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Brandt, R, Bevilacqua, GG, Coimbra, DR, Pombo, LC, Miarka, B, and Lane, AM. Body weight and mood state modifications in mixed martial arts: An exploratory pilot. J Strength Cond Res 32(9): 2548–2554, 2018—Mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters typically use rapid weight loss (RWL) as a strategy to make competition weight. The aim of the present study was to compare body weight and mood changes in professional male MMA athletes who used strategies to rapidly lose weight (n = 9) and with MMA athletes who did not (n = 3). Body mass and mood states of anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor and total mood disturbance were assessed (a) 30 days before competition, (b) at the official weigh-in 1 day before competition, (c) 10 minutes before competition, and (d) 10 minutes postcompetition. Results indicated that RWL associated with reporting higher confusion and greater total mood disturbance at each assessment point. Rapid weight loss also associated with high anger at the official weigh-in. However, in performance, RWL did not have deleterious effects on performance. The RWL group also reported greater total mood disturbance at all assessment points with a moderate difference effect size. Research supports the notion that RWL associates with potentially dysfunctional mood states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated test-retest variation in Body Image Questionnaire scores among a sample of British school children. 112 participants from three different school years (aged 12 to 14 years) completed the Body Image Questionnaire on two occasions separated by a 6-wk. period. No intervention designed to change perceptions of body shape took place, hence, test-retest scores should be stable. Analysis indicated a significantly greater variation among 12- and 13-yr-olds upon retest, but not for 14-yr.-olds. Research is needed investigating factorial and test-retest stability of the measure for use with children aged 12 or under. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptions of group cohesion and mood were investigated among netball, rowing, and rugby teams. Participants (N = 415) completed the Group Environment Questionnaire and the Profile of Mood States--C. For task cohesion, high attraction to the group predicted low tension and anger and high group integration predicted low depression. For social cohesion, high attraction to the group predicted low tension, low depression, and high vigor, but group integration was not predictive of mood. Type of sport did not moderate cohesion-mood relationships, although significant between-sport differences in cohesion and mood scores were seen. Results are discussed in relation to the R. F. Baumeister and M. R. Leary (1995) proposition that the need to belong is a fundamental human motive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare the effects of playing tennis using low-compression balls (Lc-Balls) and standard balls (St-Balls) on psychophysiological responses and match characteristics among recreational adult tennis players. Participants (N = 24; age: 20.5 ± 1.3 years) were randomly matched to play two singles matches over three sets: one match was played with a Lc-Ball and one match was played with a St-Ball, resulting in twenty-four matches. Heart-rate responses and match characteristics were assessed during each match. Post-match measures included retrospective assessments of perceived exertion, ratings of enjoyment towards physical activity, and ratings of mental effort and mood. Results showed higher psychophysiological responses and more intensive play during the game when playing with the Lc-Ball ( p ≤ 0.05, d values ranging from 0.24 to 1.93 [small to very large effect]). Further, playing with a Lc-Ball related to reporting a lower rating of perceived exertion ( p = 0.00, d = 0.90 [moderate effect]) and greater physical enjoyment ( p = 0.00, d = 1.73 [large effect]). Playing with the St-Ball was associated with higher unpleasant mood responses including depression, tension, anger, and fatigue. In conclusion, the results suggest that using the Lc-Ball may lead to better match performance with higher enjoyment in the tennis match-play in recreational adult tennis players.

The aim of the present study was to provide initial validity evidence of a Greek translation of the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale, referred to as the BRUMS-Greek, a measure of anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigour. Data were collected from 1417 Greek adult exercise participants and 369 physically inactive adults, totaling 1786 adults (male = 578, female = 1208) aged 18-64 years ( M = 34.73 ± 11.81 years). Given the large univariate and multivariate non-normality, a confirmatory factor analyses treating responses as ordered categorical variables was conducted which supported the hypothesised six-correlated factor measurement model. The internal consistency reliability of the BRUMS-Greek subscales was supported via Cronbach alpha coefficients. The construct validity of the scales was supported (a) via correlations in the hypothesised direction with trait positive and negative affect, (b) with more positive and less negative moods reported immediately after participation in a single exercise class compared to pre-exercise mood, and (c) with exercise participants reporting more positive and less negative mood states compared to physically inactive adults. Women reported higher tension and lower vigour scores than men. Tension scores were higher and confusion scores lower among younger participants (≤35 years) than older participants (≥36 years). Participants with obesity reported higher negative mood scores than those who were underweight or normal weight. In sum, the BRUMS-Greek demonstrated acceptable psychometric characteristics, and is proposed to be a suitable measure for use with exercise participants, physically inactive adults, and other Greek populations to explore research questions related to mood.

It is widely acknowledged that adolescent females are particularly at risk of low body esteem. Low body esteem is associated with poor mental health and other negative outcomes. Interventions to help raise body esteem could have a considerable impact, especially if the intervention is low cost, easy to implement, and scalable. We investigated the efficacy of an intervention where participants could choose their clothes to wear during a physical education lesson (PE). PE is a context associated with low body esteem, a finding that is particularly evident among females. We hypothesized that body esteem would improve with choice. To show that body esteem does not randomly change, we tested its stability when assessed in a test-retest design when completed in a classroom setting, hypothesizing that body esteem would be stable. Participants ( n = 110; Age M = 14.9 years; SD = 0.68 years) completed a 14-item body esteem scale eight times: (a) wearing the school uniform in a classroom and (b) during a PE lesson on two occasions in each context within a week. This was repeated at the re-test, which was separated by a two-week gap. The intervention was implemented and students were given a choice of PE kit and could wear their own (non-designer) clothes. The findings indicate that the choice of PE kit intervention was associated with improved body esteem in a PE context but was stable in a classroom context, which we hypothesized to be stable. We argue that this low-cost and scalable intervention represents a useful starting point for helping to support females with low body esteem among a potentially vulnerable population.

Introduction: The ability to perform optimally under pressure is critical across many occupations, including the military, first responders, and competitive sport. Despite recognition that such performance depends on a range of cognitive factors, how common these factors are across performance domains remains unclear. The current study sought to integrate existing knowledge in the performance field in the form of a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie performance under pressure., Methods: International experts were recruited from four performance domains [(i) Defense; (ii) Competitive Sport; (iii) Civilian High-stakes; and (iv) Performance Neuroscience]. Experts rated constructs from the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework (and several expert-suggested constructs) across successive rounds, until all constructs reached consensus for inclusion or were eliminated. Finally, included constructs were ranked for their relative importance., Results: Sixty-eight experts completed the first Delphi round, with 94% of experts retained by the end of the Delphi process. The following 10 constructs reached consensus across all four panels (in order of overall ranking): (1) Attention; (2) Cognitive Control-Performance Monitoring; (3) Arousal and Regulatory Systems-Arousal; (4) Cognitive Control-Goal Selection, Updating, Representation, and Maintenance; (5) Cognitive Control-Response Selection and Inhibition/Suppression; (6) Working memory-Flexible Updating; (7) Working memory-Active Maintenance; (8) Perception and Understanding of Self-Self-knowledge; (9) Working memory-Interference Control, and (10) Expert-suggested-Shifting., Discussion: Our results identify a set of transdisciplinary neuroscience-informed constructs, validated through expert consensus. This expert consensus is critical to standardizing cognitive assessment and informing mechanism-targeted interventions in the broader field of human performance optimization., Competing Interests: VM was employed by Mindflex Group Ltd. JG is a stockholder in MAP Biotech Pty Ltd. SC has received speakers fees Janssen-Cilag Australia, Lundbeck Otsuka Australia, Servier Australia; Investigator Initiated research funding Janssen-Cilag Australia; Lundbeck Otsuka Australia; Advisory Boards Lundbeck Otsuka Australia. AT has received research funding from BHP, Rio Tinto, and Shell. SD is a Member of the Board of Advisors Eisai Australia Pty Ltd. MY has received payments in relation to court-, expert witness-, and/or expert review-reports. JD was employed by Florida Maxima Corporation. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Albertella, Kirkham, Adler, Crampton, Drummond, Fogarty, Gross, Zaichkowsky, Andersen, Bartone, Boga, Bond, Brunyé, Campbell, Ciobanu, Clark, Crane, Dietrich, Doty, Driskell, Fahsing, Fiore, Flin, Funke, Gatt, Hancock, Harper, Heathcote, Heaton, Helsen, Hussey, Jackson, Khemlani, Killgore, Kleitman, Lane, Loft, MacMahon, Marcora, McKenna, Meijen, Moulton, Moyle, Nalivaiko, O’Connor, O’Conor, Patton, Piccolo, Ruiz, Schücker, Smith, Smith, Sobrino, Stetz, Stewart, Taylor, Tucker, van Stralen, Vickers, Visser, Walker, Wiggins, Williams, Wong, Aidman and Yücel.)

Self-confidence is a common research topic, and most applied textbooks include interventions designed to enhance athlete confidence. Our purpose was to quantify the self-confidence and sport performance literature using meta-analytic techniques. We also examined potential risk of bias indicators, and the moderation effects of study quality, sport characteristics, timing of confidence measurement, and individual differences among participants. Following a review of two past meta-analyses, a systematic search of APA PsycArticles, ERIC, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsychINFO, and SPORTDiscus within the EBSCOhost platform, and some hand searching, 41 articles published between 1986 and 2020 met the inclusion criteria. Collectively, the included studies investigated 3711 athletes from 15 countries across 24 sports. The overall random effects estimate of the relationship (expressed as r ) between self-confidence and performance was 0.25 (95% CI 0.19, 0.30), with little evidence of publication bias. The summed total risk of the individual study bias score did not moderate the confidence-performance relationship, whereas significant moderator effects emerged for individual sports (0.29) compared with team sports (0.14), objective (0.29) compared to subjective (0.14) performance measures, and 100% male (0.35) compared to 100% female (0.07) samples. In conclusion, the confidence-performance relationship is small in magnitude, nearly free of bias, and moderated by sport type, performance objectivity, and athlete sex.

Background: A large-scale online study completed by this research team found that brief psychological interventions were associated with high-intensity pleasant emotions and predicted performance. The present study extends this work using data from participants ( n = 3376) who completed all self-report data and engaged in a performance task but who did not engage with an intervention or control condition and therefore present as an opportunistic no-treatment group., Methods: 41,720 participants were selected from the process and outcome focus goals intervention groups, which were the successful interventions ( n = 30,096), active-control ( n = 3039), and no-treatment ( n = 8585). Participants completed a competitive task four times: first as practice, second to establish a baseline, third following an opportunity to complete a brief psychological skills intervention, and lastly following an opportunity to repeat the intervention. Repeated measures MANOVA indicated that over four performance rounds, the intensity of positive emotions increased, performance improved, and the amount of effort participants exerted increased; however, these increases were significantly smaller in the no-treatment group., Conclusions: Findings suggest that not engaging in active training conditions had negative effects. We suggest that these findings have implications for the development and deployment of online interventions.

The COVID-19 pandemic brought unprecedented changes to daily life and in the first wave in the UK, it led to a societal shutdown including playing sport and concern was placed for the mental health of athletes. Identifying mood states experienced in lockdown and self-regulating strategies is useful for the development of interventions to help mood management. Whilst this can be done on a general level, examination of sport-specific effects and the experience of athletes and coaches can help develop interventions grounded in real world experiences. The present study investigated perceived differences in mood states of boxers before and during COVID-19 isolation in the first lockdown among boxers. Boxing is an individual and high-contact sport where training tends to form a key aspect of their identity. Boxers develop close relationships with their coach and boxing. Hence boxers were vulnerable to experiencing negative mood, and support via the coach was potentially unavailable. Participants were 58 experienced participants (44 boxers, male n = 33, female n = 11; 14 boxing coaches, male n = 11, female n = 3). Boxers completed the Brunel Mood Scale to assess mood before COVID-19 using a retrospective approach and during COVID-19 using a "right now" time frame. Boxers responded to open-ended questions to capture mood regulation strategies used. Coaches responded to open ended questions to capture how they helped regulate boxer's mood. MANOVA results indicated a large significant increase in the intensity of unpleasant moods (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension) and reduction in vigor during COVID-19 ( d = 0.93). Using Lane and Terry (2000) conceptual framework, results showed participants reporting depressed mood also reported an extremely negative mood profile as hypothesized. Qualitative data indicated that effective mood-regulation strategies used included maintaining close coach-athlete contact and helping create a sense of making progress in training. When seen collectively, findings illustrate that mood state responses to COVID-19 were severe. It is suggested that that active self-regulation and self-care should be a feature of training programmes to aid coaches and boxers in regulating mood when faced with severe situational changes., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Roberts and Lane.)

Purpose: This study investigated emotion-performance relationships in rugby union. We identified which emotions rugby players experienced and the extent to which these emotions were associated with performance, considering how emotions unfold over the course of a game, and whether the game was played at home or away., Methods: Data were gathered from 22 professional male rugby union players using auto-confrontation interviews to help identify situations within games when players experienced intense emotions. We assessed the intensity of emotions experienced before each discrete performance and therefore could assess the emotion-performance relationship within a competition., Results: Players identified experiencing intense emotions at 189 time-points. Experts in rugby union rated the quality of each performance at these 189 time-points on a visual analog scale. A Linear Mixed Effects model to investigate emotion-performance relationships found additive effects of game location, game time, and emotions on individual performance., Conclusion: Results showed 7 different pre-performance emotions, with high anxiety and anger associating with poor performance. Future research should continue to investigate emotion-performance relationships during performance using video-assisted recall and use a measure of performance that has face validity for players and coaches alike., (© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Shanghai University of Sport.)

The ability to hold a pace is a key skill for endurance athletes. The present study compared the influence of different strategies on how athletes learn to pace at 80% of their maximum performance for a 3-min cycle time trial. Participants first completed three maximal 3-min tests to establish maximal performance. During subsequent visits we asked participants to ride at 80% of their average maximal 3-min power output for four 3-min efforts under different conditions. Participants were blinded to feedback for three of the four conditions with participants (a) riding on feel (all feedback blinded), (b) associating on the task by focusing attention on the skills needed for efficient cycling, and (c) dissociating from the task by intentionally focusing concentration elsewhere (d) and finally, participants rode with full feedback where pace could be regulated via observation. All participants completed the blind condition first, the full feedback condition last, with association focus and dissociation focus rides being alternated. As expected, results showed participants rode close to the 80% goal when observing full feedback. Participants rode at 82% of maximum in the blind "ride on feel" condition, 79% in the associative condition, and 70% in the dissociative condition. We suggest results show that simple strategies related to concentration can influence the accuracy of pacing efforts. The difference in the ability to pace while using an associative or dissociative attentional focus was consistent with theory. The differences we observed occurred with minimal input from participants in terms of actively learning psychological skills. Future research is needed to investigate how athletes learn to use pacing strategies to help performance., (© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The study investigated responses to false feedback in laboratory cycling. Seven male competitive cyclists (age; M = 34.14 years, SD = 7.40) completed two ergometer time-trials, one each with false negative and false positive feedback (time ± 5 %). MANOVA indicated main effects for condition [F(17, 104) = 9.42, p < 0.001], and mile [F(153, 849) = 1.58, p < 0.001], but no interaction [F(153, 849) = 0.470, p = 1.00]. No between-condition differences in power (F = 0.129, p = 0.720) or time to completion (F = 1.011, p = 0.338) were observed. Positive feedback was associated with higher glucose (F = 25.988, p < 0.01), happiness (F = 6.097, p = 0.015) and calmness (F = 4.088, p = 0.045). Positive feedback was also associate with lower oxygen uptake (F = 8.830, p = 0.004), anxiety (F = 5.207, p = 0.024), gloominess (F = 6.322, p = 0.013), sluggishness (F = 11.650, p = 0.001), downheartedness (F = 15.844, p = 0.001), effort required to regulate emotion (F = 13.798, p = 0.001), and a trend towards lower lactate production (F = 3.815, p = 0.053). Data suggest that positive emotions and reduced metabolic cost of performance were associated with positive feedback.

We proposed that experiencing unpleasant emotions during performance represents unsuccessful emotion-regulatory efforts, and that such effort concurrently tax physiological resources. We used data from 2-h cycling trials (N = 28) at a power output equivalent to lactate threshold. Emotions were calculated before and during cycling with ongoing assessments of ventilation, respiratory quotient, heart rate, and oxygen uptake. Emotion data indicated significant changes over time with all participants reporting decreases in vigour and increases in fatigue, with 14 cases of concurrent increases in anger, depression, and tension. After grouping participants into positive and negative emotion groups, a time x unpleasant emotion group ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect for changes in ventilation (F (6,21) = 3.09, P = .03, Partial Eta(2) = .47) over time, with no significant difference in other physiological variables or perceived exertion. Among athletes reporting negative emotions, ventilation increased during the middle section, whereas among athletes reporting positive emotions, ventilation increased shortly before completion. Findings suggest that regulating negative emotion is an effortful process taxing physiological substrates.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between trait emotional intelligence and emotional state changes over the course of an ultra-endurance foot race covering a route of approximately 175 miles (282 km) and held in set stages over six days., Design: A repeated measures field design that sought to maintain ecological validity was used. Trait emotional intelligence was defined as a relatively stable concept that should predict adaptive emotional states experienced over the duration of the race and therefore associate with pleasant emotions during a 6-stage endurance event., Method: Thirty-four runners completed a self-report measure of trait emotional intelligence before the event started. Participants reported emotional states before and after each of the six races., Results: Repeated measures ANOVA results showed significant variations in emotions over time and a main effect for trait emotional intelligence. Runners high in self-report trait emotional intelligence also reported higher pleasant and lower unpleasant emotions than runners low in trait emotional intelligence., Conclusions: Findings lend support to the notion that trait emotional intelligence associates with adaptive psychological states, suggesting that it may be a key individual difference that explains why some athletes respond to repeated bouts of hard exercise better than others. Future research should test the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance trait emotional intelligence and examine the attendant impact on emotional responses to intense exercise during multi-stage events., (Copyright © 2011. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

In the present study, a measure to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise was redesigned, extending previous research efforts (Karageorghis et al., 1999). The original measure, the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI), had shown limitations in its factor structure and its applicability to non-experts in music selection. Redesign of the BMRI used in-depth interviews with eight participants (mean age 31.9 years, s = 8.9 years) to establish the initial item pool, which was examined using a series of confirmatory factor analyses. A single-factor model provided a good fit across three musical selections with different motivational qualities (comparative fit index, CFI: 0.95-0.98; standardized root mean residual, SRMR: 0.03-0.05). The single-factor model also demonstrated acceptable fit across two independent samples and both sexes using one piece of music (CFI: 0.86-1.00; SRMR: 0.04-0.07). The BMRI was designed for experts in selecting music for exercise (e.g. dance aerobic instructors), whereas the BMRI-2 can be used both by exercise instructors and participants. The psychometric properties of the BMRI-2 are stronger than those of the BMRI and it is easier to use. The BMRI-2 provides a valid and internally consistent tool by which music can be selected to accompany a bout of exercise or a training session. Furthermore, the BMRI-2 enables researchers to standardize music in experimental protocols involving exercise-related tasks.

This case study investigated relationships between personality, mood states changes, coping strategies, self-set goals, and self-efficacy in an elite judo player. A transactional perspective of psychological responses over time was used to guide data analysis. The ambient mood is proposed to contribute to the interpretation of, and reaction to, events during competition, which lead to subsequent emotional responses. A male international Judo player completed a number of self-report measures before and during a 4-contest tournament. Measures included the EPQ, MCOPE, Brunel Mood Scale, self-set goals, and self-efficacy for goal attainment. State measures were completed after every contest. Results indicated high scores of self-efficacy to achieve performance goals and outcome goals. Pre-competition mood results indicated high scores on the Vigor and Anger subscales with moderate scores for Tension, and zero scores for Depressed mood, a mood profile that remained relatively stable after winning his first two contests. After losing his third contest, he reported symptoms of Depressed mood and indicated using self-blame as coping strategy during the contest. Before the fourth contest, he coped by using planning and increasing effort. These coping strategies were associated with reductions in Depressed mood and increases in Vigor. After finding out his next contest was against a former World Championship bronze medalist, self-set goals became performance and process with no outcome goal. On losing this contest, scores on the Anger and Depression subscales increased sharply, Fatigue scores increased slightly and Tension and Vigor reduced. Self-blame was used as a coping strategy when experiencing unpleasant emotions. Findings suggest that self-blame was associated with negative psychological states comprising depressed mood. Increasing effort and planning were associated with positive psychological states. Collectively, findings emphasize the value of using a transactional design to explore mood changes over time, and future research should investigate the effectiveness of applied interventions. Key PointsFindings demonstrate the transient nature of mood states during competition.The paper proposes a transactional model of mood, which facilitates the exploration of mood changes over time.Mood states at one point in time will influence the interpretation of situational factors, which combine with emotional responses to form subsequent mood states.Findings support the notion that a difference between the perceived progress toward a goal and the internally expected rate of progress will elicit an emotional response.

Evidence points to the existence of a home advantage effect in soccer with referees giving more decisions to the home team being a plausible explanation for this effect. The purpose of the present study was to use qualitative methods to explore the factors that influence experienced referees when making decisions. Five experienced referees volunteered to participate in semi-structured interviews of 30-40 minutes duration. Examples of questions/probes included 'Are there times when it is difficult to make a decision on whether there was a foul or not? When? Why?' and 'Do you worry about making the wrong / unpopular decision? What affect does this have on you?' Content analysis identified 13 inter-related themes that describe four higher-order themes. The themes 'accuracy-error', 'regulations', and 'professionalism' form a higher-order theme labeled 'ideal-decision making'. The themes 'opinion', 'concentration', and 'control' represent a higher- order theme labeled 'individual factors'; 'experience', 'personality', and 'personal life' represent a higher-order factor labeled 'experience factors', and crowd factors, player reaction, environmental factors, and crowd interaction represent a higher-order factor labeled 'situational factors'. Findings from the present study offer some insight into difficulties and coping strategies used by referees to perform consistently in professional soccer. Future research could use quantitative methods to test the relative contribution of themes identified above to the decision-making process in referees. At an applied level, practitioners should develop strategies that accelerate the process of learning to cope with performance-related stressors such as the crowd noise. Key PointsFive experienced described factors associated with decision making in soccer leading to the identification of 13 inter-related themes that describe four higher-order themes.Higher order themes include ideal-decision making', 'individual factors', 'experience factors', and 'situational factors'.Findings from the present study offer some insight into difficulties and coping strategies used by referees to perform consistently in professional soccer.Practitioners should develop strategies that accelerate the process of learning to cope with performance-related stressors.

The aim of the study was twofold. The first aim was to develop on-line video clip material that showed examples of nurses dealing with potentially difficult and delicate patient groups. The second aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of video clip materials for enhancing nursing student's self-efficacy to effectively communicate with the type of patients described above. The production of contextually relevant video clip material involved the identification of relevant material based on real experiences, writing appropriate scripts, recruiting actors, recording the performances and producing them in a form that could be accessed on-line. Self-report questionnaires were used to assess the effectiveness of video clip material. Level 1 (n = 145) nursing students completed a self-efficacy measure that assessed confidence to deal with situations such as breaking news of death, working with children, people with disability and aggressive behaviour at the start and the end of the module. Results indicated that student's self-efficacy increased noticeably over the course of the module. Differences between increases in self-efficacy attributed to watching videos or attending lectures were marginal. Findings suggest that using video clips that show students effectively coping with adverse situations provide an effective teaching approach for enhancing self-efficacy. Future research is needed to test the extent to which self-efficacy measures relate with nursing performance.

Psychological states experienced by athletes prior to injured, best and worst performances were investigated retrospectively using a mixed methodology. Fifty-nine athletes volunteered to complete an individualized assessment of performance states based on the Individual Zones of Optimal fFunctioning (IZOF) model. A subsection (n = 30) of participants completed a standardized psychometric scale (Brunel Mood Rating Scale: BRUMS), retrospectively describing how they felt before best, worst, and injured performances. IZOF results showed similar emotion states being identified for injured and best performances. Analysis of BRUMS scores indicated a significant main effect for differences in mood by performance outcome, with post-hoc analyses showing best performance was associated with lower scores on depression and fatigue and higher vigor than injured performance and worst performance. Worst performance was associated with higher fatigue and confusion than injured performance. Results indicate that retrospective emotional profiles before injured performance are closer to successful performance, than unsuccessful, and confirm differences between successful and unsuccessful performance. Qualitative and quantitative approaches used to retrospectively assess pre-performance emotional states before three performance outcomes, produced complimentary findings. Practical implications of the study are discussed. Key PointsPsychological states experienced by athletes prior to injured, best and worst performances were investigated retrospectively using a mixed methodology.Results indicate that retrospective emotional profiles before injured performance are closer to successful performance, than unsuccessful, and confirm differences between successful and unsuccessful performance, a finding that occurred using both methods.Future research should further examine the emotional antecedents of injury and that applied sport psychologists recognize the potential risk of injury associated with emotional profiles typically linked with best performance.

The present study investigated the influence of personality on exercise-induced mood changes. It was hypothesised that (a) exercise would be associated with significant mood enhancement across all personality types, (b) extroversion would be associated with positive mood and neuroticism with negative mood both pre- and post-exercise, and (c) personality measures would interact with exercise-induced mood changes. Participants were 90 female exercisers (M = 25.8 yr, SD = 9.0 yr) who completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) once and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) before and after a 60-minute exercise session. Median splits were used to group participants into four personality types: stable introverts (n = 25), stable extroverts (n = 20), neurotic introverts (n = 26), and neurotic extroverts (n = 19). Repeated measures MANOVA showed significant mood enhancement following exercise across all personality types. Neuroticism was associated with negative mood scores pre- and post-exercise but the effect of extroversion on reported mood was relatively weak. There was no significant interaction effect between exercise-induced mood enhancement and personality. In conclusion, findings lend support to the notion that exercise is associated with improved mood. However, findings show that personality did not influence this effect, although neuroticism was associated with negative mood. Key PointsResearch in general psychology has found that stable personality trait are associated changes in mood states. Ninety females exercisers completed a personality test and mood scales before and after exercise. Results indicated mood changes were not associated with personality, although neuroticism was associated with negative mood.

Establishing stability, defined as observing minimal measurement error in a test-retest assessment, is vital to validating psychometric tools. Correlational methods, such as Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa are tests of association or consistency, whereas stability or reproducibility (regarded here as synonymous) assesses the agreement between test-retest scores. Indexes of reproducibility using the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda & Nicholls, 1992) were investigated using correlational (Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa) methods, repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance, and calculating the proportion of agreement within a referent value of +/-1 as suggested by Nevill, Lane, Kilgour, Bowes, and Whyte (2001). Two hundred thirteen soccer players completed the TEOSQ on two occasions, 1 week apart. Correlation analyses indicated a stronger test-retest correlation for the Ego subscale than the Task subscale. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated stability for ego items but with significant increases in four task items. The proportion of test-retest agreement scores indicated that all ego items reported relatively poor stability statistics with test-retest scores within a range of +/-1, ranging from 82.7-86.9%. By contrast, all task items showed test-retest difference scores ranging from 92.5-99%, although further analysis indicated that four task subscale items increased significantly. Findings illustrated that correlational methods (Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa) are influenced by the range in scores, and calculating the proportion of agreement of test-retest differences with a referent value of +/-1 could provide additional insight into the stability of the questionnaire. It is suggested that the item-by-item proportion of agreement method proposed by Nevill et al. (2001) should be used to supplement existing methods and could be especially helpful in identifying rogue items in the initial stages of psychometric questionnaire validation.

The present study tested, both retrospectively and prospectively, exercise-induced mood changes among regular exercisers. Specifically, it examined the extent to which preferred exercise modality promoted greater mood benefits. A group of 25 exercise participants (M = 35.5 yr., SD = 10.5 yr.) took part in the study. All participants had exercised at least three times a week (M = 3.5, SD = 2.3) during the previous year. Participants completed a 14-item Exercise Preference Questionnaire to provide retrospective evaluations of their most- and least-preferred type of exercise. For the prospective investigation, participants completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) 15 minutes before and immediately after their most- and least-preferred exercise sessions. One week separated completion of each exercise session. Retrospective assessment of exercise-induced mood changes showed strong support for enhanced mood following the preferred mode of exercise. Also, as hypothesized, prospective results showed that mood enhancement was greater following the preferred exercise modality, but significant mood enhancement also occurred following the least-preferred modality among experienced exercisers. In conclusions, findings support the principle that exercise can provide psychological benefits to its participants, in the form of positive affective outcomes, something that appears to be enhanced by preferred exercise modality. Given the important public health implications of exercise adherence, future research should seek to further investigate the mechanisms of exercise-induced mood enhancement. Key PointsA great deal of exercise shows that exercise is associated with positive mood following exercise. Previous research has sought to determine whether one form of exercise improved mood states more than others.The present study investigated the extent to which personal preference of exercise modality influenced mood changes following exercise.Participants completed mood state scales before and after exercise.Results support the notion that exercise can provide psychological benefits to its participants, in the form of positive affective outcomes, something that appears to be enhanced by preferred exercise modality.

Golf has been recommended as a relatively risk-free form of exercise for an ageing population. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of playing a round of golf on mood states in recreational players. Ageing male golfers (N = 34; Age: M = 68.7, SD = 5.4 years) completed a mood measure immediately before and after an 18-hole round of golf. Distance walked per game was measured using a pedometer. Results indicate reported scores on Anger, Depression, and Fatigue increased and Vigor reduced following the game. However, it should be noted that although there was an increase in unpleasant mood states, this should be seen in the context of the overall mood profile, which was positive. Pedometer results indicated golfers walked a mean distance of 10.21 km (± 1.11). Results show participants of this age-group engaged in a meaningful exercise session and that mood scores deteriorated following play. Findings from the present study show that elderly golfers experienced mood profiles following golf similar to younger athletes following competition. For golf to be recommended as an activity for promoting physical activity among an aging population, the player's ability to regulate unpleasant mood states should be considered. Future research should investigate the effects of experiencing negative mood states following golf on motivation to participate. Key PointsFindings show ageing male golfers engaged in a meaningful exercise session and that mood scores deteriorated following play.Mood profiles before and after playing golf for elderly golfers were similar to younger athletes following competition.For golf to be recommended as an activity for promoting physical activity among an aging population, the player's ability to regulate unpleasant mood states should be considered.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of extreme environments on mood state changes in hypoxic conditions and cold conditions in comparison to baseline conditions. The research design involved participants completing a two-hour stationary cycle ergometer ride at a simulated altitude of 2,500 metres, O°C, and normal laboratory conditions at a pace equivalent of lactate threshold. Eight male elite cyclists (Age: M = 26.23 yrs., SD = 6.74) completed the hypoxia- normal cycling trials. Ten male highly trained cyclists (Age: M = 23.34 yrs., SD = 5.45) participated in the cold-normal trials. Mood was assessed before, after one hour, and after two hours using the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale. MANOVA results indicated no significant interaction effect for mood changes over time by environment condition (Wilks' Lambda = .73, p = .32, Eta(2) = .05), a significant main effect for mood changes over time (Wilks' Lambda = .61. p < .001, Partial Eta(2) = .15) and a significant main effect for differences in mood by condition (Wilks' Lambda = .72, p < .000, Partial Eta(2) = .15). Results indicated that increased anger, depression and fatigue were associated with performing at altitude, particularly after two hours of exercise. Collectively, results lend support to the notion that altitude is associated with negative mood states, although it should be noted that environment conditions did not affect the change in mood states over time. We suggest that further research is needed to explore mechanisms that individuals use to regulate negative mood during strenuous exercise. Key PointsThe present study found that mood state changes were more pronounced when performing at a simulated altitude of 2,500 metres than performing in the cold and normal laboratory conditions at a pace equivalent of lactate threshold.Findings from the present study indicate that that altitude is associated with negative mood states,Results show that mood states change during extreme exercise with increases most notably in fatigue and reductions in vigor. It should be noted that environment conditions did not affect the change in mood states over time.We suggest that further research is needed to explore mechanisms that individuals use to regulate negative mood during strenuous exercise.

Theory testing and construct measurement are inextricably linked. To date, no published research has looked at the factorial validity of an existing eating attitude inventory for use with exercisers. The Eating Attitude Test (EAT) is a 26-item measure that yields a single index of disordered eating attitudes. The original factor analysis showed three interrelated factors: Dieting behavior (13-items), oral control (7-items), and bulimia nervosa-food preoccupation (6-items). The primary purpose of the study was to examine the factorial validity of the EAT among a sample of exercisers. The second purpose was to investigate relationships between eating attitudes scores and selected psychological constructs. In stage one, 598 regular exercisers completed the EAT. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the single-factor, a three-factor model, and a four-factor model, which distinguished bulimia from food pre-occupation. CFA of the single-factor model (RCFI = 0.66, RMSEA = 0.10), the three-factor-model (RCFI = 0.74; RMSEA = 0.09) showed poor model fit. There was marginal fit for the 4-factor model (RCFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.06). Results indicated five-items showed poor factor loadings. After these 5-items were discarded, the three models were re-analyzed. CFA results indicated that the single-factor model (RCFI = 0.76, RMSEA = 0.10) and three-factor model (RCFI = 0.82, RMSEA = 0.08) showed poor fit. CFA results for the four-factor model showed acceptable fit indices (RCFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.06). Stage two explored relationships between EAT scores, mood, self-esteem, and motivational indices toward exercise in terms of self-determination, enjoyment and competence. Correlation results indicated that depressed mood scores positively correlated with bulimia and dieting scores. Further, dieting was inversely related with self-determination toward exercising. Collectively, findings suggest that a 21-item four-factor model shows promising validity coefficients among exercise participants, and that future research is needed to investigate eating attitudes among samples of exercisers. Key PointsValidity of psychometric measures should be thoroughly investigated. Researchers should not assume that a scale validation on one sample will show the same validity coefficients in a different population.The Eating Attitude Test is a commonly used scale. The present study shows a revised 21-item scale was suitable for exercisers.Researchers using the Eating Attitude Test should use subscales of Dieting, Oral control, Food pre-occupation, and Bulimia.Future research should involve qualitative techniques and interview exercise participants to explore the nature of eating attitudes.

Competition at elite level can require athletes to perform optimally in extreme environmental conditions. This review focuses on mood responses in such conditions and proposes practical guidelines for those working with athletes. Different environments are considered, including altitude and extreme heat and cold. Performing in extreme heat, cold or at altitude can produce a stress response characterized by increased negative mood and relatively poor performance. Positive adaptations to extreme conditions can be accelerated, but the rate of adaptation appears to be highly individualized. Monitoring mood responses to training under normal conditions provides a basis for identifying the psychological effects of extreme conditions. It is suggested that practitioners carefully monitor the interplay between vigour, fatigue and depressed mood. Reductions in vigour and increases in fatigue are normal responses to hard training, but other aspects of mood disturbance, especially symptoms of depressed mood--however small--may be indicative of a maladaptive response, and practitioners should consider intervening when such symptoms first appear.

The aim of the present study was to examine the factorial validity of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., 1999) among adolescent athletes using confirmatory factor analysis. The TOPS was designed to assess eight psychological strategies used in competition (i.e. activation, automaticity, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery, negative thinking, relaxation and self-talk,) and eight used in practice (the same strategies except negative thinking is replaced by attentional control). National-level athletes (n = 584) completed the 64-item TOPS during training camps. Fit indices provided partial support for the overall measurement model for the competition items (robust comparative fit index = 0.92, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.88, root mean square error of approximation = 0.05) but minimal support for the training items (robust comparative fit index = 0.86, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.81, root mean square error of approximation = 0.06). For the competition items, the automaticity, goal-setting, relaxation and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, emotional control, imagery and negative thinking scales did not. For the practice items, the attentional control, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, automaticity and relaxation scales did not. Overall, it appears that the factorial validity of the TOPS for use with adolescents is questionable at present and further development is required.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the factorial validity of the Brunel Mood Scale, which measures anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor, for water-skiers. Participants were 345 water-skiers (age range 16 to 39 years, men: n=311, women: n=34) who completed the scale approximately 1 hour before a water-skiing competition. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated support for the validity of the 6-factor model, with a Comparative Fit Index of .90 and Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation of .07. Internal consistency coefficients were above the .70 criterion. It is suggested that the Brunel Mood Scale shows factorial validity for use with water-skiers and that researchers should continue to assess validation of the Brunel Mood Scale with other measures and with specific appropriate samples.

The present study compared the predictive effectiveness of mood states and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule models of mood. 38 junior high school students completed the Brunel University Mood Scale to assess anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor and the PANAS 5 min. before a fitness test. Performance was self-referenced by comparing fitness test scores with a previous best score assessed four weeks earlier. Participants who equaled or bettered their previous best score were classified as Successful. Those who did not match their previous score were classified as Unsuccessful. Discriminant function analysis indicated that 31 participants (81.6%) could be correctly classified as Successful or Unsuccessful based on preperformance Brunel Mood scores. Discriminant function coefficients indicated that Confusion, Fatigue, and Vigor contributed significantly to the discrimination. For the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, discriminant function analysis indicated that 26 participants (68.4%) could be correctly classified as Successful or Unsuccessful, with Negative Affect and Positive Affect contributing significantly to the discrimination. Summarizing negative mood into a single factor may lead to a substantial loss of information. Research on mood and performance relationships should use the mood dimensions assessed in the Brunel University Mood Scale rather than the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

The present study set in the United Kingdom examined the predictive validity of variables used to select graduate students into postgraduate management programs at a UK business school. 303 postgraduate students completed a cognitive ability test (MD5, Mental Ability Test), a questionnaire to assess perceptions of self-efficacy to succeed on the program, and reported their performance on their first (undergraduate) degree. Students completed these measures at the start of the programs. Each program comprised 12 modules, which all students were required to complete successfully. Students' performance was measured by the average grade obtained over the 12 modules. Multiple regression indicated that only 22% of the variance (Adjusted R2 = .22, p<.001) in students' performance was predicted significantly by cognitive ability scores. Results show that neither performance on first degree nor scores for self-efficacy showed a significant relationship to the criterion measure. Findings from the present study suggest that in the UK, the use of cognitive ability tests may play a significant role in the selection of students into postgraduate programs. Nonsignificant self-efficacy and performance relationships are ascribed to unclear knowledge of the demands of the program. We suggest that there is need for further research to examine factors related to performance.

This study examined the influence of postcompetition depressed mood on the intensity of other mood dimensions assessed by the Profile of Mood States and relationships between mood and satisfaction with performance. 195 distance runners completed the Brunel Mood Scale which is a 24-item measure assessing anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor, and a Performance Satisfaction questionnaire immediately after running a 10-mi. race. To examine the proposed moderating effect of depression, participants were separated into a No-depression group of 133 and a Depressed Mood group of 62. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the Depressed Mood group reported significantly higher scores on Anger, Contusion, Fatigue, and Tension and lower Vigor scores than the No-depression group t ratios indicated that poorer performance was associated with higher Depression scores. Standard multiple regression to predict Performance Satisfaction scores from postcompetition scores on Anger, Confusion, Fatigue, Tension, and Vigor in the No-depression group indicated that only 1% (Adj. R2=.01, p>.05) of the variance was explained. By contrast, in the Depressed Mood group, the same mood dimensions predicted 27.5% of the variance in Performance Satisfaction scores (Adj. R2=.275, p<.01) with Anger (Beta=.63, p<.001), and Confusion (Beta=.44, p<.05) being significant predictors. Present findings support the notion that depressed mood is related to the intensity of other mood dimensions assessed by the Profile of Mood States and moderates relationships between those scores and performance satisfaction.