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In 2016, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted General Comment 22 on the right to sexual and reproductive health, which affirmed that states are obliged to adopt "appropriate legislative measures" to achieve the full realization of sexual and reproductive health and rights. It affirmed that the right to sexual and reproductive health is an integral part of the right to health and recognizes abortion services as a component part of the right to health. While a liberal legislation is in itself a step towards the realization of this obligation, in this article we explore a number of potential barriers to abortion access in an autonomy-based legal model using the Danish legal model as the case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the slow progress of liberalization of real estate internationalization (REI) in Turkey. Drawing on insights from cultural political economy (CPE), it builds on a qualitative analysis of parliamentary deliberations and argues that real estate acquisition by foreigners in Turkey was highly contentious because of the struggle between competing imaginaries on liberalization, with the neoliberal-transformative imaginaries of the ANAP, the AKP, and their affiliates in the tourism and construction sectors on one side and the national-defensive imaginaries of opposition parties and the bureaucratic elite on the other. By forming a coalition with the Constitutional Court, opposition parties were successful in preventing the adoption of neoliberal-transformative imaginaries for almost thirty years. This policy area could be liberalized only after the 2010 referendum, which allowed the government to restructure the composition of the Court, leading to executive aggrandizement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do democratic transitions affect trade policy? A well-known finding is that transitions in developing countries produce lower tariff rates. But prior work implicitly assumes that all forms of democratic transitions are alike. There is less reason to expect trade liberalization to follow transitions led by political elites, which constitute roughly half of all democratic transitions in recent decades. Analysis of industry-level tariff rates indicates that elite-led transitions are not consistently followed by trade liberalization, while transitions initiated by the general public are associated with tariff rate reductions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do trade reforms impact households in different parts of the income distribution? This paper presents a new database, the Household Impacts of Tariffs data set, which contains harmonized household survey and tariff data for 54 low- and middle-income countries. The data cover highly disaggregated information on household budget and income shares for 53 agricultural products, wage labor income, non-farm enterprise sales and transfers, as well as spending on manufacturing and services. Using a stylized model of the first-order impacts of import tariffs on household real income, this paper quantifies the welfare implications of agricultural trade protection. On average, unilateral elimination of agricultural tariffs would increase household incomes by 2.50 percentage points. Import tariffs have highly heterogeneous effects across countries and within countries across households, consumers, and income earners; the average standard deviation of the gains from trade within a country is 1.01 percentage points. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The relationship between capital account liberalization and economic growth has been a fervently discussed subject among economists and policy-makers. The role of institutions is imperious to comprehensively investigate the impact of financial openness on growth. The objective of the study is to inspect the nexus between financial liberalization and economic growth after incorporating the contribution of institutional quality. Methodology: A panel of data on 17 emerging market economies (EMEs) is used for the period 1995-2019. We employ the GMM technique by using different de facto and de jure measures of financial liberalization along with institutional variables. Findings: The empirical results illustrate that better quality institutions strengthen the connection between capital account liberalization and output growth in the emerging World. Implications: The policymakers should focus on the more beneficial nature of financial liberalization such as FDI. Also, the policy should be aiming at availing the services of efficient human resources with proper institutional infrastructure.

The paper is devoted to research of the impact of gradual liberalization of aviation market on the country's air transport industry development and on formation of external economic components of the country's GDP connected to it directly: export and import of air transport services. The study of the relationship between the operation indicators of air transport and formed external economic effects has been conducted using comparative, correlative and regression analysis based on the statistical data of Ukraine, which has its own air transport industry and is on the path of aviation liberalization. A strong dependence of the export of air transport services on the total number of international flights and its passengers was revealed. This determines the feasibility of tracking the external economic effects in the design of changes on directions and means of further development of country's air transport sector.

The major goal of this paper is to focus on the linkage between sea transportation, trade liberalization and industrial development in the context of carbon dioxide emission. With this respect, it is attempted to analyze the effects of independent variables on the dependent variable carbon dioxide emission for China by using annual data ranging from 1960 to 2019 with the help of econometric methods such as fully modified least square, dynamic ordinary least square, canonical co-integrating regression, autoregressive distributed lag bound test and generalized moments method. According to the results of fully modified least square, dynamic ordinary least square and canonical co-integrating regression models, there is a significant long-term relationship between sea transportation, trade liberalization, industrial development and carbon dioxide emissions. On the other hand, short term autoregressive distributed lag bound test estimation results reveal that the main determinants of carbon dioxide emission in the short-run are industrial development and sea transportation. The empirical tests reveal important results for policy-makers in China.

The paper is devoted to research of the impact of gradual liberalization of aviation market on the country's air transport industry development and on formation of external economic components of the country's GDP connected to it directly: export and import of air transport services. The study of the relationship between the operation indicators of air transport and formed external economic effects has been conducted using comparative, correlative and regression analysis based on the statistical data of Ukraine, which has its own air transport industry and is on the path of aviation liberalization. A strong dependence of the export of air transport services on the total number of international flights and its passengers was revealed. This determines the feasibility of tracking the external economic effects in the design of changes on directions and means of further development of country's air transport sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article concerns freedom and financial markets. First, I consider the republican case for liberalization, extending Robert Taylor's economic model of republicanism to financial markets. This case adopts what I call a "philosopher-king" approach to political theory, arguing by reference an ideal or first-best set of policies or reforms. Then, I investigate the negative externalities of several decades of financial market liberalization, including the erosion of political accountability and the growing concentration of political and economic power in the hands of those best suited to profit from the rise of finance. From this "political economy" perspective, the impact of liberalization is clear: we paid for greater access to credit with political and economic domination. In republican terms, we traded freedom for credit. My analysis, moreover, has implications for republican debates on freedom and the market. In second-best worlds, where reforms will almost certainly be incremental, shaping the balance of power in ways that impact future policy, judging reforms by reference to a vision of domination-free markets will often suggest policies that make individuals less free. The political economy approach is far more relevant to debates about which economic institutions further or hinder freedom as non-domination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current article debated over the Brazilian trade policy, bringing evidence about the impacts of the liberal reformation done at the beginning of the 1990s. Complementary the study discusses different points of view on the literature on impacts a liberalisation can have on the national economies as well as the evidence of the benefits of expanding the international trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The up-to-date terminological definition of transformation processes in the global energy market has been investigated. The researchers have been summarized the methodological framework of studying the global energy market on the basis of model approach by application of provisions of the theory of branch markets ("Structure-Conduct-Performance-Regulation" model, SCPR), the theory of transformation of social and economic systems, the concept of sustainable development, which contributed to market-determined, componential, organizational and innovational and technological features of transformation. The key parameters of transformation processes in the global energy market as a result of changing social values in the paradigm of sustainable development, the necessary preconditions, drivers and incentives, techniques, the main directions of transformation have been identified. The experts have been identified the main stakeholders who honestly promote or hinder the transformations, as well as incentives for transformation by national and international regulators and the emergence of new business models and ecosystems. Methodological approaches to the application of the basic SCP model with its adaptation to study the transformation of the global energy market in areas, dynamics, impact, response and socially significant effects have been fixed. The global trends of energy market transformation towards liberalization on the basis of demonopolization, competitive market patterns, state and institutional tools have been studied. The irreversibility of transformations of the global energy market has been proved, their sources and key factors have been determined (demonopolization, reduction of entry/exit barriers, decentralization, liberalization, corporate integration, diversification, and greening). The structural transformations of the energy market through the prism of changes in the structure of energy consumption, the level of market concentration, international mergers and acquisitions have been analyzed. The influence of qualitative and quantitative changes in the market structure on the transformation of stakeholder behavior (change of pricing models, growth of segmentation, reduction of market power of natural monopolies, growth of global intra-industry competition, and stimulation of implementing innovations) has been substantiated. The term of "regulation" in the adapted model of SCPR in the context of measures of influence, stimulation, motivation, optimization has been determined. The focus is made on the importance of developing and implementing the ecological paradigm of the global transformation of the energy sector as a basis for sustainable development in the fourth energy transition using the cutting-edge technologies and models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between drug use and sexual practice is complex. Significant focus has been placed on risky practices, yet the broader associations between drug use and sexual activities remain elusive outside such contexts. This is despite similar trends of liberalizing attitudes and practices being identified in each area, theorized as the normalization of recreational drug use and the liberalization of consensual sexual practice. In this article, we draw on convenience sample surveys of 966 festival-goers at an English music festival in 2016 and 2019 to assess prevalence of polydrug use and to examine whether people who consume illicit drugs are more likely to engage in sexual behaviors considered more liberal than the traditional norm. We show that people who reported polydrug use in the last 12 months were significantly more likely to engage in non-traditional sexual behaviors, including sex with a friend and anal sex, in that same time period. In combining and comparing two usually distinct discourses, this exploratory study suggests that the normalization of drugs and the liberalization of consensual sexual practices are related and can be conceptualized as part of a broader societal acceptance and cultural accommodation of illicit drug use and particular sexual practices as leisure activities, despite markedly different policy and legal contexts for each activity. We conclude that the concept of "normalization" may be more appropriate to understanding changes in sexuality than "liberalization" in the context of "leisure sex" and call for further cross-disciplinary research on drugs and sex using this approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2020, Venezuela has gone through a process of autocratic consolidation. This consolidation has taken place amid substantial economic reforms that have allowed the government of Nicolás Maduro survive sustained international and domestic pressure. In this article, we analyze this process of autocratic consolidation. We explain how, by focusing on the establishment of an "interim-government" in 2019, the Venezuelan opposition has been unable to coordinate an inclusive strategy to successfully bring about a democratic breakthrough and instead became further divided. We address the economic transformations witnessed in the country as policies of fragmented liberalization through opaque privatizations and an uneven multi-currency system, which have resulted from a deep recession, the collapse of the oil economy and sanctions. Finally, we discuss the implications of these political and economic processes for the social fabric of the country. We highlight that despite the government's attempts at criminalizing autonomous activism, the relative strengths of civil society allowed the survival of minimal democratic spaces that have spurred dialogue and resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decades Brazil has become a global agri-food powerhouse. The article interrogates the shape and its stability of revealed comparative advantages in 46 of its agri-food products for the period 1995-2017. The results support the argument that the Brazil's agri-food trade was formed by comparative advantages of specific agri-food sectors. The results show that the external shape of agri-food specialization has strengthened, first since early 2000s and second when the trade shifted more towards China. The pattern was stable according revealed comparative (dis)advantage of particular products, more changes occurred in each product's score and in ranking of products. Products without initial comparative advantage seem to remain uncompetitive whilst the products with strong initial comparative advantage continue to be competitive. The persistence in distribution has increased. This suggests, the shape of Brazil's revealed comparative advantage in agri-food trade has evolved towards its finite structure (ceteris paribus). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of legal artificial intelligence is bringing about substantial changes in the practice of law that pose huge deontological challenges. One of the most important is building a universal deontology, capable of giving efficient answers to an increasingly globalized legal market. Furthermore, the irruption of legaltech companies that provide automated legal services is promoting a liberalization of the legal market that reveals the inadequacies of the deontological approach and calls for a new regulatory scheme of legal services. Finally, the article shows the potential of legal artificial intelligence to dissolve some basic categories of the deontology of legal profession, as well as the impact of certain AI tools on some lawyer’s ethical duties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objectives of the present paper are to elaborate on the EUChina Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI), its provisions, advantages and potential risks, and to detach various standpoints of relevant actors, related to this agreement. The ad referendum CAI, complemented by additional documents by the European Commission, underscores that it goes well beyond the investment protection issues, usually addressed in bilateral investment treaties and it additionally includes rules for: a better market access for the EU companies, a fairer investment environment in China and sustainable development. Despite its support by the European Commission, there has been formulated a strong criticism of the deal from various directions, both European and non-European. Besides, the conclusion of the pact induced not only tensions at the extra-EU level, but also intra-EU. The largest two obstacles to the adoption of the treaty are the conflicting interests of the EU Member States and the opposition of the European Parliament. Therefore a common position is needed inside the EU. The research is complemented by an analysis of the broader circumstances of rising FDI protectionism worldwide, under the increased complexity of the system of international relations and recent trends, harmful to multilateralism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European rail industry, to enable competition in the market, entrants should be granted access to a large set of complementary services, beyond access to the tracks. For an efficient and effective entry, temporary access to quasi-essential complementary assets like rolling stock, mechanical maintenance workshops, data, schedules, etc. is required. In the liberalized rail sector, several observed anticompetitive practices involve distorted access to these quasiessential facilities. Therefore, competition agencies must deal with litigation between the incumbent and new entrants. Most cases have been settled, resulting in commitments from the incumbent. We argue that such transitory and case-by-case remedies fail to produce favorable conditions for a secure and efficient entry. Thus, we propose to systematize such remedies through asymmetric and enduring ex-ante regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to assess the market power of the state-owned incumbents within the open-access lines in Europe and compare it among themselves. This article investigates three open-access lines in Europe: Prague-Ostrava line (in the Czech Republic), Vienna-Salzburg line (in Austria) and Bratislava-Košice (in Slovakia). The market power assessment of each of the state-owned incumbents on these lines is based on their market shares, average revenues per passenger-kilometre, whether there is a vertical separation of the infrastructure owner and railway service provider and the role of state intervention. Our results show that the state-owned incumbent in the Czech Republic on the Prague-Ostrava line has the lowest market power in comparison to other investigated open-access lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Good set price in MTPL(motor third part liability) insurance is vital to the survival of insurers. MTPL insurance in the Republic of Srpska is legal liability insurance, the premium system is determined administratively, and premium of this kind of insurance occupies the largest share in the portfolio of insurance companies. The main problems in the functioning of the sector MTPL insurance are: unfair competition, violation of the premium automobile liability insurance system, large proportion of transactions with related parties, the lack of transparency, underdeveloped systems of internal control and audit, and poor cost management. Determination of tariffs in liberalized markets, the work done by each insurance company individually, with the application of mathematical and statistical methods, in order to adequately determine what premiums and adjust the riskiness of each insured. In the process of introducing a system of free pricing of automobile insurance, it is necessary to provide a number of conditions, the most important are: to establish a reliable statistical basis for the formation of tariffs; improvement of controls; and compliance with European legislation. Some countries have had major problems after the introduction of liberalization of tariffs on MTPL insurance market, while others through the process of liberalization with minor problems. The liberalization of tariffs potentialy creates certain hazards, but also benefits for the market MTPL insurance Republic of Srpska. In the current political, legal and economic situation in which the Republic of Srpska, the most appropriate solution would be partial and gradual market liberalization MTPL insurance.

Agricultural liberalization continued controversy. Intensification of agriculture industry in Indonesia has not been able to welfare of farmers. Thus, the application of agricultural technology is always faced to the welfare of farmers. It reviews the debate both of them by perspective of structuralism to found a positive correlation between them. This condition is to offers an alternative solution for industrial agriculture versus the welfare of farmers.

The article is concerned with researching the status of the regulatory legislation on the foreign economic activities in Ukraine, analyzing legislative changes in the sphere of foreign economic operations, defining their causes and predicting the consequences. The creation of favourable legislative and tax conditions in the area of export-import operations will facilitate increase in the volume of foreign investment in Ukraine, which, in turn, will stimulate construction of new production enterprises, increase in the number of jobs and income growth of the population, and, accordingly, growth of the national economy as a whole. Works of Ukrainian and foreign scholars, aimed at researching problematic issues in the sphere of foreign economic activity are considered. The experience of other countries’ transition to the system of free floating of capital is analyzed and the existing risks of liberalization of the legislation on currency are defined, which are mainly dependent on the country that implements it. In order to introduce a liberalization of such kind, a country must achieve a sufficient level of economic and institutional development, otherwise the country can be exposed to crisis developments. Key points of legislative changes that are needed to ensure free floating of capital are identified. The reasons for the liberalization of currency legislation are defined, and the impact of the consequences of its introduction on the activities of enterprises and the economy of Ukraine as a whole are forrecasted. Changes in the legal instruments are analyzed and the consequences of their introduction are defined. Further directions of reforming the regulatory acts in the sphere of foreign economic activity, which provide for the easing of currency settlements, are proposed.

The Editorial Board of Comparative Politics Russia publishes a proceedings of the Roundtable “Prospects for Chinese Reforms in a Changed World.” Part II: “Slowdown of Chinese Economy, the Trade War with the United States, an Assessment of possibilities to Stimulate the Growth of China's Opportunities”, dedicated to the results of an analysis of the dynamics and current state of the process of economic and political reform in China. Researchers from Moscow State Institute of International Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Institute of Far Eastern Studies of Russian Academy of Sciences, the Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Institute of Oriental Studies of Russian Academy of Sciences, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Primakov National Research Institute of World Economy and International Relations, General Staff Academy of the Russian Federation’s Armed Forces, Russian Institute for Strategic Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University. Leading Russian experts discussed the new goals of Chinese reforms to gain world leadership in science and technology, the possibility of achieving these goals, their impact on China’s world standing, and the consequences of confrontation with the United States. The question also discussed are; whether would China increase tension with the West ‒ in the direction of expanding openness and liberalizing the economy, or towards increasing autarky in the spirit of “self-reliance”? What factors might prompt the Chinese leadership to undertake political reform? The experts also discussed the environment for the emergence of “Chinese model”, which can be offered as an alternative to the Western model to other countries and the possibility of Russia borrowing any components of the “Chinese model” at the current stage of development, as well as of the other post-Soviet countries. It also analyzed the likelihood that a new economic “pole” of the modern world will form around China, as well as possible benefits and threats for those who will try to join it.

Trade in services is becoming increasingly important in the international economy. That is so due to the economic and social development, as well as technological development. The European Union is involved in the processes of liberalizing trade in services on a global scale, as well as undertakes a number of activities regarding the liberalization of the provision of services between its Member States. The aim of the paper is to assess changes in the European trade in services in the context of intra-EU and external EU trade. The article discusses issues concerning the specifics and determinants of international trade in services, analysis of intra- and extra-EU trade in particular types of services, and whether changes in the structure of the European trade in services result from liberalization activities undertaken by the EU institutions. Analysis, taken for the period 2008–2016 using the WTO statistics, indicate that despite the efforts made, the development of international trade in services in the EU depends primarily on economic and technological factors, rather than on institutional factors. Especially that there are numerous barriers to the free movement of services on the EU internal market.

To analyse farmer market access following European dairy-market liberalization, this article provides a novel, institutional and spatially explicit approach to contract theory. Contractual reciprocal agreements, bargaining power, the regulatory framework, the regional market structure, quality differentiation and resource pooling are considered. The multi-scalar conceptual framework developed allows for shedding light on the value creation and sharing process in supply chains. A comparative case study highlights that market liberalization and contractual relations question the farmers’ collective rights and responsibilities in supply chains and production basins. Depending on the regional production model, viable strategies differ; concentration and economies of scale is required for a generic market while specific quality or the provision of environmental services can support more diversified production models. Public policies can support farmers by endorsing large regional producer organizations and framework contracts and by favouring information transparency. CAP national and regional orientation is another manner by which to support the competitiveness of regional supply chains, but it questions the purpose of the "common"

The Editorial Board of Comparative Politics Russia publishes the proceedings of the roundtable “Prospects for Chinese Reforms in a Changed World.” Part I: “External Context of Reforms, Chinese-American Relations, Discussions on Economic Liberalization and Evaluation of Reforms Deepening in China,” devoted to the whole range of issues related to the results and prospects of the 40-year period of reforms and openness policy in the PRC. Researchers from the Moscow State Institute of International Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Institute of Far Eastern Studies of Russian Academy of Sciences, The Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Institute of Oriental Studies of Russian Academy of Sciences, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Primakov National Research Institute of World Economy and International Relations, General Staff Academy of the Russian Federation’s Armed Forces, The Russian Institute for Strategic Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University. Leading Russian experts discussed the external context of the reforms, the nature of economic liberalization, the consequences of the rejection of “hiding capacity”, the possibility of easing tensions in Chinese-American relations, China’s “capitulation” on American terms, as well as prospects for economic reforms in China and Chinese economic development in the distant future.

The aim of the article is to study the theoretical concepts of the development and formation of electricity exchanges in the process of the energy sector liberalization as a necessary component of transformation of the global economy. The article analyzes the evolution of the formation of exchange markets in the global economy and identifies the processes that led to the appearance of a particular product on exchanges. The liberalization of the global energy market and its influence on further development of exchange trade are studied. Modern microeconomic theories are considered, in particular, theory of market structures, mechanism design theory, theory of industrial organization and auction theory, to confirm the laws governing the formation of electricity exchanges in the process of liberalization of this sphere. The paper identifies six successive stages of the transformation of electricity markets, which reflect the transition from monopoly to competitive electricity exchange markets: 1) industrialization and urbanization; 2) globalization; 3) monopolization and centralization of energy supply; 4) reorganization of the electricity market through transition from monopoly to competitive markets; 5) liberalization; 6) acquisition by electricity of characteristics of exchange goods.

The world’s population becoming double in the last 50-60 years, the increased differences in the levels of development recorded by different areas of the planet, and the accentuating free movement of people, make migration an implacable phenomenon in the contemporary era. Decision makers in rich countries need to realize that immigrants are more than just pawns on a chessboard. In this paper, we have tried to tackle a number of important aspects of the phenomenon of globalization, such as: the migration causes, the beneficial and less beneficial effects of the international movement of people, the characteristics of migration in the EU and the difficult situation of Romania as a result of the emigration of an impressive number of citizens. Praised by some people and criticized by others, stimulated by some and blocked by others, international labor migration has become an everyday phenomenon nowadays. The aim of this paper is to emphasize the implacable nature of international labor migration and to highlight the dimensions and implications of this phenomenon in the EU and, implicitly, in Romania.

This paper examines an assessment of the level of air transport services liberalization in Australia in order to generate recommendations on what key market access features of Air Services Agreements should be revised to reflect the changes in air transport characteristics, including the increase in air cargo traffic during the COVID-19 period. The different variants of the key market access features of ASA, levels of air transport liberalization and the extent of air transport service liberalization between Australia and 104 partner countries were analysed using descriptive study, comparison analysis and the ALI index. The ALI index is calculated for four different weighting schemes. Passenger capacity in 41 bilateral agreements contain restrictions of frequency, capacity and aircraft type. The analysis of cooperative arrangements indicated that Australia has a single aviation market only with New Zealand. The cargo capacity analysis identified different types of capacity restrictions based on weekly cargo service, volume, destinations, designated airline and aircraft types. In conclusion, cargo capacity analysis illustrates that the level of liberalization is high, but the air services agreements between Australia and other countries in the first and second cargo capacity groups should be revised to reflect the increase in air cargo traffic during COVID-19.

Market liberalization is a great contemporary trend in many fields of economy. Formation of a united railway market in the EU leads to liberalization of railway passenger transport, what ganges the entrepreneurship strategies of transport companies. Liberalized transport market, where the transport demand is meeting with transport offer, is evolving dynamically. The purpose of market transformation is sustainable economic development besides increasing quality of transportation and people mobility. Due to market liberalization, transport companies tend to attach more importance to economic aspects. Basic objective of each transport company is to decrease the costs and increase revenues from transportation. Private railway passenger operators want to increase their market share together with national railway passenger transport companies therefore the quality of passenger transportation is getting higher, which positively influences the attractiveness of railway passenger transport. Railway passenger transport, as important part of transport system connected with mobility of people, is evaluated from operating- economic point of view. Operation part means technology, what consists of timetable, vehicle circulation, the run of the train requisites and passengers flows analysis. Internal costs calculation and revenues quantification represent economic part of the evaluation. The paper is focused on current trends of entrepreneurship in railway passenger transport market. From managerial, operational and economical point of view, there are described some ways, how to make the railway passenger transport system more effective and make the entire transport system more attractive for traveling public.

This study aims to analyze the free trade agreement (FTA) between Indonesia and the European Union (EU) through Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). Suppose it improves economic relations while creating benefits for both. In 2012, Indonesia and the EU began negotiation on the CEPA. The CEPA has been presented as having the ability to help both parties take full advantage of unexploited economic relations. The CEPA is a comprehensive agreement discussing various aspects of economic relations. It is beyond being a simple agreement for removing trade barriers. The liberalization of international trade in goods remains to be an important aspect of the CEPA, investment promotion and facilitation, the improvement of trade in services, and the creation of improved competition policy practices would promote greater economic relations. CEPA contributes Indonesia economics development, i.e.: to promote increased trade between Indonesia and the EU. It focuses on trade liberalization boosting the trade relations intensity by lowering trade barrier and by facilitating trade; to boost trade and investments in services; to enhance technological advance and skills transfer in the goods, services and investment. A free trade agreement between the EU and Indonesia provides a stable, balanced,and long-term framework to challenge economics integration.

Abstract. Broadening the scope of economic interests, together with the involvement of the strategic partner to resolve security issues, brings the dialogue between Ukraine and Turkey to a new level. This intensified negotiations on the establishment of a free trade area and the implementation of joint projects in the defense industry, cultural and humanitarian spheres. Thus, the study of priority areas of cooperation between Ukraine and Turkey in the Black Sea region for the effective realization of Ukraine’s geostrategic interests is becoming topical. The purpose of the article is to study the peculiarities of the economic partnership between Ukraine and Turkey, to calculate the impact and to determine the advantages and prospects of a deeper bilateral trade liberalization. The methodology is based on assessment of export specialization; the characterization of the relative advantages by the RXA coefficient; the impact assessment of bilateral trade on economic development through a descriptive gravity model. The study found that high tariff barriers are now applied to Ukrainian exporters in the Turkish market. Total exports from Ukraine to Turkey declined by more than 30 per cent from 2011 to 2019, while the low value-added products dominate in the highly concentrated structure of export flows. On the contrary, Turkish exports to Ukraine are quite diversified. The top ten exports include machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and knitwear. Ukrainian grains, oilseeds and oils, iron and steel, ore and rail transport have comparative advantages in the Turkish market. The military-industrial sector and IT are promising areas for export development and investment cooperation in the Ukrainian economy. Bilateral trade surpluses are in favor of Ukraine. The economic development of Ukraine significantly influences the volume of bilateral trade, according to the results of the descriptive gravity model. A $1 increase in Ukraine’s GDP will lead to an increase in bilateral trade by $0.8. This makes Ukraine much more interested in entering the Turkish market. Keywords: strategic partnership, free trade area, international trade, exports, customs tariffs, liberalization. JEL Classification F13 Formulas: 3; fig.: 4; tabl.: 2; bibl.: 21.