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As a result of their participation in K–12 physical education, students should obtain high levels of physical activity and learn motor and/or sport skills. How to accomplish these outcomes in the context of K–12 physical education is a continuous challenge for teachers. The purpose of this article is to introduce the play community model, which addresses how to proceed in the current climate of public health demands and a continuing commitment to educational outcomes like skill/knowledge attainment. First, a theoretical foundation for the play community model is delineated. Second, practical suggestions for implementing the play community model in physical education are offered. An underlying assumption of the play community model is that students will develop skills and knowledge, and increase their activity levels and/or fitness when their aspirations to participate in an activity or sport are sufficiently strong. Under this model, a physical education teacher's primary responsibility is to create specific sport or activity play communities where students' interest in physical education content can flourish. It is proposed that the physical education outcomes teachers so highly prize in today's educational environments — skills, knowledge, and physical activity/fitness and health — will occur “organically” via student involvement and inclusion in specific activity or sport play communities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

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Displacement activities are commonly recognized as behavioral patterns, mostly including self-directed actions (e.g., scratching, self-touching), that often occur in situations involving conflicting motivational tendencies. In ethology, several researchers have suggested that displacement activities could facilitate individuals in dealing with the stress experienced in a frustrating context. In child developmental research, some authors have assessed whether distraction strategies could help children to inhibit a dominant response during delay of gratification tasks. However, little is known about the displacement activities that young children may produce in such situations. This study was aimed at investigating whether displacement activities had an effect on preschool children's ability to postpone an immediate gratification (i.e., interacting with an attractive toy, a musical box), thereby functioning as regulators of their emotional state. To this end, we administered 143 2- to 4-year-olds with a delay maintenance task and related their performance with displacement activities they produced during the task and with actions with an external object. Children's latency to touch the musical box was positively related to their rate of displacement activities. However, the rate of displacement activities increased progressively as long as the children were able to inhibit the interaction with the musical box. In addition, the rate of displacement activities during the first 1 min of test did not predict the ability of children to inhibit the interaction with the box. These results suggest that displacement activities represented a functionless by-product of motivational conflict rather than a strategy that children used to inhibit their response to an attractive stimulus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors used a person-centered, longitudinal approach to identify and evaluate naturally occurring combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations among 490 third- through fifth-grade students. Cluster analysis revealed 3 groups, characterized by high levels of both motivations (high quantity): high intrinsic motivation but low extrinsic motivation (primarily intrinsic) and low intrinsic motivation but high extrinsic motivation (primarily extrinsic). Analyses of stability and change in cluster membership indicated that the primarily intrinsic cluster was most stable (76% stability) and the high-quantity cluster most precarious (45% stability) over the course of an academic year. Students in the primarily intrinsic cluster outperformed their peers in the other 2 clusters and showed the greatest increase in achievement over time. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Motivational climate research has focused more empirical attention on coach-initiated motivational climate than on the parent-initiated climate. In this study of 238 competitive swimmers (ages 9–14 years), we compared the strength of relations between athletes’ late-season perceptions of coach and parent-initiated climates and their self-esteem, performance anxiety, and intrinsic–extrinsic motivation. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that parent-initiated motivational climate was a significant predictor of late-season self-esteem, trait anxiety, and autonomous regulation over and above coach-initiated motivational climate. We discuss when and why the parent-initiated climate is likely to be more influential and imply that more empirical attention to parents is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Aim To determine the extent to which children's mastery motivation predicts occupational performance outcomes following upper limb intervention ( ULI). Method In this cohort study, participants received 45 hours of ULI, either in an intensive group-based or distributed individualized model. The Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire ( DMQ) measured mastery motivation at baseline. Occupational performance outcomes were assessed at baseline and 13 weeks' post-intervention using the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure ( COPM). Multivariable models determined the contribution of mastery motivation to COPM outcome irrespective of group membership. Results Forty-two children with congenital hemiplegia (29 males, 13 females; mean age 7y 8mo [ SD 2y 2mo]; range 5y 1mo-12y 8mo; Manual Ability Classification System [ MACS] I=20 and II=22; predominant motor type unilateral spastic n=41) participated in the study. Significant gains were seen in COPM performance and satisfaction scores ( p<0.001) post-intervention with no between group differences. Children who had greater persistence with object-oriented tasks ( p=0.02) and better manual ability ( p=0.03) achieved higher COPM performance scores at 13 weeks. Children's persistence on object-oriented tasks was the strongest predictor of COPM satisfaction ( p=0.01). Interpretation Children's persistence with object-oriented tasks as well as manual abilities needs to be considered when undertaking ULI. Predetermining children's motivational predispositions can assist clinicians to tailor therapy sessions individually based on children's strengths, contributing to effective engagement in ULI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Obesity treatment has been the subject of much controversy; various authors have recommended the application of a comprehensive treatment programme, and in the light of this previous research, we consider the question of what is the most effective programme of physical activity to reduce overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. Aims: To analyse major studies on the effectiveness of physical activity in reducing overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. Method: Systematic review of the results of physical activity programmes, published in scientific articles, to reduce overweight and obesity. Using an automated database search in PubMed and Google Scholar, conducted from October 2013 to March 2014, we identified 85 valid items. In selecting the items, the criteria applied included the usefulness and relevance of the subject matter and the credibility or experience of the research study authors. The internal and external validity of each of the articles reviewed was taken into account. Conclusions: This review confirmed the effectiveness of physical activity in reducing overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. The most effective programmes were those combining aerobic and anaerobic exercises. It is generally accepted that at least 180 minutes per week should be dedicated to exercise, in the form of three 60-minute sessions of moderate intensity. Such programmes could be sufficient for persons with overweight or obesity. Researchers in this field agree that when a diet based on an appropriate distribution of meals is combined with regular physical activity, they reinforce each other, and thus optimum results are obtained. Weight reduction programmes that take account of family involvement are more effective than nutrition education itself or other routine interventions that fail to consider family involvement. The role of parents and of the persons around the child or adolescent is essential to reinforce positive behaviour toward lifestyle change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boys and girls with sex-typical aspirations are significantly more likely to end up in sex-typical jobs as adults. Preference formation among children is therefore relevant for subsequent occupational outcomes. This study investigates the role of parental socialization and children's agency in the formation of sex-typed occupational preferences using data for British children aged 11 to 15. We anchor agency in observable psychological attributes associated with children's capacity to act in the face of constraints. We focus on two such attributes, motivation and self-esteem. Our findings identify two main sources of parental influence: (1) parental sex-typical behaviors, from which children learn which occupations are appropriate for each sex; and (2) parental socio-economic resources, which affect children's occupational ambition. We find, additionally, that girls with high motivation and both girls and boys with high self-esteem are less likely to aspire to sex-typical occupations, net of parental characteristics. Motivation and self-esteem help girls aim higher in the occupational ladder, which automatically reduces their levels of sex-typicality. For boys, however, self-esteem reduces sex-typicality at all levels of the aspired occupational distribution. This suggests that boys with high self-esteem are better equipped to contradict the existing social norms regarding sex-typical behavior. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective Guided by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1987), this study tested a trans-contextual model linking perceptions of the social environment created by the youth sport coach to levels of autonomous and controlled motivation, and objectively measured daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time (ST) in young football players. Design The study employed a cross-sectional design, assessing physical activity using accelerometers. Method 105 male youth sport footballers (M age = 12.79 ± 1.85 years) wore a GT3X accelerometer for 7 days. Measures of height and weight were recorded. Participants completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing perceptions of autonomy support and controlling coaching behaviours, and motivation toward their participation in sport and physically active games. Results Path analysis supported a model in which players' perceptions of coach-provided autonomy support positively predicted autonomous motivation for sport engagement. In turn, autonomous motivation was positively associated with MVPA, and negatively related to ST (min/day). Controlling coach behaviours were positively linked to controlled motivation. However, controlled motivation for sport and physically active games was unrelated to daily MVPA and ST. Perceptions of coach-provided autonomy support had a significant positive indirect effect on daily MVPA, and a significant negative indirect effect on daily ST. Conclusions Results suggest that autonomy supportive coach behaviours are related to daily physical activity patterns in young male footballers. Theory-based interventions that aim to encourage autonomy supportive coaching, and subsequently foster autonomous reasons for sport engagement, may enhance the potential of youth sport for increasing daily MVPA and reducing ST among children and adolescents active in this setting [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Can a subtle linguistic cue that invokes the self motivate children to help? In two experiments, 3- to 6-year-old children ( N = 149) were exposed to the idea of 'being a helper' (noun condition) or 'helping' (verb condition). Noun wording fosters the perception that a behavior reflects an identity-the kind of person one is. Both when children interacted with an adult who referenced 'being a helper' or 'helping' ([Experiment]) and with a new adult ([Experiment]), children in the noun condition helped significantly more across four tasks than children in the verb condition or a baseline control condition. The results demonstrate that children are motivated to pursue a positive identity. Moreover, this motivation can be leveraged to encourage prosocial behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of digital literacy becomes increasingly apparent as we move farther into the 21st century. As the digital world becomes an increasing part of our everyday lives and an important aspect of many professions, the need to instruct students on how to publish their thoughts digitally is ever more apparent. As technological proficiency becomes increasingly expected in many employment settings, it is vital that students are able to make their thoughts clear electronically. Blogging in a safe environment is one way that educators may blend young students' writing skill, their awareness of the purposes for writing, and digital-age technology. This article describes the work of one primary grade teacher at an urban high-needs school's use of blogging in conjunction with writing workshop. Use of blogging to publish students' writing increased students' writing engagement, improved their knowledge of how to navigate and use computers, and increased their understanding of the potential benefits and dangers of writing digitally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are impaired in social communication and interaction with peers, which may reflect diminished social motivation. Many children with ASD show enhanced stress when playing with other children. This study investigated social and stress profiles of children with ASD during play. Methods: We utilized a peer interaction paradigm in a natural playground setting with 66 unmedicated, prepubertal, children aged 8-12 years [38 with ASD, 28 with typical development (TD)]. Salivary cortisol was collected before and after a 20-min playground interaction that was divided into periods of free and solicited play facilitated by a confederate child. Statistical analyses included Wilcoxon rank-sum tests, mixed effects models, and Spearman correlations to assess the between-group differences in social and stress functioning, identify stress responders, and explore associations between variables, respectively. Results: There were no differences between the groups during unsolicited free play; however, during solicited play by the confederate, significant differences emerged such that children with ASD engaged in fewer verbal interactions and more self-play than the TD group. Regarding physiological arousal, children with ASD as a group showed relatively higher cortisol in response to social play; however, there was a broad range of responses. Moreover, those with the highest cortisol levels engaged in less social communication. Conclusions: The social interaction of children with ASD can be facilitated by peer solicitation; however, it may be accompanied by increased stress. The children with ASD that have the highest level of cortisol show less social motivation; yet, it is unclear if it reflects an underlying state of heightened arousal or enhanced reactivity to social engagement, or both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper highlights the development and testing of the Infant Movement Motivation Questionnaire (IMMQ), an instrument designed to evaluate qualities of infant characteristics that relate specifically to early motor development. The measurement development process included three phases: item generation, pilot testing and evaluation of acceptability and feasibility for parents and exploratory factor analysis. The resultant 27-item questionnaire is designed for completion by parents and contains four factors including Activity, Exploration, Motivation and Adaptability. Overall, the internal consistency of the IMMQ is 0.89 (Cronbach's alpha), with test-retest reliability measured at 0.92 (ICC, with 95% CI 0.83-0.96). Further work could be done to strengthen the individual factors; however it is adequate for use in its full form. The IMMQ can be used for clinical or research purposes, as well as an educational tool for parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The type of praise children receive influences whether children choose to persist after failure. One mechanism through which praise affects motivation is through the causal attributions inferred from language. For example, telling a child "You got an A on the test because you're smart," provides an explicit link between possessing a trait and an outcome, specifically that intelligence causes success. Nonetheless, most praise given to children is ambiguous, or lacks explicit attributions (e.g., "yea" or a thumbs up). To investigate the effects of ambiguous praise on motivation, we randomly assigned 95 5-6-year-old children to a praise condition (verbal trait; verbal effort; verbal ambiguous; or gestural) and measured motivation using task persistence, self-evaluations, and eye fixations on errors. Ambiguous praise, similar to verbal effort praise, produced higher persistence and self-evaluations, and fewer fixations on error after failure compared to verbal trait praise. Interestingly, gestures produced the highest self-evaluations. Thus, praise without explicit attributions motivated as well or better than praise explicitly focused on effort, which may suggest that children interpret ambiguous praise in the most beneficial manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary objective: To systematically review the evidence of the effects of motivating rehabilitation interventions on outcomes in children with acquired brain injury (ABI). Methods: A literature search of six databases was conducted to identify intervention studies published until July 2013. The American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine (AACPDM) systematic review methodology was used as a framework. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed level of evidence and quality of studies. Results: Of 891 records initially retrieved, 166 were screened by abstract and 31 by full text; 10 studies comprised of five randomized controlled trials, two case series and three single subject research design studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies fell into three intervention categories: (1) token economy based interventions; (2) virtual reality (VR); and (3) memory and attention interventions. Conclusions: A paucity of evidence has examined the effects of rehabilitation interventions with a motivational component. Token economies can significantly enhance memory and response inhibition performance in children with ABI. VR systems are motivating, yet findings are limited by the lack of use and availability of psychometrically evaluated measures of motivation. Findings point to the need for further research to evaluate the effects of motivation-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the proclivity and performance attributes of focal students across time and activities using data from 9,345 students. Three systematic focal behavior partitions are examined: Across activities, across time, and across activities and time. A student’s performance is focal if it ends in 0 or 5 for push-ups and 0 for curl-ups. Chi-square tests confirm that individual focal outcomes and systematic focal outcomes occur more frequently than random processes would suggest. In each instance, the only cell that is less populated than random processes would suggest is the one that exhibits no systematic focal behavior and the cell that exhibits the greatest deviation from expected is the full focal cell. Focal students outperform their peers on three activities at two assessments. Students with two-systematically focal outcomes have superior performance to students with no systematic focal outcomes but inferior performance to those with three or four focal outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In a series of two experiments, we examined 5-year-old children's motivations for learning new conventional actions. Children watched two teachers open a novel container; the teachers differed in the nonfunctional, conventional actions they used in the process. In Experiment 1, one teacher spoke with a native accent and the other spoke with a nonnative accent. Children showed a preference for following the native-accented teacher, and this preference was interpreted as a motivation to match an in-group member. In Experiment 2, the speech accent of the teacher was crossed with explicit expressions of (un)certainty by the teachers. In this case, children preferred the more certain teacher, even when the certain teacher spoke with a nonnative speech accent. This preference was taken as demonstrating a utilitarian motivation that led to choosing the teacher most likely to have useful information. Taken together, these results suggest that by 5 years of age, children are motivated by both utilitarian and in-group considerations when selecting between sources of information; however, when forced to select between the two motivations, utilitarian concerns take precedent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thirty parents observed their preschoolers (Mage = 4;2) experience a standardized laboratory event and discussed the event with their child later that day. Children's memory for this event was subsequently tested at two delay intervals. Prior to the laboratory event, parents were randomly assigned to receive either autonomy-support training (Condition A) or elaborative-structure training (Condition B); training followed the event. Autonomy support-trained parents became more autonomy-supportive following the training; structure-trained parents became more structurally elaborative. Short-term experimenter–child memory interviews took place 2 weeks after the laboratory event; children of autonomy support-trained parents appeared more engaged in this memory interview, while children of structure-trained parents provided more recall and more thematically coherent memory narratives. Long-term experimenter–child interviews took place 8 months after the laboratory event; children of autonomy support-trained parents provided more information in the directed phase of this interview and appeared more engaged in the interview. The effects of high parental autonomy support and high elaborative structure for children's memory and motivation to reminisce are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both explanation and exploration can foster causal learning, yet the mechanisms underlying these effects are largely unknown, especially in early childhood. In this article, I provide an overview of research on the relation among explanation, exploration, and the development of scientific reasoning. I propose that explaining and exploring operate in tandem as hypothesis-generating and hypothesis-testing mechanisms. I review evidence that supports this claim by demonstrating that inconsistency with prior knowledge selectively motivates children to construct explanations, guides discovery-oriented behavior, and drives the early-developing capacity to reason scientifically. I conclude with a discussion of the educational applications of research on the development of children's scientific reasoning in informal learning settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: The present study tested a motivational sequence in which children's goals for leisure-time sport and physical activity (PA) from Goal Content Theory predicted pedometer-determined PA through behavioural regulation constructs from Self-Determination Theory. Design: Quantitative cross-sectional study. Methods: A sample of 1272 Flemish (Dutch speaking part of Belgium) sixth graders (M age = 11.42 years) filled in a questionnaire on PA goal content, behavioural regulations and pubertal status. Children's height and weight were measured to assess Body Mass Index (BMI). To measure daily PA behaviour, participants wore a pedometer for seven consecutive days. Structural equation modelling was performed to test the proposed motivational sequence and to examine the mediation effect of behavioural regulations towards leisure-time sport and PA on the relation between PA goal content and daily step counts. Results: A structural equation model supported the hypothesized sequence in which intrinsic goals for leisure-time sport and PA predicted children's daily step counts through autonomous motivation towards leisure-time sport and PA. Multi-sample invariance testing revealed that the proposed model was largely invariant across BMI groups, pubertal status and gender. Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of emphasizing intrinsic goals for participation in leisure-time sport and PA in children aged 10–12 years. By stimulating children to participate in PA and sports by referring to intrinsic goals, children are more likely to enjoy PA, which in turn might increase the likelihood of a regular and long-term PA engagement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article presents a systematic attempt to examine the associations of materialism with learning in 9- to 11i-year-old children in 2 countries of similar economic development but different cultural heritage. Using cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methods, we test a theoretically driven model of associations among materialism, learning motivations, and learning outcomes. Convergent findings suggest that a materialist orientation in elementary school children lowers intrinsic learning motivations, fosters extrinsic learning motivations, and leads to poorer learning outcomes. Materialism was linked directly to lower exam performance, and this link was mediated by lower mastery and heightened performance goals, with patterns not differing between British and Hong Kong Chinese children (Study 1). A follow-up showed that initial materialism predicted worse exam grades 1 year later, suggesting a detrimental long-term effect on Chinese children's school performance (Study 2). We then tested relationships between materialism and learning experimen- tally, by priming a momentary (state) orientation toward materialism. Writing about material possessions and money affected Chinese children's learning motivations, so that they endorsed lower mastery and higher performance goals (Study 3). A video-diary materialism prime had significant effects on actual learning behaviors, leading British children to (a) choose a performance-oriented learning task over a mastery-oriented task and (b) give up on the task more quickly (Study 4). This research has important implications for personality psychology, educational policy, and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to analyse the effects of a school-based intervention to promote physical activity, utilising the postulates of the trans-contextual model of motivation. The study examined two separate classes of elementary school students (mean age 11.28 years), one of which served as the control group (n = 26) and the other as the experimental group (n = 21). The intervention in the experimental group consisted of showing videos related to physical activity participation, conducting discussions and doing tasks related to the content presented in the videos and conducting family discussions. Autonomy support from teachers, peers and parents; motivation in physical education and leisure time physical activity; the different variables of theory of planned behaviour; and physical activity, were measured before and after the intervention. Results showed an increase in teacher autonomy support, identified regulation in physical education, autonomy support from parents and peers, integrated and identified regulation in leisure time physical activity, control, subjective norm, intention and physical activity in the experimental group. Furthermore, this increase resulted in post-intervention differences across groups in such variables. Results are discussed in relation to the important role of families in the promotion of physical activity participation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

For years, the field of reading education has been engaged in thinking about best practices. In this column we highlight a set of practices that have amassed a significant body of work to demonstrate their usefulness in improving children's motivation for learning to read, proficiency in reading, and their likelihood to become lifelong readers and writers. Explicit instruction in vocabulary, rereading and using digital textbooks to motivate children's reading are among some of these updated best practices. Those in the reading community are urged to consider best practices, and how we may promote their uses, with high fidelity in classroom instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Extracurricular school-based sports are considered to be an ideal means of reaching children who are not active in community sports. The purposes of this study were to examine the extent to which pupils not engaging in community sports do participate in extracurricular school-based sports, and to assess whether extracurricular school-based sports participants are more physically active and/or more autonomously motivated towards sports in daily life than children who do not participate in extracurricular school-based sports. Methods One thousand forty-nine children (53.7% boys; M age = 11.02 years, SD = 0.02) out of 60 classes from 30 Flemish elementary schools, with an extracurricular school-based sports offer, completed validated questionnaires to assess physical activity (Flemish Physical Activity Questionnaire) and motivation (Behavioral Regulations in Physical Education Questionnaire). Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine the data generated from these questionnaires. Results More than three quarters of the children (76%) reported participating in extracurricular school-based sports during the current school year and 73% reported engaging in organized community sports. Almost two third of the children (65%) not participating in community sports stated that they did participate in extracurricular school-based sports. Extracurricular school-based sports participants were significantly more physically active than children not participating in extra-curricular school-based sports (β = 157.62, p < 0.001). Significant three-way interactions (sex x extracurricular school-based sports participation x community sports participation) were found for autonomous motivation, with boys engaging in extracurricular school-based sports but not in community sports being significantly more autonomously motivated towards sports than boys not engaging in community or extracurricular school-based sports (β = 0.58, p = 0.003). Such differences were not noted among girls. Conclusions If extracurricular school-based sports are offered at school, the vast majority of elementary school children participate. Although extracurricular school-based sports attract many children already engaging in community sports, they also reach almost two third of the children who do not participate in community sports but who might also be optimally motivated towards sports. As children participating in extracurricular school-based sports are more physically active than children who do not participate, extracurricular school-based sports participation can be considered to contribute to an active lifestyle for these participating children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the novel "The Counselor" by Cormac McCarthy. Noting that McCarthy presents his first female antagonist in the character Malkina, the author focuses on Malkina's personal motivation for destruction after being shunned by the character Westray and concludes that McCarthy's plot is a revenge story. The article goes on to criticize the film adaptation directed by Ridley Scott for altering this plot line.

Mathematics is closely related to daily life, but it is also one of the lessons which often cause anxiety to primary school students. Digital game-based learning (DGBL) has been regarded as a sound learning strategy in raising learner willingness and interest in many disciplines. Thus, ways of designing a DGBL system to mitigate anxiety are well worth studying. This study adopts an Input-Process-Outcome DGBL model to develop a DGBL system with a diagnostic mechanism strategy for a primary school mathematics course. In addition to exploring the impact of different learning methods on learning performance, this study further analyzes the learning methods in terms of learner anxiety about mathematics, learning motivation and learning satisfaction from the perspective of Attention, Relevance, Confidence-building, and Satisfaction (ARCS) motivation theory. The diagnostic mechanism strategy demonstrates the advantages of the DGBL system for mathematics learning. During the learning process, the ARCS questionnaire revealed that students who engage in learning through the DGBL method are positively motivated. The findings of this study suggest that centering on the daily life experiences of learners, integrating a proper game model into mathematics learning and providing a diagnostic mechanism prompt can effectively enhance interest in learning mathematics and reduce anxiety. When anxiety is mitigated, both learning motivation and learning performance are enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research and theory suggest that young children are highly attuned to causality. This study explores whether this drive can motivate task engagement. Fifty-six 3- and 4-year-olds completed a motor task as many times as desired, viewing a picture of a novel item upon each completion. Forty-two randomly assigned children then received either: (a) causally rich information regarding the item, (b) causally weak information regarding the item, or (c) a tangible reward. The remaining 14 children participated in a baseline condition featuring no rewards. Preschoolers completed more trials when rewarded with causally rich than causally weak information, or when given no reward. Children also trended toward lengthier persistence in the causally rich than the tangible reward condition. Implications for theory and educational practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The objective of this study was to implement and evaluate a classroom-based Animal-Assisted Activities (AAA) program on social functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Design: This was a multisite, control-to-intervention design study. Settings/location: The study was conducted in 41 classrooms in 15 schools in Brisbane, Australia. Subjects: Sixty-four (64) 5- to 12-year-old children diagnosed with ASD comprised the study group. Intervention: The AAA program consisted of 8 weeks of animal exposure in the school classroom in addition to 16 20-minute animal-interaction sessions. Outcome measures: Teacher- and parent-reported child behavior and social functioning were assessed through standardized instruments at three time points: upon study entry (Time 1), after an 8-week waiting period during the week prior to the AAA program (Time 2), and during the week following the 8-week AAA program (Time 3). Results: Significant improvements were identified in social functioning, including increases in social approach behaviors and social skills, and decreases in social withdrawal behaviors, from before to after the AAA program, but not during the waitlist period. Over half of parents also reported that participants demonstrated an increased interest in attending school during the program. Conclusions: Results demonstrate the feasibility and potential efficacy of a new classroom-based Animal-Assisted Activities model, which may provide a relatively simple and cost-effective means of helping educators and families to improve the social functioning of children with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between mastery motivation and individual and environmental characteristics in school-aged children with congenital hemiplegia. Method Forty-eight child-caregiver dyads (children's mean age 7y 11mo, SD 2y 4mo; 33 males, 15 females; Manual Ability Classification System [ MACS] level I, n=25, and level II, n=23; predominant motor type spastic hemiplegia, n=47) were recruited to this cross-sectional study. Children were assessed using the Melbourne Assessment of Unilateral Upper Limb Function ( MUUL) and the Assisting Hand Assessment. Caregivers completed the Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire, the Parenting Scale, and a demographic questionnaire. Results Consistent and positive parental disciplinary practices were associated with higher total motivation ( p=0.006) and instrumental aspect scores ( p=0.009). Children with siblings and from single-parent families experienced greater negative reactions to failure ( p=0.006). Children from two-parent families ( p=0.018) and with better bimanual performance ( p=0.015) demonstrated greater object-oriented persistence. Age, sex, limitations in manual ability ( MACS), and movement and body function of the impaired limb ( MUUL) did not contribute significantly to mastery motivation. Interpretation Inconsistent, excessively lax, and verbose parenting practices may discourage children from persevering with challenging tasks. Functional parenting styles, positive discipline practices, and autonomy-supportive strategies for task engagement should be encouraged when intervening with children with cerebral palsy. Parents should be supported to engage in these practices in all aspects of daily activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

THOUGH MOST RESEARCHERS AGREE THAT CREATIVITY CAN BE THOUGHT, THERE ARE VERY FEW EDUCATIONAL INITIATIVES SPECIFICALLY AIMED TO IMPROVE CREATIVITY OF THE STUDENTS., THIS PAPER IS A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE VAST LITERATURE DEDICATED TO THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY FROM A PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE, AIMING TO IDENTIFY THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CREATIVITY IN A POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE WAY, AND TO DERIVE ACTION DIRECTIONS FOR FOSTERING CREATIVITY IN THE EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT. AN IMPORTANT CONCLUSION OF THIS STUDY IS THAT, THOUGH INTENSELY CRITICIZED FOR BLOCKING THE INNATE CREATIVITY OF THE CHILDREN, A REFORMED SCHOOL, WITH SPECIALLY TRAINED TEACHERS, SEEMS TO REMAIN THE MOST IMPORTANT SOCIAL INSTRUMENT FOR PROMOTING CREATIVITY OF THE STUDENTS ON A LARGE SCALE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the effectiveness of incorporating exergaming into physical education lessons as a platform for imparting health education messages and influencing children's beliefs about and attitudes toward physical activity. The authors launched a 6-week intervention program using Nintendo Wii games coupled with protection motivation theory–based health messaging among 5th-grade school children in Singapore. Results indicated that when children who were exposed to threat-framed messages played Wii exergames during physical education lessons, they reported more positive physical activity attitude, self-efficacy, and perceived behavioral control than did those who underwent regular physical education lessons and were exposed to the same message. In addition, among children playing Wii, the threat and coping frames had similar effects on the degree of message influence on physical activity attitudes and beliefs. The implications for schools, parents, and health policy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Drawing from theory and research into social comparison processes, the present study sought to determine children's motives for comparison in addition to the coexistence of class and individual comparisons in school physical education. The main and interactive effects of these types of comparisons were examined in relation to pupils' physical self-concept, as well as self-reported behavioral engagement and disaffection in class. In total, 545 children ( Mage = 13.89 years, SD = 1.57 years) from two schools in England completed the questionnaire. Moderated hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that the higher a child's perception of his or her ability was compared with his or her classmates, the greater the level of engagement and physical self-concept and the lower the level of disaffection. Interaction analysis showed that when perceived ability with reference to the class was low, a downward comparison with an individual enhanced engagement, but this was not the case when perceived ability was high. Findings suggest that further research into social comparison processes in this setting is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical activity is critical to healthy development of children. It is well documented that helping children develop and sustain a physically active lifestyle requires children to become motivated. Many studies have been conducted in the past 2.5 decades on determinants and correlates for children and adolescents' physical activity motivation. The findings have informed researchers and practitioners about motivation sources for children and effective strategies to motivate children in given physical activity settings. Built on the extensive knowledge base and theoretical platforms formed by these research studies, the purpose of this article is to take a look at the current research landscape and provide subjective thoughts about what we still need to know about children's physical activity motivation. The product of this subjective thinking process rendered 10 potential questions for future research on children's physical activity motivation in both in-school and out-of-school settings. These topics encompass those focusing on children's physical activity motivation as a mental dispositional process, those conceptualizing the motivation as an outcome of person–environment interactions, and those attempting to dissect the motivation as an outcome of social–cultural influences and educational policies. It is hoped that the topics can serve researchers interested in children's physical activity motivation as starting blocks from which they can extend their conceptual thinking and identify research questions that are personally meaningful. It is also hoped that the list of potential questions can be helpful to researchers in accomplishing the imperative and significant mission to motivate children to be physically active in the 21st century and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND School-based social-emotional and character development ( SECD) programs can influence not only SECD but also academic-related outcomes. This study evaluated the impact of one SECD program, Positive Action ( PA), on educational outcomes among low-income, urban youth. METHODS The longitudinal study used a matched-pair, cluster-randomized controlled design. Student-reported disaffection with learning and academic grades, and teacher ratings of academic ability and motivation were assessed for a cohort followed from grades 3 to 8. Aggregate school records were used to assess standardized test performance (for entire school, cohort, and demographic subgroups) and absenteeism (entire school). Multilevel growth-curve analyses tested program effects. RESULTS PA significantly improved growth in academic motivation and mitigated disaffection with learning. There was a positive impact of PA on absenteeism and marginally significant impact on math performance of all students. There were favorable program effects on reading for African American boys and cohort students transitioning between grades 7 and 8, and on math for girls and low-income students. CONCLUSIONS A school-based SECD program was found to influence academic outcomes among students living in low-income, urban communities. Future research should examine mechanisms by which changes in SECD influence changes in academic outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Using the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model as a framework, researchers qualitatively assessed preschool teachers' perceived motivation, facilitators, and barriers related to getting preschool children to eat fruits and vegetables (FV). Methods: Individual, semi-structured interviews with 28 Head Start teachers in central North Carolina. Results: Participants reported the need for FV-related information (Information) to improve FV consumption in children, perceived themselves to be parents at school (Motivation), and reported using conditional rewards and punishment statements to get preschoolers to eat FV (Behavioral Skills). Conclusions and Implications: Nutrition educators may use the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model to develop education materials targeting increases in preschoolers' FV consumption. To motivate preschool teachers who see themselves as parents at school (Motivation), nutrition educators can provide teachers with FV-related information that was reported as their needs (Information), and supportive feeding practices (Behavioral Skills) to get preschoolers to consume FV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Assessed through accelerometry, boys with DCD spent significantly less time in MVPA. [•] Boys with DCD also had poorer physical activity cognitions, particularly attitude and PBC. [•] Attitude and subjective norm were partial mediators to the relationship between DCD and their MVPA. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background Novelty sweets resemble or can be used as toys, are brightly coloured, with striking imagery, and sold at pocket money prices. They encourage regular consumption as packaging can be resealed, leading to prolonged exposure of these high-sugar and low pH products to the oral tissues, risk factors for dental caries and erosion, respectively. Aim To determine how children conceptualise novelty sweets and their motivations for buying and consuming them. Design Focus groups conducted using a brief schedule of open-ended questions, supported by novelty sweets used as prompts in the latter stages. Participants were school children (aged 9-10) from purposively selected state primary schools in Cardiff, UK. Results Key findings related to the routine nature of sweet eating; familiarity with and availability of novelty sweets; parental awareness and control; lack of awareness of health consequences; and the overall appeal of novelty sweets. Conclusions Parents reported vagueness regarding consumption habits and permissiveness about any limits they set may have diluted the concept of treats. Flexible permissiveness to sweet buying applied to sweets of all kinds. Parents' reported lack of familiarity with novelty sweets combined with their low cost, easy availability, high sugar content, and acidity give cause for concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (EJER) is the property of Eurasian Journal of Educational Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In laboratory studies, praising children's effort encourages them to adopt incremental motivational frameworks-they believe ability is malleable, attribute success to hard work, enjoy challenges, and generate strategies for improvement. In contrast, praising children's inherent abilities encourages them to adopt fixed-ability frameworks. Does the praise parents spontaneously give children at home show the same effects? Although parents' early praise of inherent characteristics was not associated with children's later fixed-ability frameworks, parents' praise of children's effort at 14-38 months ( N = 53) did predict incremental frameworks at 7-8 years, suggesting that causal mechanisms identified in experimental work may be operating in home environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite recognized benefits, many children with cystic fibrosis (CF) do not consistently participate in physical activities. There is little empirical literature regarding the feelings and attitudes of children with CF toward exercise programs, parental roles in exercise, or factors influencing exercise experiences during research participation. Objectives: The aim of this study is to describe the exercise experiences of children with CF and their parents during participation in a 6-month program of self-regulated, home- based exercise. Methods: This qualitative descriptive study was nested within a randomized controlled trial of a self-regulated, home-based exercise program and used serial semistructured interviews conducted individually at 2 and 6 months with 11 purposively selected children with CF and their parent(s). Results: Six boys and five girls, ages 10-16 years, and parents (nine mothers, four fathers) participated in a total of 44 interviews. Five major thematic categories describing child and parent perceptions and experience of the bicycle exercise program were identified in the transcripts: (a) motivators, (b) barriers, (c) effort/work, (d) exercise routine, and (e) sustaining exercise. Research participation, parent-family participation, health benefits, and the child's personality traits were the primary motivators. Competing activities, priorities, and responsibilities were the major barriers in implementing the exercise program as prescribed. Motivation waned, and the novelty wore off for several (approximately half) parent- child dyads, who planned to decrease or stop the exercise program after the study ended. Discussion: We identified motivators and barriers to a self- regulated, home-based exercise program for children with CF that can be addressed in planning future exercise interventions to maximize the health benefits for children with CF and the feasibility and acceptability to the children and their families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young children can be motivated to help adults by sympathetic concern based upon empathy, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. One account of empathy-based sympathetic helping in adults states that it arises due to direct-matching mirror-system mechanisms which allow the observer to vicariously experience the situation of the individual in need of help. This mechanism could not account for helping of a geometric-shape agent lacking human-isomorphic body-parts. Here 17-month-olds observed a ball-shaped non-human agent trying to reach a goal but failing because it was blocked by a barrier. Infants helped the agent by lifting it over the barrier. They performed this action less frequently in a control condition in which the barrier could not be construed as blocking the agent. Direct matching is therefore not required for motivating helping in infants, indicating that at least some of our early helpful tendencies do not depend on human-specific mechanisms. Empathy-based mechanisms that do not require direct-matching provide one plausible basis for the observed helping. A second possibility is that rather than being based on empathy, the observed helping occurred as a result of a goal-contagion process in which the infants were primed with the unfulfilled goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As compared to all undergraduate students in the United States, business majors have recently shown poor results in indicators of learning. Lack of student self-motivation and low engagement levels have been implicated. Cognitive evaluation theory and self-determination theory establish that extrinsic consequences such as grades often denigrate individuals' motivation and feelings of self-determination, but that providing choice lessens this denigration. Requiring students to make a significant, individualized choice regarding a traditional exam format may increase student perception of personal responsibility for learning assessment outcomes such as grades. A study involving 672 undergraduate business students lends support to this hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the effects of different ability conceptions on motor skills learning in 6-, 10-, and 14-year-old children. In each age group, different groups were given either inherent-ability or acquirable skill instructions before they began practicing a throwing task. Participants were blindfolded and were asked to throw beanbags at a target placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. All participants performed 40 practice trials and received feedback about the accuracy of their throws after each trial. One day after practice, retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests without instructions or feedback were conducted to assess learning effects. Older participants generally had higher accuracy scores than younger participants. Importantly, instructions emphasizing the learnability of the skill resulted in greater throwing accuracy on the retention test than did those implying an underlying inherent ability. On the transfer test, the same effect was seen for the 14-year-olds, but not for the younger age groups, suggesting that adolescents may be more vulnerable to the threat of their inherent ability being exposed. The present findings demonstrate the importance of ability conceptions for motor learning in children and adolescents. They also add to the mounting evidence of motivational influences on motor skill learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research work the emphasis was given to determining the effectiveness of applicable incentives as motivational factors in the expression of the engaged motor potential between the schoolgirls of different ages. The survey was conducted on a sample of 96 schoolgirls aged between 9 to 11 where engaged motor potential was estimated with 2 motor variables that reflect the complex structure of performing movement. In addition to the initial measurement were performed three more under the influence of the following stimulus: - the second measurement influenced by incentives- competition with scores on initial measurement - the third measurement under the influence of stimulus - competition for better grades - the fourth measurement under the influence of stimulus - to compete with a friend Determining the statistical significance of the expression of engaged motor potential under the influence of applied potential between the initial stimulus and the other points of measurement was performed using T-test for paired samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Passion for learning (PFL) in children is a phenomenon that is little understood. The experience of PFL was studied with phenomenological and qualitative modes of inquiry. Case studies of six domains (acting, reading, filmmaking, spelling, math, and preaching) describe how the passion developed using the voices of children and parents. Their stories support variations in development across domains. The study demonstrates a fertile field for future research into domain-specific learning and advanced development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]