were associated with a worse outcome. Acute movement disorders and Guillain–Barre syndrome were identified more commonly in adults. Influenza related encephalopathy may be more common in those with abnormal genetically determined host inflammatory responses, but the virus itself is rarely detected in the CSF. Influenza should be considered a cause of acute neurological syndromes in the winter months, especially in children with unexplained encephalopathy. Encephalopathy may be more common with the H1N1 strain. Importantly none of the cases had been vaccinated although many had indications for this.

Background Global controversy on the efficacy and safety of quinine for muscle cramps (banned in USA, widely prescribed in UK), led us to conduct a meta-analysis of all trials comparing quinine to placebo or other treatments. Methods We searched The Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, and EMBASE up to July 2010. Inclusion Criteria: randomised controlled trials, cramps in any location and of any cause. Primary outcome: cramp frequency. Secondary outcomes: cramp intensity, duration, cramp days, adverse events. Results 23 randomised trials with a total of 1586 participants were included. Quinine was compared to placebo (20 trials), vitamin E (4 trials), a quinine-vitamin E combination (3 trials), and a quinine-theophylline combination (1 trial). The most commonly-used quinine dosage was 300 mg/day. Compared to placebo, quinine significantly reduced cramp number by 28%, cramp intensity by 10%, and cramp days by 20%. Cramp duration was not significantly affected. The other treatment comparisons were not significantly different to quinine. There were significantly more minor adverse events with quinine than placebo (risk difference, RD +3%), mainly gastrointestinal symptoms, but no difference in major adverse events (RD 0%). Conclusion There is moderate quality evidence that quinine significantly reduces cramp frequency, intensity and cramp days. With use up to 60 days, the incidence of serious adverse events is not significantly greater than placebo.

Preliminary clinical data indicate that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is associated with neurological and neuropsychiatric illness. Responding to this, a weekly virtual coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) neurology multi-disciplinary meeting was established at the National Hospital, Queen Square, in early March 2020 in order to discuss and begin to understand neurological presentations in patients with suspected COVID-19-related neurological disorders. Detailed clinical and paraclinical data were collected from cases where the diagnosis of COVID-19 was confirmed through RNA PCR, or where the diagnosis was probable/possible according to World Health Organization criteria. Of 43 patients, 29 were SARS-CoV-2 PCR positive and definite, eight probable and six possible. Five major categories emerged: (i) encephalopathies (n = 10) with delirium/psychosis and no distinct MRI or CSF abnormalities, and with 9/10 making a full or partial recovery with supportive care only; (ii) inflammatory CNS syndromes (n = 12) including encephalitis (n = 2, para- or post-infectious), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (n = 9), with haemorrhage in five, necrosis in one, and myelitis in two, and isolated myelitis (n = 1). Of these, 10 were treated with corticosteroids, and three of these patients also received intravenous immunoglobulin; one made a full recovery, 10 of 12 made a partial recovery, and one patient died; (iii) ischaemic strokes (n = 8) associated with a pro-thrombotic state (four with pulmonary thromboembolism), one of whom died; (iv) peripheral neurological disorders (n = 8), seven with Guillain-Barré syndrome, one with brachial plexopathy, six of eight making a partial and ongoing recovery; and (v) five patients with miscellaneous central disorders who did not fit these categories. SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with a wide spectrum of neurological syndromes affecting the whole neuraxis, including the cerebral vasculature and, in some cases, responding to immunotherapies. The high incidence of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, particularly with haemorrhagic change, is striking. This complication was not related to the severity of the respiratory COVID-19 disease. Early recognition, investigation and management of COVID-19-related neurological disease is challenging. Further clinical, neuroradiological, biomarker and neuropathological studies are essential to determine the underlying pathobiological mechanisms that will guide treatment. Longitudinal follow-up studies will be necessary to ascertain the long-term neurological and neuropsychological consequences of this pandemic.

There have been suggestions from previous studies that patients with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) have weaker dominant hand muscles. Since all studies to date have included a heterogeneous group of CMT patients we decided to analyze hand strength in 43 patients with CMT1X. We recorded handedness and the MRC scores for the first dorsal interosseus (FDIO) and abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscles, median and ulnar nerve compound motor action potentials (CMAPs) and conduction velocities in dominant and non-dominant hands. Twenty-two CMT1X patients (51%) had a weaker dominant hand; none had a stronger dominant hand. Mean MRC scores were significantly higher for FDIO and APB in non-dominant hands compared to dominant hands. Median nerve CMAPs were significantly reduced in dominant compared to non-dominant hands. We conclude that the dominant hand is weaker than the non-dominant hand in patients with CMT1X. It has been suggested in previous studies that a difference in hand strength between dominant and non-dominant hands may suggest that overwork weakness causes increased muscle weakness as the dominant hand will be used more by the patient. Whether this extrapolation is valid remains to be seen but it is an important issue as exercise training to improve strength in CMT is a growing area of research. While our study does suggest that the dominant hand is weaker in patients with CMT1X, it would be premature to suggest this is due to overwork weakness.

BackgroundPrompt diagnosis and early treatment prevents disability in Polyneuropathy Organomegaly Endocrinopathy Monoclonal-protein and Skin Changes (POEMS) syndrome. Delay in diagnosis is common with 55% of patients initially incorrectly diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP). Patients are often treated with intravenous immunoglobulin which is both expensive and ineffective in the treatment of POEMS. Testing patients with acquired demyelinating neuropathy with serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) more accurately identifies POEMS syndrome than the current standard of care. Incorporating VEGF testing into screening could prevent misdiagnosis and reduce costs.MethodsWe used observed treatment information for patients in the University College London Hospital’s POEMS syndrome database (n=100) and from the National Immunoglobulin Database to estimate costs associated with incorrect CIDP diagnoses across our cohort. We conducted a model-based cost-effectiveness analysis to compare the current diagnostic algorithm with an alternative which includes VEGF testing for all patients with an acquired demyelinating neuropathy.ResultsTreatment associated with an incorrect CIDP diagnosis led to total wasted healthcare expenditures of between £808 550 and £1 111 756 across our cohort, with an average cost-per-POEMS-patient misdiagnosed of £14 701 to £20 214. Introducing mandatory VEGF testing for patients with acquired demyelinating neuropathy would lead to annual cost-savings of £107 398 for the National Health Service and could prevent misdiagnosis in 16 cases per annum.ConclusionsMisdiagnosis in POEMS syndrome results in diagnostic delay, disease progression and significant healthcare costs. Introducing mandatory VEGF testing for patients with acquired demyelinating neuropathy is a cost-effective strategy allowing for early POEMS diagnosis and potentially enabling prompt disease-directed therapy.

Few regional and seasonal Guillain–Barre syndrome (GBS) clusters have been reported so far. It is unknown whether patients suffering from sporadic GBS differ from GBS clusters with respect to clinical and paraclinical parameters, HLA association and antibody response to glycosphingolipids and Campylobacter jejuni (Cj). We examined 40 consecutive patients with GBS from the greater Munich area in Germany with 14 of those admitted within a period of 3 months in fall 2010 defining a cluster of GBS. Sequencing-based HLA typing of the HLA genes DRB1, DQB1, and DPB1 was performed, and ELISA for anti-glycosphingolipid antibodies was carried out. Clinical and paraclinical findings (Cj seroreactivity, cerebrospinal fluid parameters, and electrophysiology) were obtained and analyzed. GBS cluster patients were characterized by a more severe clinical phenotype with more patients requiring mechanical ventilation and higher frequencies of autoantibodies against sulfatide, GalC and certain ganglioside epitopes (54 %) as compared to sporadic GBS cases (13 %, p = 0.017). Cj seropositivity tended to be higher within GBS cluster patients (69 %) as compared to sporadic cases (46 %, p = 0.155). We noted higher frequencies of HLA class II allele DQB1*05:01 in the cluster cohort (23 %) as compared to sporadic GBS patients (3 %, p = 0.019). Cluster of severe GBS was defined by higher frequencies of autoantibodies against glycosphingolipids. HLA class II allele DQB1*05:01 might contribute to clinical worsening in the cluster patients.