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At present, there is a vital need for river water purification by developing new approaches to eliminate bacterial biofilms, textile dyes, and Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) plastics that pose severe threats to human and environmental health. The current work put forward the construction of an eco-friendly green strategy to synthesize zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using areca nut (Areca catechu) extract and their application to tackle the challenges in water purification. Prepared biogenic NPs were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FT-IR), Energy Diffraction Spectroscopy (EDS), Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) analysis, confirmed the spherical shape in 20 nm and UV–vis spectroscopy. The characteristic absorption band exhibited at 326 nm confirmed the formation of ZnO NPs using UV–vis spectroscopy. Among all the tested bacterial pathogens, the E. coli at 50 µg/mL concentration showed the highest inhibition of biofilm activity, followed by the highest growth curve, cellular leakage, and potassium ion efflux. The ZnO NPs observed with photo-degradation of Rhodamine-B (Rh-B), Methylene Blue (MB), and Nigrosine dyes under sunlight irradiation at different time intervals. Finally, the photocatalytic activity of LDPE-ZnO NPs nanocomposite film showed the highest degradation under solar light irradiation were confirmed through photo-induced weight loss, SEM, FTIR, and MALDI-TOF analysis. This study demonstrates ZnO NPs exhibit efficacy against biofilm formation, degradation of photocatalytic textile dyes, and low-density LDPE film under solar light irradiation, which can be a step forward in water purification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A three‐step multiscale modeling approach to predict and thus control polymer properties, such as flow behavior and linear as well as non‐linear rheology, based on polymerization conditions, is developed and applied for long‐chain branched low‐density polyethylene (LDPE). The approach consists of i) a deterministic kinetic model for the description of conversion and average polymer characteristics, ii) a hybrid stochastic Monte Carlo model for the description of the polymeric microstructure, and iii) a rheology model for the evaluation of polymer melt flow properties. The modeling approach is validated via high‐pressure miniplant LDPE samples with a special focus on long‐chain branching. In the next step, the modeling approach can be successfully transferred to a tubular reactor of industrial scale. Due to its universality the approach opens up possible applications for other polymer and also copolymer systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve the thermal insulation performance of packaging materials, low density polyethylene (LDPE) is modified with SiO2 aerogel (SA, Silica Aerogel) as modifier, and the packaging films with excellent thermal insulation properties are prepared by curtain coating method. The effects of SiO2 aerogels with different concentrations on the mechanical properties, hydrophobicity, thermal stability and thermal conductivity of the films are studied, and the thermal insulation experiments are designed to verify the thermal insulation performance of the films. The result shows that the silica aerogels with the addition of 6 wt% has the best comprehensive properties with thermal conductivity of 0.07 W/(m • K), and has good mechanical properties, barrier properties, hydrophobic properties and thermal stability. These results provide an experimental basis for their application in food packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of a compatibilizer on the properties of highly filled composites based on aluminum hydroxide and a mixture of high- and low-density polyethylenes was evaluated by the data of analysis of their physicochemical and thermophysical properties, as well as by the data of dilatometric studies. The compatibilizer was a Fusabond DuPont P353 additive dopant, which is a statistical ethylene–propylene copolymer modified with maleic anhydride. The use of this compatibilizer allows one to increase the adhesion contact strength at the filler/polymer interface and, as a result of this, to achieve a noticeable improvement in the strength characteristics. According to the limiting oxygen index test, the addition of the compatibilizer leads to improvement in the fire resistance of the composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study, the key role of incorporation of starch nanocrystals (SNC) and modified acetylated starch nanocrystals (ASNC) on mechanical, physical, and biological properties of low‐density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch/polyethylene‐grafted‐maleic anhydride (LDPE/TPS/PE‐g‐MA) blend was individually investigated. To achieve this, SNC was successfully extracted from waxy maize starch by chemical treatment utilizing acid hydrolysis. The results of solubility of the modified specimens showed that the hydrophilicity of ASNC was well reduced by dispersion enhancement in non‐polar solvents, which was also proved by increasing considerably the contact angle, after modification, 37.9° ± 3.5° to 59.9° ± 3.1°. It was noticed that the mechanical properties of the ASNC nanocomposites were significantly affected by the filler type and content. Furthermore, by adding 3.0 wt% ASNC (3ASNC), the ultimate tensile strength of the nanocomposite was considerably enhanced from 9.0 ± 0.1 to 12.0 ± 0.3 MPa; it may be due to homogeneous dispersion of the ASNC. Moreover, the water absorption capacity was remarkably enhanced from 0.1% for the pure polymer, low‐density polyethylene (LDPE), to 1.9% for modified nanocomposite (3.0 wt% ASNC) and 4.1% for unmodified nanocomposite (5 wt% SNC). In addition, the degradation rate of 3ASNC nanocomposite was improved by 1% compared with LDPE. In conclusion, LDPE/TPS/PE‐g‐MA nanocomposite reinforced by ASNC shows excellent potential as a promising candidate for polyethylene packaging applications, thanks to the combination of biodegradability and superior mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Polyethylene bags (known as Nylon bags in Nigeria) are a common household name on the lips of everyone in Nigeria. Its versatile purposes, convenience, durability, flexibility and affordability has earned it as a part of day to day life necessity. People continue to devise countless ways Polyethylene bags can be utilised and be of immense benefit to them. This has placed a huge demand on the production of polyethylene bags. However, due to its chemical structure, Polyethylene bags do not bio-degrade readily, which led to accumulation of waste Polyethylene bags in the environment. This accumulation does not only deteriorate the aesthetic panorama but also has an indirect negative impact on health, as individual health cannot be separated from their environment. Unfortunately, majority do not understand the implications, and the concerned agencies are nonchalant to threat posed by accumulation of Polyethylene bags in the environment. Therefore, this paper seeks to reveal the imminent environmental consequences of accumulation of polyethylene waste bags in Nigeria and the way out.

Little mallow (Malva parviflora L.) has been traditionally used as an alternative food source. To the authors’ knowledge, there is no available published information about the postharvest storability of little mallow. This study was conducted in three steps. It aimed to determine the postharvest storability of little mallow leaves and to improve its storability using different strategies. First, the effects of four different storage conditions on the storability of little mallow leaves were tested to determine the most favorable conditions for further studies: 5 ± 1 °C and 95% relative humidity (RH); 9 ± 1 °C and 95% RH; 13 ± 1 °C and 95% RH; and 24 ± 1 °C and 55% RH as control. Preliminary experiments suggested that the best temperature and RH combination is 9 ± 1 °C and 95% RH. Hence, the effects of hot water dipping (HWD) were tested at three different temperatures (40, 45, and 50 °C) for two different durations (60 and 120 seconds); the results suggested that the 40 °C treatment is the most suitable heat treatment for improving the storability of mallow. The final experiments were conducted with 15 different treatments, including HWD, eco-friendly edible bio-materials, modified atmosphere packaging, and ultraviolet radiation. Results showed that low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (60 × 60 cm; thickness, 50 μ) and polypropylene (PP) (35 × 50 cm; thickness, 35 μ) packaging provide the highest efficacy for preserving overall quality. The edible quality of little mallow can be extended to 15 days with PP and 12 days with LDPE. However, both materials caused an abnormal odor after that time. Further studies involving additional edible coatings are necessary to determine if the storage duration of little mallow leaves could be extended.

Study of feasible usage of waste plastic in addition with Nitrile butadiene rubber to enhance the engineering and rheological properties of bitumen binder. Rheological properties impact the performance and service life of bitumen greatly. Different percentages of Nitrile butadiene rubber were introduced as an additive in base bitumen binder along with Low density polyethylene. Nanoclay was used as compatibility agent. Waste plastic percentage was restricted to 3% where as NBR was used by 14 % by weight of bitumen. The nano-composite yielded softening value increased by 34% and recovery percentage was improved by 7.3 %.

Nowadays, Polymer Modified Binder (PMB) is necessary due to its valuable characteristics on asphalt pavement layers with increase in traffic volume and loads. However, current trend in asphalt modification is prefer the waste and by product materials for ensuring the sustainability and cost effectiveness. Therefore, to analyze the effect of waste Crumb Rubber Modifier (CRM) and waste Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) on the asphalt binders’ physical properties, CRM/LDPE modified asphalts with different contents were prepared and investigated in this study. Measured physical characteristics were softening point, penetration, ductility and viscosity tests. Conversions of CRM and waste LDPE to functional materials have been introduced in this research study as a practical approach to improve the asphalt binder’s physical properties. CRM and LDPE in the form of fine having a particle size under 250 um were used as additives to liquid asphalt, individually and collectively by weight of virgin asphalt, i.e., (5.0%, 15.0% and 25.0% of CRM) and (2.5. %, 5.0%, 7.5% and 10.0% of LDPE), after mixed with CRM and LDPE, the asphalts showed decrease in penetration, increase in softening point and rotational viscosity. This referring that both intermediate and high temperature rheological characteristics of the asphalts have been improved by the modification of waste CRM and LDPE, because that mean the stiffness of asphalt binder increases when changing these characteristics and Thus, the asphalt mixture will become more stiff and resistant to possible failures, the Physical properties of the CRM or LDPE modified asphalts are largely dependent on the waste CRM or LDPE content, and many other enhanced characteristics of the mechanical aspect can be targeted using the composite of both CRM and LDPE. However, such result confirms the validity of waste polymer in modifying the asphalt binder.

In the present work, direct incorporation of bioactive compounds onto the surface and interlayer of nanoclays before their incorporation into the final polymeric film was conducted, based on a green methodology developed by our group that is compatible with food packaging. This will lead to the higher thermal stability and the significant reduction of the loss of activity of the active ingredients during packaging configuration. On this basis, the essential oil (EO) components carvacrol (C), thymol (T) as well as olive leaf extract (OLE), which is used for the first time, were incorporated onto organo-modified montmorillonite (O) or inorganic bentonite (B) through the evaporation/adsorption method. The prepared bioactive nanocarriers were further mixed with low-density polyethylene (LDPE), via melt compounding, in order to prepare films for potential use as fresh fruit and vegetable packaging material. Characterization of the bioactive nanocarriers and films were performed through XRD, TGA, tensile, antimicrobial and antioxidant tests. Films with organically modified montmorillonite loaded with carvacrol (OC), thymol (OT) and olive leaf extract (OOLE) at 5% wt. showed better results in terms of mechanical properties. The films with polyethylene and organically modified montmorillonite loaded with carvacrol or thymol at 20% wt. (PE_OC20 and PE_OT20), as well as with olive leaf extract at 5 or 10 %wt., clay:bioactive substance ratio 1:0.5 and 10% compatibilizer (PE_OOLE5_MA10 and PE_OOLE10_MA10) exhibited the highest antioxidant activity. The resulting films displayed outstanding antimicrobial properties against Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) with the best results appearing in the films with 10% OC and OT.

Sustainability, the circular economy, and the “greenhouse” effect have led the food packaging industry to use naturally available bio-compounds. The integration of such compounds in packaging films increases food safety and extends food shelf-life. The development of an active/antioxidant packaging film based on the widely commercially used low-density polyethylene, natural zeolite, and Thymol, a natural extract from thyme oil, is presented in this work. The obtained active films were characterized using X-Ray Diffraction, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Differential Scanning Calorimetry techniques. The tensile strength, water–oxygen barrier properties, and total antioxidant activity were measured. Low-density polyethylene incorporated with Thymol@Natural Zeolite at a proportion of 15 wt% was the most promising material and was used as film to wrap-up pork fillets. The thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method and heme iron measurements indicated a delayed lipids oxidation using this film. A linear correlation between the TBA method and heme iron values seems to be established, which could result in a fast method to determine the degree of lipid oxidation in pork fillets. Finally, a two-stage diffusion process during Thymol release was observed, and the values of the diffusion coefficient was 2.09 × 10−7 and 1.21 × 10−8 cm2/s for each stage. The applied pseudo-second sorption model provided a rate constant k2 = 0.01647 (s−1). These results indicate the strong potential of such films to be used as food packaging materials free of E-number preservatives.

In this paper, low-density polyethylene (PE-LD) and NX8000K nucleating agent were blended with polypropylene (PP) to enhance the toughness and transparency of PP. Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction analysis, polarized light microscope analysis, haze test analysis and impact test analysis were used to characterize the crystallization behavior, crystal morphology, transparency and mechanical properties of the resultant PP compounds. PE-LD could prevent PP from crystallization PP and reduce its crystallinity, thus reducing the fog of the compounds. A combination of PE-LD and PP could improve the toughness of the compounds significantly. When 50 wt% PE-LD and 0. 6 wt% NX8000K nucleating agent were incorporated, the PP/PE-LD/NX8000K composite exhibited a haze value of 16. 43 %. The compounds presented impact strength of 77. 94 kJ/m², which was lower than that of pure PP by 45. 18 %. However, their impact strength increased by 1 465 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biological degradation of mixed composites of low density polyethylene (PE) with natural rubber (NR) in soil is studied. The biodegradability of composites was monitored through changes in the mass, appearance, and chemical composition of the materials using infrared spectroscopy. Analysis of the changes in the IR spectra of the samples after exposure to soil showed a decrease in the cis-1,4-double bonds, as well as the formation of carbonyl groups and functional groups belonging to the biomaterial. The results obtained agree with the concept of the oxidative mechanism of the initial stage of the NR biodegradation process and provide information on the accumulation of biomass in blends of low-density PE and NR, depending on the composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to produce crosslinked low-density polyethylene (LDPE) composites using peroxide and octavinyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (OvPOSS) and to examine the shape memory behavior. The strategy was to use OvPOSS as a coagent to increase the crosslinking density and crosslinking efficiency while improving the mechanical and shape memory properties as well. The peroxide concentration, from 0.5 phr to 3.0 phr, was taken as the experimental parameter, with 4 phr OvPOSS added to all composites. The melt mixing route was applied similar to that which would be used industrially. The thermo-responsive shape memory properties near the melting point were examined in tension mode. The dispersion of OvPOSS in the LDPE matrix was observed via scanning electron microscopy and Si-mapping. In addition, the thermal, mechanical, structural, and rheological features of the novel LDPE/OvPOSS and LDPE/peroxide/OvPOSS systems were investigated. It was observed that the crosslinking density of LDPE increased in the presence of OvPOSS, which affected the mechanical, rheological and thermal properties and increased the shape recovery ratio of the LDPE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generally, polyamide cannot be used as film blowing material because of its unsuitable properties. In this study, polyamide 6 clay nanocomposite (cPA) and styrene maleic anhydride copolymer (SMA) were mixed in various ratios for the preparation of modified polyamide 6 clay nanocomposite SxcPAy resins by reactive extrusion. The S1cPA14 resin was blended with recycled maleic anhydride polyamide (rPA) to form the (S1cPA14)x rPAy resins. Finally, they were mixed with LDPE in 1:9 ratio to afford (SxcPAy)1LDPE9 and ((S1cPA14)x rPAy)1LDPE9 resins, respectively, followed by film blowing and the analyses of the physicochemical properties of resins. The FTIR spectrum illustrated that the C=O symmetric and asymmetric absorption fingerprint peaks in the anhydride (-OC-O-CO-) group of SMA disappeared and the new characteristic absorption peak of-CO-N-CO- of imides was observed. The anhydride functional group of SMA underwent reactive extrusion with the terminal amino group of cPA to generate the imides structure. The thermal properties showed that the glass transition temperature and crystallinity of SxcPAy and (S1cPA14)x rPAy resins increased with increasing SMA and S1cPA14 contents. The Tg (85.4.0°C) of (S1cPA14)12 rPA1 resin were enhanced significantly, with 30°C higher than cPA. In terms of tensile mechanical properties, S1cPA14 test pieces demonstrated the highest Young's modulus and tensile strength. After mixing with LDPE, the tensile mechanical properties of (SxcPAy)1LDPE9 and ((S1cPA14)x rPAy)1LDPE9 resins and films were both higher than that of LDPE. ((S1cPA14)12 rPA1)1LDPE9 film shown the best tensile properties and barrier performance compared with other films due to the optimal rPA content could assisted SMA as a better compatibilizer to improve the dispersion and compatibility of cPA in HDPE. It was worth noting that (SxcPAy)1LDPE9 and ((S1cPA14)x rPAy)1LDPE9 resins were formed by film blowing at the processing temperature of 140°C followed by successful preparation of the film. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) is a valued commodity plastic with versatile applications. However, controlling the LDPE polymerization reactor is a challenging task due to its nonlinear behavior and multivariable process and operates in a board operating region. This work aims to develop and explore the neural Wiener MPC (NWMPC) application in controlling the LDPE tubular reactor process. The motivation for NWMPC development originates from its advantage in terms of lower development effort, time, resource, and computational costs compared to nonlinear MPC (NMPC) using the first principle model (FPM). In order to develop the LDPE tubular reactor model, the Aspen Plus and Aspen Dynamic software are used to simulate the process in steady‐state and dynamic form. The neural Wiener (NW) model identification is performed using state space and neural network model identification using Matlab software. The identification result shows the ability of the NW model to identify the nonlinear LDPE tubular reactor process successfully. Furthermore, the NWMPC has outperformed the state space MPC (SSMPC) in controlling grade transition, feed pressure loss, feed impurity disturbance, and heat of polymerization change during the online closed‐loop performance tests. These results signify the ability of NWMPC to handle practical LDPE tubular reactor control scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of R&D, a measuring system for controlling the thickness of the HDPE/LDPE (high-density polyethylene/low-density polyethylene) polymer geomembrane was developed using automation equipment. The relevance of this work consists of the development of a domestic, relatively inexpensive system for controlling the thickness of the HDPE/LDPE polymer geomembrane in production conditions based on modern equipment for enterprise automation. The scientific novelty consists of the use of original design solutions in the development of hardware and software complex mechanisms that allow controlling the thickness of the HDPE/LDPE polymer geomembrane layers along the entire width of the shaft, excluding deformation of the film as a result of foreign bodies entering during extrusion, cuts, monitoring the quality of the film in real time, as well as the possibility of analyzing the measured parameters in the database of the automated system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodegradable compositions based on low-density polyethylene and polylactide containing arabinogalactan are obtained. Their mechanical properties are studied. It is shown that the development of absorbents based on arabinogalactan is complicated by specific features of the structure of its macromolecules, and possible methods of for overcoming them are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Co-pyrolysis of palm wastes of empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm frond (PF) with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) were investigated to find the synergistic effect of biomass-plastic pair on the yield and composition of bio-oil produced. The pyrolysis process of individual materials and their corresponding blends were employed in a fixed bed reactor at heating rate of 20 °C/min with a nitrogen flow rate of 250 mL/min. The co-pyrolysis results showed that EFB:LDPE with weight ratio of 1:1 has the largest synergy on bio-oil yield, while a negative synergy was revealed for PF:PP co-pyrolysis. In regard of bio-oil chemical composition, the synergistic effect was positive for the formation of aliphatic hydrocarbons and all feedstock decreased the overall oxygenated compounds of fuel substitute. The hydrogen generated from plastic promoted the decarboxylation of acids and decarbonylation reactions of carbonyls and sugars.

In this work, using the advantages of Fe and Co nitrates acting as nucleation sites, we polymerized acrylamide (AAm) complexes using frontal polymerization to obtain FeCo alloy/N‐doped carbon composites by converting its original precursor. The results of PAAm coating were found to be extremely useful in suppressing the collapse of the FeCo microstructure during pyrolysis, resulting in a unique hierarchical FeCo@C−N core‐shell nanoparticle architecture encapsulated in PAAm‐derived carbon nanocages. The thermal, mechanical and magnetic properties of the resulting FeCo/C−N filling polyethylene system have been investigated and presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Low density polyethylene is commonly used polymer in the industry because of its unique structure and excellent overall performance. LDPE, is relatively low mechanical properties and thermal stability can sometimes limit its application in industry. Therefore, the development of particulate reinforced polymer composites is one of the highly promising methodologies in the area of next generation engineering products. Design/methodology/approach: Nano and Micro composite from low density polyethylene LDPE reinforced with different weight fraction of carbon black particles (CB) (2, 4 and 8)% prepared by first dispersion Nano and Micro carbon black particles CB in solvent and then mixing manually with low density polyethylene LDPE pellet and blended by twin-screw extruder, the current research study the mechanical properties (tensile strength, elastic modulus, and hardness), FTIR, DSC, and thermal conductivity of prepared nano and micro composites using two methodes and the morphological properties of nano-micro composites. Findings: The tensile strength of the LDPE/CB nano and micro composites improved at 2% and 4%, respectively, and decreasing at 8%, addition of carbon black nanoparticles led to increase the tensile strength of pure low-density polyethylene from 13.536 MPa to 19.71 MPa, and then dropping to 11.03 MPa at 8% percent, while the elastic modulus of LDPE/CB nano and miro composites shows an improvement with all percentages of CB. The results show that the mechanical properties were improved by the addition carbon black nanoparticles more than addition micro-carbon black. FTIR show that physical interaction between LDPE and carbon black. The thermal conductivity improvement from 0.33 w/m.k for pur LDPE to 0.62234 w/m.k at 2% CB microparticle content and the reduced to 0.18645 w/m.k and 0.34063 w/m.k at (4 and 8)% micro-CB respectively, The thermal conductivity of LDPE-CB nano-composites is low in general than that the LDPE-CB microcomposite. DSC result show improvement in crystallization temperature Tc, melting temperature and degree of crystallization with addition nano and micro carbon black. Morever, SEM images revealed to uniform distribution and good bonding between LDPE and CB at low percentages and the precence of some agglomeration at high CB content. Research limitations/implications: This research studied the characteristics of both nano and micro composite materials prepared by two steps: mixing CB particles with solvent and then prepared by twin extruder which can be used packaging material, but the main limitation was the uniform distribution of nano and micro CB particles within the LDPE matrix. In a further study, prepare a blend from LDPE with other materials and improve the degradation of the blend that used in packaging application. Originality/value: LDPE with nanocomposites are of great interest because of their thermal stability, increased mechanical strength, stiffness, and low gas permeability, among other properties that have made them ideal for applications in the packaging and automotive industries. LDPE reinforcements nano-sized carbon black can have better mechanical and thermal properties than micron, resulting in less material being needed for a given application at a lower cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environmental adaptabilities of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) play an important role for high-speed trains' reliability and comfort. The weathering of LDPE depends on environment factors, while the complexity of the weathering processes inhibits the evaluation of environmental weathering risks. To elucidate the correlation between weathering and environmental factors, and to predict the weathering risk of target areas of interest, three-year-long natural weathering tests were conducted at twelve natural exposure stations in China. Properties of weathered LDPE were compared and analysed using factor analysis. The fuzzy recognition method based on analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was established and used to predict the weathering risk based on environmental database. The results indicate that the factor scores can partitioned the atmospheric environments into five weathering risk grades. This article used the accumulated cumulative temperature of the daily maximum temperature for weathering risk evaluation, which is more scientific than the annual average temperature widely used and is useful for revealing the difference in LDPE weathering in Turpan and Korla. A comparative chart of LDPE's weathering risk in China was established by this fuzzy recognition method for the first time, which caters to the continuous extension of high-speed railway to new regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Silica alumina (Kaolin) catalyst enhances pyrolysis oil yield by 4.4% instead of gas yield reduction. • The optimum temp. for LDPE catalytic(Kaolin) pyrolysis is 520 °C lower than 560 °C at sand pyrolysis. • Light oil fractions increased to 11.9% (2.58 time more) over kaolin LDPE pyrolysis in FB reactor. • Kaolin has the potential to serve as a reliable substitute for sand. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is the second most prevalent waste plastic globally, followed by polypropylene. The pyrolytic conditions required to obtain light oil(≤C12) from LDPE are more stringent than those for polypropylene, water plastics, acrylonitrile, butadiene, styrene, and other materials. Consequently, numerous researchers have underscored the necessity of employing catalysts in LDPE pyrolysis. This study explored the pyrolysis characteristics of LDPE at various temperatures in a non-catalytic fluidized bed reactor. The experiments employed a mixture of sand + kaolin, one of the Si-Al catalysts, to investigate the pyrolysis of LDPE in a fluidized bed reactor at different temperatures. The findings demonstrated that using sand + kaolin as a fluidized bed material significantly enhances the yield of pyrolysis oil while concurrently reducing the gas yield compared to using sand alone. Moreover, a higher light oil fraction was obtained using kaolin (16.67 wt%) at 560 °C compared with 8.6 wt%. In addition, the study revealed that elevated temperatures (520 °C, 560 °C, and 600 °C) led to a reduction in olefins and paraffin, coupled with an increase in the formation of naphthenes, aromatics, and ketones in the pyrolysis oil. Overall, the findings underscore the promising potential of kaolin as an alternative to sand, facilitating the enhanced production of valuable light oil fractions. The insights garnered from this study are invaluable for devising effective waste management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The non-parametric (NPK) kinetics method has recently demonstrated its applicability in the determination of the crystallization kinetics of polymers, such as polypropylene (Monzón in Determination of polymer crystallization kinetics with the NPK method, 2022) and high-density polyethylene, by comparing the results with the most commonly used models to describe the crystallization kinetics of polymers. The greatest advantage of NPK method is that the information of the kinetic model and the temperature function can be obtained through vectors calculated by a mathematical model, even when the model for the conversion or the temperature function is unknown. The aim of this work is to verify that the NPK method is applicable to the crystallization of two different types of polyethylene: linear low-density and low-density polyethylene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Microwave pyrolysis treated polyethylene terephthalate and low-density polypropylene simultaneously. • Coconut husk carbon showed favorable process features and product features as microwave absorbent. • This process enhances the synergistic production of monocyclic aromatics. • High yields of oil (42.50 wt%) were obtained with a high content of monocyclic aromatics (77.11 %). The application of biochar as microwave absorbers in microwave-assisted catalytic fast pyrolysis (MACFP) has been widely studied. It has been reported that coconut husk carbon (CHC) showed good process characteristics and product distribution as microwave absorbers. However, the existing studies did not pay much attention to the reusability of CHC absorbers. In this study, the CHC absorbers prepared from agricultural and forestry wastes were reused in multiple cycles in the MACFP of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Compared with typical microwave absorbers such as spherical silicon carbide (SiC) and granular activated carbon (GAC), CHC demonstrated favorable process characteristics with relatively high heating rate (29 °C/min) and short heating time (within 12 min). In terms of product properties, the highest liquid yield of 51.67 wt% and the highest content of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) of 82.82 % were obtained at the appropriate pyrolysis temperature (550 °C). After five consecutive uses, the CHC bed still produced comparable heating profiles and product distributions, compared to that of SiC. At the same time, a positive synergistic effect between PET and LDPE was observed. The co-feeding of PET and LDPE (50L50P) appropriately increased the liquid yield (42.50 wt% vs 38.75 wt%) and the relative content of MAHs (77.11 % vs 72.96 %) in comparison to their theoretical value. Finally, this study supplies a new strategy for utilizing recycled CHC as a microwave absorber for the treatment of hydrogen-rich and hydrogen-deficient mixed plastic wastes to produce MAHs products, which also reduces waste and realizes energy conversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper is devoted to the investigation of antimicrobial activity of polymer nanocomposites of both low-density polyethylene and nonwoven polymeric material (a mixture of woven and polyester fibers) that had been impregnated by Cu nanoparticles. The microorganisms were grown according to generally accepted microbiological rules and on media recommended for each bacteria family. Formation of biofilms of microorganisms was studied on the surface of microtiter plates for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. After incubation of microtiter plates, the culture medium was removed from the wells. The wells were rinsed five times with sterile distilled water. The plates were air dried for 45 minutes and each well was stained with 1% crystal violet solution in water for 45 min. After staining, the plates were washed with sterile distilled water five times. The quantitative analysis of biofilm production was done by adding 95% ethanol for discoloration of the wells. The research shows the antibacterial activity of Cu nanoparticles on planktonic forms of the investigated microorganisms, which prevented the formation of dense biofilms. With the use of low-density polyethylene impregnated by Cu the ability to form biofilms by planktonic cells of the referent strains of microorganisms was detected to decrease by 1.7 (Escherichia coli), 12.3 (Klebsiella pneumonia) times in the studied strains and with the use of nonwoven polymeric material treated by Cu nanoparticles, the ability to form biofilms decreased by 1.8 (Escherichia coli) – 21.8 (Klebsiella pneumonia) times in the studied strains. In subjecting the formed daily biofilms of referent strains of microorganisms to Cu nanoparticles, the destruction of biofilms of the studied strains of microorganism was observed as well as violation of the integrity of the biofilm monolayer and decrease of density index in comparison with control values. As a result, the obtained polymer nanocomposites can be recommended for preventive use in the fight against nosocomial infections. The practical relevance of this study lies in the possibility of reducing the incidence of purulent-inflammatory diseases and mycoses and, accordingly, reduction of the costs of treating these diseases.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is extensively used as packaging material, and as such has a short service life, but long environmental persistence. The alternative to reducing the impact of LDPE as packaging material on the environment is to blend it with carbohydrate-based polymers, like starch. Therefore, the focus of this investigation was to prepare bio-based blends of LDPE and thermoplastic starch (TPS) containing different amounts of TPS using a Brabender kneading chamber. Due to incompatibility of LDPE/TPS blends, a styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene block copolymer, grafted with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MA) containing 2 mol % anhydride groups, was added as a compatibilizer. The effect of the biodegradable, hydrophilic TPS, its content, and the incorporation of the compatibilizer on the properties of LDPE/TPS blends were analysed. The characterization was performed by means of thermogravimetric analysis (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and water absorption (WA). Based on the results of the morphological structure, a good dispersion of the TPS phase in LDPE matrix was obtained with the incorporation of compatibilizer, which resulted in better thermal and barrier properties of these materials.

Nanoscale dynamic mechanical analysis (nanoDMA) was used to determine changes in surface viscoelastic properties of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) due to Ar plasma treatment. The experimental results show that the exposure of LDPE to high-power plasma produces a more solid-like response compared to low-power plasma. In addition, high-power plasma treatment results in permanent modification of the near-surface microstructure of LDPE, while low-power plasma treatment yields a microstructure that exhibits time-dependent viscoelastic properties. The results of this study show that nanoDMA is an effective method for evaluating changes in surface viscoelastic properties of polymers due to modification of the near-surface microstructure by inert plasma treatment.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) has caused serious environmental damages, and it has been a challenge for waste management in large cities. The LDPE recycling as composites with natural fibers such as sugarcane fibers (SCF) has been an interesting alternative to conciliate economic aspects with environmental benefits. In this study, SCF has been treated by steam explosion and incorporated to low-density polyethylene waste (LDPEW) to generate LDPEW/SCF composites with higher fiber/polymer interaction and improved mechanical properties. LDPEW/SCF composites with fibers content until 20 wt% showed mechanical properties with performance adequate for nobler applications when compared to the isolated recycled LDPEW.

Doing experiments in order to determine mechanical properties of nanocomposites costs a lot. Therefore, finding the ways by which the properties of the nanocomposites can be predicted without any empirical or few number of empirical experiments seems to be useful. In the present study, efforts have been made to create a relation between mathematical model based on dimensionless number (Ch) and mechanical properties of low-density polyethylene/linear low-density polyethylene/styrene ethylene butadiene styrene (LDPE/LLDPE/SEBS) nanocomposite reinforced by nanoparticles of calcium carbonate. The proposed model is able to predict mechanical properties of nanocomposites based on their composition. This model is capable to predict elongation at break in terms of Young's modulus and fracture toughness, and to predict fracture toughness in terms of Young's modulus and elongation at break. The results showed prediction of the dimensionless number Ch model, and the experimental results are consistent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) containing oxygen scavenger based on sodium ascorbate (SA) nanoparticle (5%, 10%, and 15%) was produced by the extrusion method. The performance of produced films to prevent oxidation of packed peanuts during storage at 40 °C for a month was studied. Results indicated that greater SA released from active films into an aqueous food model. According to the results of ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)) and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate), higher antioxidant activity was observed in the aqueous simulant model than the ethanolic one. The images of the SEM (scanning electron microscopy) showed that the SA was often distributed in spherical particles and brighter spots in the LDPE matrix. The addition of the SA to the LDPE polymer matrix led to higher water vapor permeability, less uniformity, higher lightness and yellowness, and less tensile stress. Thermal degradation of SA in LDPE occurred in the range of 251 to 257 °C. The SA-LDPE active films efficiently retarded lipid oxidation in packed peanuts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixtures of low-density polyethylene (Tm = 108°C; enthalpy of melting, 80 J g−1) with various low-molecular-weight organic components have been subjected to plastic deformation under a pressure of 1 GPa on an anvil-type high-pressure device. Melamine, cyanuric acid, adamantane, tetracene, fumaric acid, succinic acid, aspartic acid, indigo, anthracene, methyl orange, congo red, and safranin have been used as a low-molecular-weight component. The deformed mixtures have been studied using the DSC method. The thermograms of the mixtures at temperatures below the polymer Tm exhibited both endothermic and exothermic peaks. The endotherms and exotherms have been associated with the melting of small polymer crystallites and the crystallization or recrystallization processes in the polymer phase, respectively. In some mixtures, thermal effects were detected at temperatures above the polymer Tm, 117–161°C. These effects have been attributed to electrostatic interaction at the polymer/low-molecular-weight component interfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of nanotechnology-based, active antibacterial materials in food packaging is of great importance for users health. Related to such potential use nanocomposite films containing 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% or 10% zinc oxide contents were melt mixed followed by blown film extrusion. Mechanical tests showed the best improvement in tensile strength and modulus for 5% loading. The effects of three factors, zinc oxide (ZnO) content, storage time and pH, on the antibacterial properties were investigated using response surface methodology (RSM). According to the results the analysis of variance by the RSM for the antibacterial properties of the low-density polyethylene ZnO nanocomposites followed a Quadratic model. The results showed that the maximum efficiency could be achieved at pH = 4.48. In addition, RSM showed the maximum antibacterial properties would be obtained for a reaction time of 5.5 days and zinc oxide content of 9.45%, which was near to the experimental value of 10%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the use of polyethylene (PE) for asphalt modification has been gaining increased attention due to the environmental sustainability and cost-saving benefits. To optimize the performance of the PE-asphalt blends, it is necessary to understand the polymer-binder interactions and their impact on the properties of the modified asphalt binder. In this study, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with low and high melt flow index (MFI), i.e., LDPE4 and LDPE70, were blended with Pen 60-70 asphalt binder in dosages ranging from 1 to 5 wt.%. PE Wax was also added to the binder or the PE-binder blend to enhance dispersion. The dispersion of PE in the binder and the phase stability of the modified binder were investigated by optical microscope. The equivalent diameter of PE domains increased with time and the polymer dosage level. The addition of PE wax improved the polymer dispersity in the LDPE4 blends. The polymer dispersity in LDPE70 blends was good without adding PE Wax, attributed to the higher MFI value (low molecular weight) of LDPE70. In addition, to understand the stability of polymer modified binder, the steady shear viscosity-temperature profile of these binders was studied using a rotational viscometer. The dynamic rheological properties and performance of the PE-binder blends were evaluated using the dynamic shear rheometer. Based on the microstructure, all other rheological and performance properties, it was concluded that the 3% LDPE70 binder has better polymer dispersity, better low and high temperature performance characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hierarchical multi‐mode molecular stress function (HMMSF) model developed by Narimissa and Wagner [Rheol. Acta 54, 779–791 (2015), and J. Rheol. 60, 625–636 (2016)] for linear and long‐chain branched (LCB) polymer melts were used to analyze the set of transient elongational and shear viscosity data of two LCB low‐density polyethylenes (1840H and 2426 k), and a linear poly‐(ethylene‐co‐α‐butene), PEB A‐780090 as reported by [Li et al. J. Rheol. 64, 177 (2020)], who had developed a new horizontal extensional rheometer to extend the lower limits of elongational viscosity measurements of polymer melts. Comparison between model predictions and elongational stress growth data reveals excellent agreement within the experimental window, and good consistency with shear stress growth data, based exclusively on the linear‐viscoelastic relaxation spectrum and only two nonlinear model parameters, the dilution modulus GD for extensional flows, and in addition a constraint release parameter for shear flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyethylene has considered as non-degradable for decades, and their degradation through marine bacteria has rarely studied. However, LDPE found a significant source of pollution in the marine environment. In the present study, four bacterial strains capable of biodegradation of LDPE were isolated from the marine environment. These bacterial isolates H-237, H-255, H-256 and H-265 were revealed close similarity with Cobetia sp., Halomonas sp., Exigobacterium sp. and Alcanivorax sp., respectively based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing method. These bacterial isolates were individually incubated for 90 days supplied with LDPE films as a carbon source using the Bushnell-Haas medium. During the biodegradation assay, bacterial isolates were formed the viable biofilm on the LDPE surface, which decreased the thermal stability of the films. At the end of the incubation study, a maximum weight loss of 1.72% of LDPE film was observed by the bacterial isolate H-255. The bacterial attachment on the film changed the physical structure (surface erosion, roughness and degradation) which were confirmed by field emission scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The changes in the chemical structure of the LDPE film were analyzed by Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). This ATR-FTIR showed the shifting of peaks of C–H stretch and C=C bond stretching and the new peaks formation of C–O and –C=C– bonds in comparison to control LDPE film. Further, biodegradation of LDPE film was also confirmed by remineralization of carbon and enzymatic activities. This study revealed that the active biodegradation of LDPE film by marine bacteria and these bacteria could reduce plastic pollution in the marine environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dielectric polymer nanocomposites with excellent dielectric performance and high discharge energy storage are important for capacitor applications. In this study, γ-Aminopropyl triethoxysilane (γ-APS) grafted BaTiO3 nanoparticles (BaTiO3–NH2) were used as filler to improve the dielectric and energy storage properties of low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Glycidyl methacrylate grafted ethylene-octene copolymer (POE-GMA) was used as interfacial modifier between LDPE and BaTiO3–NH2 particles. Because of the chemical reaction between the epoxy groups of POE-GMA and the amino groups of BaTiO3–NH2, the soft shell/hard core structure of POE-GMA@BaTiO3–NH2 can be formed during the blending process. The BaTiO3–NH2/POE-GMA/LDPE nanocomposites with superior dielectric properties were obtained. When the contents of POE-GMA and BaTiO3–NH2 were 10 wt%, the favorable breakdown strength of 350 MV/m and fine discharged energy density of 2.46 J/cm3 for BaTiO3–NH2/POE-GMA/LDPE blend were achieved. This work provided a useful and easy way to exploit perspective dielectric candidates for energy-storage applications.

Melt blending is an effective way to prepare new composite materials, but most polymers are incompatible. In order to reduce the interfacial tension and obtain fine and stable morphology with internal symmetric micro-textures, suitable compatibilizers should be added to the blend. The two immiscible polymers, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polystyrene (PS), were compatibilized by styrene/ethylene/butylene/styrene block copolymers grafted with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MAH) and organomontmorillonite (OMMT). The scanning electron microscope results indicated that the size of the PS phase decreased with increasing the content of SEBS-g-MAH. By introducing OMMT into LDPE/PS/SEBS-g-MAH composites, the compatibility of composites was further improved. The rheological analysis and Cole–Cole plot analysis indicated that the addition of SEBS-g-MAH and OMMT increased the interaction between the two phases. The tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact strength of the LDPE/PS/SEBS-g-MAH (70/30/7, wt%) composite increased by 64%, 255%, and 380%, respectively, compared with the LDPE/PS (70/30, wt%) composite. A small amount of OMMT could synergistically compatibilize the LDPE/PS composite with SEBS-g-MAH. After adding 0.3% OMMT into the LDPE/PS/SEBS-g-MAH system, the tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact strength of the composite were further increased to 18.57 MPa, 71.87%, and 33.28 kJ/m2, respectively.

The authors have presented results of synthesis of carbon nanotubes from low-density polyethylene. The synthesis was carried by thermal destruction of the polyethylene in a chemical-vapor-deposition unit. The process of decomposition of the polyethylene and the synthesis of carbon nanotubes were implemented in one stage in a triple-fired furnace for chemical vapor deposition. Consideration has been given to the influence of temperature on the decomposition products of polyethylene in the range of temperatures 450–550oC. The gas- and vaporphase decomposition products of polyethylene, obtained at different temperatures, were investigated by the infrared spectroscopy method. It has been established that the necessary and suffi cient temperature of decomposition of polyethylene is 450oC. Carbon nanotubes were grown on a catalyst that represented cenospheres impregnated with a ferrous nitrate solution. On exposure to high temperatures, ferrous nitrate decomposes to form pure iron particles on the cenospheric surface, which are active sites of growth of carbon nanotubes. The formation of iron particles on the cenospheric surface upon the impregnation with ferrous nitrate and thermal treatment is confirmed by the results of x-ray phase analysis. A semiquantitative analysis shows that the content of iron in the total catalysts mass amounts to about 2.3%. The synthesis gives rise to carbon nanotubes with diameters of 50–60 nm on the cenospheric surface. Thus, it has been shown that carbon nanotubes can be synthesized from low-density polyethylene waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present experimental work, the efforts have been made to use the aluminum composite panel waste collected from a construction site in high strength concrete. This waste of aluminum composite panel contains aluminum coversheets and core of low-density polyethylene. In this investigation, concrete with aluminum waste with varying percentages of 2, 4, 7, and 12% by weight of cement, and LDPE as an additive mass of 3.5, 7, 12.5, and 21% by weight of cement were studied. The concrete was tested in the fresh and hardened state. In the fresh state, concrete was tested for workability and expansion. In the hardened state, the concrete was tested for various strength, Non-destructive tests, and durability tests. Based on the results showed for 28 days, it can be reported that the use of replaced aluminum waste and LDPE as additive waste by weight of cement had a significant decrease in workability as well as strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the formation of BaTiO3/CoFe2O4 (BT‐CFO) filled low‐density‐polyethylene (LDPE) composite via the process of melt mixing and characterization for their dielectric and electromagnetic shielding behaviors. The X‐Ray diffraction (XRD) result of synthesized CoFe2O4 shows the cubic phase structure formation with a crystallite size of 28.6 nm. The BT nanopowder and synthesized nanopowder of Cobalt ferrite (CFO) were mixed together in an equal amount (50:50), and sintered at 800°C for 1 hour. A series of samples of BT‐CFO was prepared by taking a different amount of BT‐CFO (ie, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 wt%) with LDPE. The dielectric measurements of BT‐CFO/LDPE composites were carried out at different temperatures using LCR meter at a frequency range from 40 Hz to 5 MHz. The dielectric behaviour of samples exhibited a change in dielectric constant with an increase in temperature and frequency. The electromagnetic shielding measurements were examined over X‐band with a frequency range from 8.2GHz to 12.4GHz of the prepared BT‐CFO/LDPE composites. The EMI shielding effectiveness of prepared BT‐CFO/LDPE composites exhibited a maximum value of 17.9 dB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accelerated (artificial) weathering and thermal aging tests were performed to investigate the effectiveness of different formulations in reducing the UV/heat degradation extent for two low-density polyethylene types (LDPE-A, LDPE-T). The two LDPEs differ in the type and extent of branching due to the applied polymerization process, with LDPE-A being produced in an autoclave and LDPE-T in a tubular reactor. Oligomeric or high molecular weight hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS), and two UV absorbers of benzophenone or hydroxyphenyl-triazine types were equally introduced to both the LDPE grades at a total content of 0.2 wt%. The surface morphology, as well as thermal and mechanical properties, were examined during aging showing a significant degradation extent for the neat samples. In particular, a mechanism of chain scission/branching that resulted in crosslinking was assumed for the neat polyethylenes, after combining the decrease of molecular weight observed in the GPC analysis with the increase in Young's modulus after UV exposure. LDPE-T presented higher photo-oxidation rates due to its comb-like branched structure and its higher possibility of intermolecular reactions between adjacent chains. Little or no degradation was observed for the stabilized grades, confirming the effectiveness of the selected UV/heat systems in improving the weathering resistance of the two LDPE grades and enhancing their useful lifetime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study reports the role of pretreatment for the enhanced biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with Galleria mellonella (Greater waxworm). The pretreatment of the LDPE film was carried out under solar radiation. The pretreated LDPE (PTLDPE) and untreated LDPE (UTLDPE) were characterized with AFM, FTIR and 1H NMR techniques. The qualitative analysis for the biodegradation of pretreated and untreated LDPE was examined by analysing the Excreta residue (ER) of Galleria mellonella fed with LDPE. The mineralization of the ER of waxworm fed on Waxcomb (WC), UTLDPE and PTLDPE were studied by analysing the changes in physiochemical properties through FTIR, 1H NMR and GC-MS techniques in addition to weight loss percentage of PTLDPE and survival rates of the tested greater waxworms. Solar pretreatment of LDPE led to increased surface roughness which favoured the waxworms to feed voraciously on PTLDPE. The post degradation studies of Waxcomb (WC), PTLDPE and UTLDPE showed 92.03 ± 2.1%, 18.57 ± 1.8% and 55.8 ± 1.2% weight loss, respectively. The FTIR, 1H NMR and GC-MS results confirm that the ER of waxworm fed on WC, UTLDPE and PTLDPE showed the presence of new carbonyl and alcoholic groups with increase in unsaturated hydrocarbon indicating enhanced mineralization of LDPE. The efficient mineralization of PTLDPE by waxworm was observed without affecting its survivability. A plausible mechanism of LDPE degradation has also been proposed. The rapid and cost effective biodegradation of PTLDPE through waxworm paves a new and facile route for hazardous plastic waste treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reaction conditions have a huge impact on the resulting polymer properties, but capturing this requires understanding the correlation of the underlying kinetics, the polymer architecture, and polymer flow behavior. Long‐chain branched polymers created randomly by free‐radical polymerization, such as low‐density polyethylene (LDPE), show complex rheological behavior and are thus interesting in this context. A study applying a multiscale modeling approach is used to simulate varying reaction conditions and predict the structure of the resulting LDPE polymer and its flow properties. A significant effect on the molecular weight distribution, but also the viscosity and extensional flow behavior can be predicted. Higher conversions, for example, lead to broader molecular weight distributions, increased long‐chain branching degrees, and a higher branching complexity. Consequently, also higher viscosities and increased strain hardening are observed in extension. Additionally, miniplant experiments are performed to resemble the simulations and compare the results. The accordance of predictions and analytical results are very good and validate the model over a wide range of reaction conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]