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A secondary analysis was performed on preliminary data from an ongoing cross-cultural study on assortative pairing. Independently sampled pairs of opposite- sex romantic partners and of same-sex friends rated themselves and each other on Life History (LH) strategy and mate value. Data were collected in local bars, clubs, coffeehouses, and other public places from three different cultures: Tucson, Arizona; Hermosillo, Sonora; and San Jose, Costa Rica. The present analysis found that slow LH individuals assortatively pair with both sexual and social partners more strongly than fast LH individuals. We interpret this phenomenon as representing (1) an adaptation for preserving coadapted genomes in slow LH strategists to maintain high copying fidelity genetic replication while producing a lower number of offspring in stable, predictable, and controllable environments and (2) a bet-hedging adaptation in fast LH strategists, favoring the genetic diversification of a higher number of offspring in unstable, unpredictable, and uncontrollable environments.

Critics of court mandated divorce mediation have raised awareness of the need for screening measures to assess intimate partner abuse. This study validates a new instrument that is a revised version of the Partner Abuse Scales developed by Walter Hudson in the 1990s. The Relationship Behavior Rating Scale (RBRS) correlates highly with the original scales and subscales developed from the original and RBRS items have equally high reliability. The new scale is a reliable measure for intimate partner abuse in divorce mediation.

Attachment style and communication style have been shown in previous research to predict relationship satisfaction. We hypothesized that the ultimate cause underlying the relationship among attachment style, communication style, and relationship satisfaction is Life History Strategy (LHS). Furthermore, we hypothesized that LHS would not only predict relationship satisfaction indirectly through a couple’s attachment style and communication style, but would also predict relationship satisfaction directly. Two structural equation models were constructed to model and test each of these hypotheses. The first showed that the indirect causal pathways from LHS to attachment style, attachment style to communication style, and communication style to relationship satisfaction predicted 16% of the variance in relationship satisfaction. The second added a causal pathway directly from LHS to relationship satisfaction which reduced the estimate for the influence of communication style on relationship satisfaction and increased the total variance predicted in relationship satisfaction to 60%. These results challenge the notion that it is primarily the communication between two romantic partners which influences their relationship outcome by proposing that their LHS may be influential: (1) indirectly through their attachment style and communication style; and (2) directly upon relationship satisfaction.

Ao longo do tempo, a maneira como se entende um determinado assunto passa por modificações através da pesquisa científica. Na maioria das vezes, essas mudanças causam pequenas diferenças na estrutura total do tópico em questão. Outras vezes, entretanto, ocorrem mudanças revolucionárias que não só alteram a compreensão do assunto em si, mas promovem a abertura de diferentes perspectivas que podem desencadear o início de novas etapas de interpretações e de novos caminhos de conhecimento. Exemplo disso foram os estudos de Gregor Johann Mendel que levaram à descoberta de leis da hereditariedade que, por sua vez, revolucionaram a biologia e traçaram as bases da genética. Em algumas situações, as mudanças não só modificam a forma de pensar, mas também têm implicações práticas ao melhorar a qualidade de vida de muitos seres humanos. No seu livro A Estrutura de Revoluções Científicas, Thomas Kuhn se refere às ruturas nessa evolução científica como "mudanças de paradigma", um termo que hoje é usado de uma forma genérica para descrever uma modificação profunda em nossos pontos de referência. O paradigma de que o estágio adulto da Wuchereria bancrofti causava a obstrução do vaso linfático e desencadeava uma reação imunológica inevitável em indivíduos predispostos, provocando a elefantíase, foi substituído pela esperança de que ser infectado não mais significa, necessariamente, ser um potencial portador da forma mais deformante da disfunção linfática. A infecção bacteriana secundária de repetição (semelhante clinicamente à erisipela) é hoje reconhecida como o fator mais importante para a instalação e a progressão do linfedema crônico, nos indivíduos que vivem em áreas endêmicas de filariose linfática. Evitar ou minimizar os episódios agudos bacterianos é um processo factível para a maioria dos habitantes das comunidades endêmicas, através do uso regular de água e sabão: a forma mais simples de higiene já conhecida pelo ser humano.The way a particular subject is understood changes over time as a result of scientific research. In most cases, these changes are minor, with limited effect on the overall knowledge on the subject. Sometimes, however, revolutionary changes occur and not only modify the understanding of the subject but open perspectives that can trigger new interpretations and new ways for expansion of scientific knowledge. The studies of Gregor Johann Mendel were a good example. They led to discovery of the laws of inheritance which, in turn, have revolutionized biology and provided the foundation for genetics. In certain situations, changes not only alter ways of thinking, but have practical implications, also improving the quality of life for many people. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn refers to discontinuities in scientific development as a "change of paradigm", a term now used in a generic manner to describe a profound changes in our reference points. For lymphatic filariasis the old paradigm stated that Wuchereria bancrofti at the adult stage causes lymphatic vessel obstruction, triggering an inevitable immune response in predisposed individuals and leading to elephantiasis. This has been replaced by a new paradigm, which offers hope that W. bancrofti infection does not necessarily predispose to the disfiguring outward manifestation of lymphatic dysfunction. Repeated secondary bacterial infections (erysipela-like) are now recognized as the most important factor for initiation and progression of chronic lymphedema in individuals living in filariasis-endemic areas. Most inhabitants of endemic communities can prevent and minimize the acute bacterial episodes by regular use of soap and water, the simplest form of hygiene already well known to human beings.

Ao longo do tempo, a maneira como se entende um determinado assunto passa por modificações através da pesquisa científica. Na maioria das vezes, essas mudanças causam pequenas diferenças na estrutura total do tópico em questão. Outras vezes, entretanto, ocorrem mudanças revolucionárias que não só alteram a compreensão do assunto em si, mas promovem a abertura de diferentes perspectivas que podem desencadear o início de novas etapas de interpretações e de novos caminhos de conhecimento. Exemplo disso foram os estudos de Gregor Johann Mendel que levaram à descoberta de leis da hereditariedade que, por sua vez, revolucionaram a biologia e traçaram as bases da genética. Em algumas situações, as mudanças não só modificam a forma de pensar, mas também têm implicações práticas ao melhorar a qualidade de vida de muitos seres humanos. No seu livro A Estrutura de Revoluções Científicas, Thomas Kuhn se refere às ruturas nessa evolução científica como "mudanças de paradigma", um termo que hoje é usado de uma forma genérica para descrever uma modificação profunda em nossos pontos de referência. O paradigma de que o estágio adulto da Wuchereria bancrofti causava a obstrução do vaso linfático e desencadeava uma reação imunológica inevitável em indivíduos predispostos, provocando a elefantíase, foi substituído pela esperança de que ser infectado não mais significa, necessariamente, ser um potencial portador da forma mais deformante da disfunção linfática. A infecção bacteriana secundária de repetição (semelhante clinicamente à erisipela) é hoje reconhecida como o fator mais importante para a instalação e a progressão do linfedema crônico, nos indivíduos que vivem em áreas endêmicas de filariose linfática. Evitar ou minimizar os episódios agudos bacterianos é um processo factível para a maioria dos habitantes das comunidades endêmicas, através do uso regular de água e sabão: a forma mais simples de higiene já conhecida pelo ser humano.

Independent samples of 261 women and 138 men in San José, Costa Rica, were screened for involvement in committed sexual relationships during the past year, but not with each other. Females reported on victimization by spousal aggression and males on perpetration. Family structure parameters were also assessed: (1) local density of female kin, (2) local density of male kin, (3) social support provided by local kin, (4) socioeconomic status of close kin, and (5) "culture of honor" (COH) revenge ideology. Previously documented effects of partner mate value on spousal abuse were cross- culturally replicated, but the interactive effects of male kin density previously documented in Hermosillo, Sonora, did not predict family deterrence of spousal abuse in San José, Costa Rica. A recent cross-cultural survey had found that San José, Costa Rica, situated within a predominantly farming region, was relatively low in COH but that Hermosillo, Sonora, situated within a predominantly herding region, was relatively high in COH. Thus, individual convictions, such as a personal code of honor, may be ineffective outside of a supportive social context. Individuals with high COH, acting within a low-COH social context, were unable to project the influence they normally exert within a supportive, high-COH, social context. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Sociales::Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIP)

Surveys and focus groups were administered to two samples of US university undergraduates to compare sexual aggression prevalence as assessed based on the Power-Assertion model (n=139) versus the Confluence model (n=318). Men were more likely to commit all illegal acts, especially conventional rape. Women also committed illegal acts, especially non-traditional behaviours such as forcing the victim to initiate sexual contact. Men and women committed similar rates of verbal coercion. However, conventional lying and pressuring were not as common as harassing someone through e-mails/calls, manipulating the victim's social network, stalking and using pledges, bets or dares. The Confluence model was found to fit the data more effectively. We must expand beyond traditional conceptualizations of perpetrators, behaviours and treatment methods to address the current state of affairs. Non-traditional notions were especially valuable as they were based on the comments of young adults about what was missing f...

We propose that the continuing controversies over the use of quasi-F-ratios in psycholinguistic research might be circumvented, if not resolved, by the judicious application of Generalizability Theory (GT) analyses. We argue that GT is a logical extension of the basic rationale behind repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the variance components model upon which GT is ultimately based and upon which the entire logic of the F-ratio (quasi or otherwise) rests. GT is especially useful in psycholinguistics research because it affords one the opportunity to assess generalizability across multiple dimensions within the same model, such as individual subjects as well as varying conditions of prime and target words. We will provide an illustrative example of GT based on Forster’s (2007) replication of Davis and Lupker’s (2006) study in which they tested the effects of frequency discrepancies in target and prime words across individual subjects under varying combinations of frequency and prime.

The present study evaluates three ultimate theories accounting for individual differences in sexually coercive tendencies: (1) Life History (LH) theory, (2) Competitively Disadvantaged Male theory, and (3) Sexual Coercion as a By-product theory. Three-hundred twenty-four college students completed questionnaires measuring LH strategy, perceived mate value, mating effort, short-term and long-term mating orientation, aggressive tendencies, psychopathy, and sexually coercive behavior. Eight tactical subscales extracted from the Sexual Acts and Perceptions Inventory converged upon one latent Sexual Coercion factor. The predictor variables clustered into a second Protective LH latent factor, which buffered Sexual Coercion. The Protective LH factor fully mediated the relation between sex and Sexual Coercion. Thus, the three evolutionary accounts of sexual coercion describe unique facets of a single LH trait rather than three dissociable alternatives. We discuss the conclusion that reproductive LH strategy partially underlies the variation in predisposition toward sexual coercion.

The sex ratio of adult Wuchereria bancrofti from 172 histologically diagnosed cases of lymphatic filariasis, all from an endemic area of Recife, in north-eastern Brazil, was investigated. Of 172 tissue specimens examined, 74 (43%) were lymph nodes and 98 (57%) lymphatic-vessel segments. The morphology of the worms was generally disrupted, in some cases to the point where the worms were almost completely absorbed by the granulomatous inflammatory response. Parasite gender was clearly determined in only 110 (64%) specimens, 61 (55.5 %) of which were lymph nodes and 49 (44.5%) lymphatic vessels. Eighty-seven (79.1%) of these tissue specimens contained only female worms, 17 (14.5%) both males and females, and six only males, giving an overall female:male 'specimen' ratio of 4.5:1. Of the 63 tissue specimens in which dead or degenerating worms were noted, 60 (92.2%) contained only females. All the female worms detected were gravid, regardless of whether male worms were present in the specimen. The implications of these findings for parasite dynamics, the pathogenesis of bancroftian filariasis and the interpretation of ultrasound images of living adult worms are discussed.

b Background: Domestic violence against married women has persisted throughout Korean history. However, very little empirical research has been conducted in Korea about domestic violence, its causes, or women’s responses. b Objective: To develop and test psychometrically the Korean Women’s Abuse Intolerance Scale (KWAIS) to measure women’s propensity or desire to leave abusive husbands in Korea. b Methods: The first phase of the investigation involved qualitative research to explore the themes of women’s responses to domestic violence and the development of the instrument. The second phase was a preliminary study conducted to examine women’s responses to domestic violence. In the third phase, construct validity of the scale was established, using a sample of 184 married women living in Korea. b Results: The KWAIS adequately supported the underlying theory of women’s responses to domestic violence, demonstrating strong content validity, high internal consistency (Cronbach’s " of .98), and criterion-related validity evidenced by significant correlations that supported hypotheses among abuse intolerance and abuse (r = .69), traditional family ideology (r = j.78), marital satisfaction (r = j.85), attitude toward power ascription (r = .63), and collectivism ( r= j.88). Factor analysis yielded a four-factor structure, explaining 78.4% of the common variance. Factor loadings ranged from .65 to .93. b Discussion: The findings for the psychometric properties of the KWAIS established its potential as a research instrument in measuring Korean women’s propensity or desire to leave abusive husbands. Future studies need to focus on determining the predictive validity of the KWAIS and evaluating cross-cultural differences in women’s propensity or desire to leave abusive husbands.

Psychometric findings are reported from two studies concerning the construct validity, temporal stability, and interrater reliability of the latent common factors underlying subjective assessments by human raters of personality traits in two nonhuman animal species: (a) the Stumptail macaque (Maraca arctoides), a cercopithecine monkey; and (b) the Zebra finch (Poephila guttata), an estrildid songbird. Because most theories of animal personality have historically implied that certain personality constructs should be relatively universal across taxa, parallel analyses of similar data are reported for two phylogenetically distant species of subject using the same psychometric methods. Each of the samples was drawn from a socially-housed colony of the same species: that of macaques consisted of 5 mature adult fem ales and 8 of their adult offspring and that of finches consisted of 5 adult individuals. A modified version of the 1978 Stevenson-Hinde and Zunz (SHZ) list of personality items was applied to the macaques at various times during the eight years from 1980-1988 and to the finches during 1992. This study also used the three SHZ scales - Confident, Excitable, and Sociable - originally derived from principal components. Generalizability analyses were used to assess the construct validity, temporal stability, and interrater reliability of the hypothesized factors. Both Stumptail macaques and Zebra finches manifest measurable personality factors that are highly valid across multiple items, stable across multiple years, and reliable across multiple raters. The same model fits both species, as predicted by theory. The construct validity of the factors is slightly higher for the finches than for the macaques, although the interrater reliability is somewhat lower. This study illustrates how generalizability analysis can be used to test prespecified confirmatory factor models when the number of individual subjects is quite small.

Individuals exhibit differences in their life history strategies along a continuum that ranges from fast (involving investments in immediate rewards) to slow (involving long-term relationships and investments). Components of life history have been demonstrated to be more strongly correlated in individuals with faster life histories, a phenomenon termed Strategic Differentiation–Integration Effort (SD–IE). Sexual strategies are an intrinsic component of life history, yet have not been examined for SD–IE effects. We tested SD–IE in one student and two general population samples from two countries, among sexual strategy traits and correlates (sociosexual orientation, attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, three groups of postcoital emotions, mate value, and life history speed). Two latent factors were found to explain the overall associations among these variables. The associations between the two factors and among their respective manifest indicators within factor were stronger in individuals with less restricted sexual strategies and more negative emotionality in sexual relationships, traits which are indicative of overall faster life history, supporting SD–IE hypotheses. Sex differences were identified and accounted for by life history speed differences between men and women. Unifactorial and multifactorial views of human sexual strategies can be argued to be equally supported by data, depending on individual life history speed.

Our commentary articulates some of the commonalities between Baumeister et al.'s theory of socially differentiated roles and Strategic Differentiation-Integration Effort. We expand upon the target article's position by arguing that differentiating social roles is contextual and driven by varying ecological pressures, producing character displacement not only among individuals within complex societies, but also across social systems and multiple levels of organization.

An experiment was performed to test the influence of two factors on assortative mating in the Jewel wasp (Nasonia vitripennis): (1) inherited eye-color genotype, and (2) conditioned foraging phenotype. To determine the female choice of sires, genetically marked wasps were used of two recessive mutant eye-color genotypes: white or red. Each female (of independently crossed eye-color and juvenile host) was given a choice of two males, one of each eye-color, counterbalanced for juvenile host: blowfly (Sarcophaga bullata) or housefly (Musca domestica) pupae. Blowfly-reared females produced more total offspring, indicating higher fertility. Red-eyed females produced more offspring sired by red-eyed males, indicating assortative mating by eye color. Blowfly-reared females, however, did not produce more offspring sired by blowfly-reared males, indicating no assortative mating by juvenile host.

The Trivers-Willard model (1973) predicts differential parental investment in children by sex and income; wealthier families will invest more in boys, while poorer families will invest more in girls. We investigated the TW Hypothesis in a sample of 103 six month old Tucson babies and their mothers. Hierarchical multiple regression equations were used entering baby's age, baby's sex, mother's age, male paternal commitment, a dichotomous poverty measure, per capita income, and four interaction terms, baby's sex by 1 ) mother's age 2) mother's education, 3) male paternal commitment, 4) poverty, and 5) per capita income. We included three dependent variables in successive regression equations; mother's attitudes towards ideal baby size for boy versus girl babies, weeks breast fed and the baby's weight at six months. These variables measure attitude, behavior, and physical outcomes. Poverty was a significant predictor of differential preference in ideal body size for boys versus girls; poor mothers pr...

Survivorship of children is dependent upon numerous variables, including the role that preferential treatment may play in biasing the birth and survival of sons and daughters across cultures. This study draws upon an evolutionary approach by examining a theory referred to as the “Trivers-Willard hypothesis” concerning condition-dependent sex allocation and differential parental investment. Previous research on humans concerning this hypothesis tends to be restricted to one cultural group and thereby limited in sample size. For this study, nationally representative household survey data collected by the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS+) program across 35 countries was used to test biological, resource-oriented, and behavioral aspects affecting maternal condition, sex allocation, and parental investment in humans. The units of analysis for this study were the mothers and their lastborn child (N = 128,039 woman-child pairs). A series of hierarchical regressions were executed to empirically inves...

This paper discusses the conceptual and mathematical relationships between three statistical models: 1) traditional, or “Simultaneous”, Canonical Analysis, 2) hierarchical, or “Sequential”, Canonical Analysis, and 3) Structural Equations Modeling, or confirmatory path analysis. The advantages of Sequential over Simultaneous Canonical Analysis are reviewed. The relationships between Sequential Canonical Analysis and Path Analysis are explored. The need for a legitimate exploratory form of path analysis, analogous to existing exploratory forms of both multiple regression and factor analysis, is discussed. A logical extension of Sequential Canonical Analysis is proposed as adequately serving the function of an exploratory path analysis. Empirical data from psychological research is used to illustrate and qualitatively compare and contrast the results of these three approaches.

Background Exercise has important benefits for individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, to sustain long-term benefits of exercise, adherence is needed. Adherence requires self-regulation. No scale is available to measure exercise self-regulation in individuals with COPD. Objectives We developed and tested the reliability and validity of an “Exercise Self-Regulatory Efficacy Scale (Ex-SRES)” for individuals with COPD. Methods A convenience sample of 109 subjects with COPD was recruited. Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency reliability of the Ex-SRES. Subjects’ exercise behaviors and health status were used to assess the validity of the Ex-SRES. Results The Ex-SRES demonstrated evidence of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha .917) and validity (correlation with minutes of exercise per week [ r = .41; P r = .37; P Conclusion The Ex-SRES is a short (16-items) and easy to use questionnaire that may be valuable for assessing patients in clinical settings, as well as for future research studies in behaviors related to exercise.

We present a psychometric test of life history theory as applied to human individual differences using MIDUS survey data (Brim et al. 2000). Twenty scales measuring cognitive and behavioral dimensions theoretically related to life history strategy were constructed using items from the MIDUS survey. These scales were used to construct a single common factor, the K-factor, which accounted for 70% of the reliable variance. The scales used included measures of personal, familial, and social function. A second common factor, Covitality, was constructed from scales for physical and mental health. Finally, a single general factor, Personality, was constructed from scales for the "Big Five" factors of personality. The K-factor, covitality factor, and general personality factor correlated significantly with each other, supporting the prediction that high K predicts high somatic effort and also manifests in behavioral display. Thus, a single higher-order common factor, the Super-K factor, was constructed that consisted of the K-factor, covitality factor, and personality factor.

The theoretical linkage of empathy to sexually aggressive and antisocial behavior is reviewed, and assess- ment conducted on the role of emotional empathy in the non-sexual delinquent behavior of juvenile sexual offenders. In examination of developmental antecedents of empathy, self-reported parental attachment and positive fathering ex- periences were found to be positively associated with emo- tional empathy, while reported exposure to violence against females was inversely related. As hypothesized, emotional empathy was found to have both mediating and moderating influences on risk of engagement in non-sexual delinquency. Emotional empathy was found to be negatively associated with non-sexual delinquency and to partially mediate the positive influences of exposure to violence against females and hostile masculinity. Emotional empathy was also found to function as a moderator of hostile masculinity, with high empathy levels associated with an attenuated positive ef- fect of hostile masculinity on non-sexual delinquency, and low levels with an accentuated effect. Possible mechanisms for this moderating influence are discussed, along with clin- ical implications of the findings and directions for future research.

Multiple selective pressures maintain and increase heritable behavioral variability among individuals across both developmental and evolutionary time: (1) directional social selection favors convergent traits, promoting mutually beneficial cooperative interactions; (2) disruptive social selection favors divergent traits, providing release from within-species competition; (3) genetic diversification responds adaptively to the stochastic (random) characteristics of environmental hazards such as uncontrollable morbidity (disease) and mortality (death); (4) developmental plasticity epigenetically directs development adaptively along different alternative pathways, modifying permanent and stable behavioral dispositions to suit long-term contingencies of survival and reproduction; and (5) behavioral flexibility deploys rapid and reversible short-term adaptive behavioral responses to transient situations.

Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism (the Dark Triad) have each been hypothesized as predictors of socially deviant behavior including sexual coercion, but the three traits also covary significantly with one another. The purpose of this study was to examine several alternative Multisample Structural Equation Models (MSEMs) exploring the relations between the Dark Triad and Sexually Coercive Behavior, testing whether any or all of the three specific "Dark Personality" traits uniquely contributed to predicting sexually coercive behavior. Self-report questionnaires measuring Primary and Secondary Psychopathy, Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Sexually Coercive Behavior were administered to a sample of undergraduates. The relative fit of each of the MSEMs to the data was examined by means of hierarchically nested model comparisons. The most parsimonious yet explanatory model identified was one in which a single common factor composed of the three Dark Triad indicators explained the relationships among the Dark Triad traits and Sexually Coercive Behavior without any direct contributions from the specific Dark Triad indicators. Results indicate that the three Dark Triad traits, controlling for the common factor, do not differentially predict Sexually Coercive Behavior. These results are interpreted with respect to the principle of Brunswik-Symmetry.

The Continuous Parameter Estimation Model is applied to develop individual genomic-level heritabilities for the latent hierarchical structure and developmental dynamics of Life History (LH) strategy LH strategies relate to the allocations of bioenergetic resources into different domains of fitness. LH has moderate to high population-level heritability in humans, both at the level of the high-order Super-K Factor and the lower-order factors, the K-Factor, Covitality Factor, and General Factor of Personality (GFP). Several important questions remain unexplored. We developed measures of genome-level heritabilities employing an American sample of 316 monozygotic (MZ) and 274 dizygotic (DZ) twin dyads and a Swedish sample of 863 MZ and 475 DZ twin dyads. This novel heritability index measures individual genetic transmissibility, therefore opening new avenues for analyzing complex interactions among heritable traits inaccessible to standard structural equations methods. For these samples: (1) moderate to high heritability of factor loadings of Super-K on its lower-order factors is demonstrated, evidencing biological preparedness, genetic accommodation, and the gene-culture coevolution of biased epigenetic rules of development; (2) moderate to high heritability of the magnitudes of the effect of the higher-order factors upon their loadings on their constituent factors, evidencing genetic constraints upon phenotypic plasticity; and (3) that heritability of the LH factors, of factor loadings, and of the magnitudes of the correlations among factors are weaker among those with slower LH speeds, demonstrating that inter-individual variation in transmissibility is a function of individual socioecological selection pressures.

Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism (the Dark Triad) have each been hypothesized as predictors of socially deviant behavior including sexual coercion, but the three traits also covary significantly with one another. The purpose of this study was to examine several alternative Multisample Structural Equation Models (MSEMs) exploring the relations between the Dark Triad and Sexually Coercive Behavior, testing whether any or all of the three specific “Dark Personality” traits uniquely contributed to predicting sexually coercive behavior. Self-report questionnaires measuring Primary and Secondary Psychopathy, Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Sexually Coercive Behavior were administered to a sample of undergraduates. The relative fit of each of the MSEMs to the data was examined by means of hierarchically nested model comparisons. The most parsimonious yet explanatory model identified was one in which a single common factor composed of the three Dark Triad indicators explained the relationships among the Dark Triad traits and Sexually Coercive Behavior without any direct contributions from the specific Dark Triad indicators. Results indicate that the three Dark Triad traits, controlling for the common factor, do not differentially predict Sexually Coercive Behavior. These results are interpreted with respect to the principle of Brunswik-Symmetry.

Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto del cobre sobre el comportamiento reproductivo de novillas lecheras. Materiales y metodos. El trabajo se realizo en fincas de la provincia de Villa Clara, en dos etapas y con 210 novillas. En la primera se estudiaron 120 novillas divididas en dos grupos de 60 animales cada uno. El grupo A, control y el B, tratado con 2 ml de CuSO4 (2.5%) subcutaneamente. En la segunda etapa se estudiaron 90 novillas divididas en tres grupos de 30 animales cada uno, el grupo A, control; el B, fue tratado con 2 ml de CuSO4 (2.5%) subcutaneamente y el grupo C, se trato con acupuntura utilizando 0.1 ml de dicho producto subcutaneamente en el punto Pahuai; en ambas etapas los animales del grupo A, no recibieron ningun tratamiento y a los animales tratados, grupos B y C se les repitio el tratamiento cada 60 dias en dos aplicaciones mas. Los analisis hemoquimicos se efectuaron en los laboratorios de la Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias de la Universidad Central de Las Villas. Resultados. Los animales aumentaron significativamente los niveles del cobre en suero sanguineo (p

Most contemporary social psychological studies on inter-personal attraction have independently explored the competing concepts of similarity and complementarity. Incorporating evolutionary principles associated with assortative mating, two studies were conducted that examined individual difference preferences using the five-factor model (FFM) of human personality as assessed by the NEO-FFI. The first study (N = 104) examined the degree to which individuals showed an absolute or relative preference in an ‘‘ideal romantic partner’’ when compared to self-rated personality. The second study (N = 161) extended this by incorporating personality ratings for self, ‘‘ideal’’ romantic partner, and ‘‘actual’’ romantic partner, and perceptions of mate value for each. Overall, findings supported both evolutionary and social psychological theories of inter-personal attraction and support both relative and absolute preferences in romantic partners. Individuals sought mates that were matches of themselves to some degree (a concept that we termed aspirational positive assortative mating) but also sought mates that were somewhat higher in Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Mate Value, but lower in Neuroticism than themselves. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We describe an integrated theory of individual diVerences that traces the behavioral development of life history from genes to brain to reproductive strategy. We provide evidence that a single common factor, the K-Factor, underpins a variety of life-history parameters, including an assortment of sexual, reproductive, parental, familial, and social behaviors. We explore the psychometrics and behavioral genetics of the K-Factor and oVer a speculative account of the proximate mediation of this adaptive patterning of behavior as instantiated in well-established functions of speciWc areas of the human brain, including the frontal lobes, amygdala, and hippocampus. We then apply Life History Theory to predict patterns of development within the brain that are paedomorphic (i.e., development begins later, proceeds at a slower rate, and has an earlier cessation) and peramorphic (i.e., development begins early, proceeds at a faster rate, and has a later cessation).

The domain-independent and domain-dependent approach to the evolution of cognition have been taken by separate groups of researchers who have focused exclusively on either the formal properties or the distinct cognitive demands of tasks. We express the view that synthesizing the two approaches could lead to a more complete understanding, and propose such a comprehensive model of cognitive evolution and development. First, we discuss how Egon Brunswik demonstrated the importance of the relationship between the organism and the environment, and how his research and that of others has led to the domain-independent and domain-dependent views. Second, we use Brunswikian concepts to propose a two-parameter evolutionary model of cognitive development that specifies how particular behaviors come to be characterized by independent levels of biological preparedness and developmental plasticity. Our theory incorporates both a domain-independent organizing principle and the importance of domain-dependent processes. Third, we briefly discuss one unique prediction arising from the Brunswikian Evolutionary Developmental theory and describe preliminary supporting evidence. This is the author version of a published manuscript. Please cite: Figueredo, A. J., Hammond, K. R. and McKiernan, E. C. (2006). A Brunswikian evolutionary developmental theory of preparedness and plasticity. Intelligence 34(2), 211-227.

Until recently, variations in life history strategy were studied exclusively at the species level. Although this domain of study has been extended to examine systematic differences in life history strategy among various human ethnic groupings, more recent evolutionary theories of human development and related behavioral genetic work imply substantial within-group individual variation in life history strategy. We constructed a latent variable model identifying a single common factor, denoted as K, which underlies a variety of otherwise disparate life history parameters. This “K-Factor” loaded 0.36 on childhood attachment to the biological father, −0.36 on childhood attachment to any non-biological father figure, 0.38 on adult romantic partner attachment, −0.51 on mating effort, −0.58 on Machiavellianism, and −0.41 on risk propensity. The bivariate correlations of the K-factor with higher-order personality factors were statistically significant, −0.24 with “Big Neuroticism” and −0.67 with “Big Psychoticism”, and approached significance, correlating 0.12, with “Big Extraversion”. The K-factor appears to be an underappreciated individual difference variable of major importance to human development.

Abstract. We assessed whether violent or macabre interests (“sensational interests”) were related to mating effort and a higher-order personality construct reflecting the combined features of higher Extraversion, lower Psychoticism, and lower Neuroticism in 1321 participants from English-speaking (Tucson, Arizona, and Glasgow, Scotland) and Spanish-speaking (Hermosillo, Mexico, and Talca, Chile) communities. Participants from Spanish-speaking communities generally had more sensational interests. Mating effort was positively related to sensational interests, though the relationship was slightly weaker in Spanish-speaking communities. Personality effects were modest and entirely moderated by language; personality was negatively related to sensational interests in English-speaking communities, but positively associated to sensational interests in Spanish-speaking communities. These findings suggest that the relationship between mating effort and sensational interests is universal and reflects general intrasexual competition, whereas the relationship between personality and sensational interests is more culture-specific.

The constructive replication of a prespecified, cognitively mediated model of rape's impact on psychosocial health is reported using longitudinal data (see Koss, Figueredo, & Prince, 2002 , for a summary of model development). Rape survivors ( n = 59) were assessed four times, 3 to 24 months postrape. Structural equations modeling of baseline data (intercepts) and rate of change over time (slopes) revealed that all large effects replicated, smaller effects did not. The model's central features were confirmed and showed that Psychological Problem History exacerbated Characterological Self-Blame, leading to more Maladaptive Beliefs, which determined initial Psychosocial Distress and its rate of decline. The major contributions of the study include: (a) placement in a research program designed to balance the strengths/limitations of cross-sectional and longitudinal data; (b) analysis of prerape characteristics, cognitive mediators, and multiple psychosocial distress variables in a system; and (c) a strategy for structural equations modeling in small samples.

Archival data from the MIDUS survey (Brim et al., 2000), a nationally representative sample, on 309 MZ and 333 DZ twin pairs aged 25-74 years were used to test the psychometrics and behavioral genetics of life history strategy. We organized 253 of the originally administered 2,000 questions into 30 scales measuring life history traits (e.g., quality of family relationships and altruism towards kin), medical symptoms (e.g., thyroid problems), personality traits (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness), and social background (e.g., financial security). A single higher-order factor, indicating a general life history strategy, composed of three lower-order factors, was replicated. Factor analyses were then performed on the genetic variance-covariance matrices. We found that (a) a single higher-order factor explained the preponderance of the genetic correlations among the scales and (b) this higher-order factor was itself 68 percent heritable and accounted for 82 percent of the genetic variance among the three component lower-order factors.

Culture of honor (COH) theory [Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the south. Boulder, CO: Westview Press] predicts that the importance of upholding one's reputation is cross-culturally variable: Revenge should be more prevalent in herding societies than in farming societies, and should be entirely absent in foraging societies. This study was designed to replicate the effects that they found among herding and farming societies and to either support or refute the claim regarding foraging societies. Using a 32-item questionnaire measuring the constructs of Reciprocity and Revenge, this study cross-culturally validates Nisbett and Cohen's COH theory and extends it to fishers, a special kind of forager. Researchers sampled two herding communities (Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, and Liberia, Guanacaste, Costa Rica), two farming communities (Mexico City, Mexico, and San Jose, Costa Rica), and two fishing communities (La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico, and Puntarenas, Costa Rica.) The differences between the herding and farming samples replicated previous findings in that herders were higher on the Revenge scale than farmers. The fisher samples approximate the herder samples on the Revenge scale more than the farmer samples, but were significantly different from each other. Discrepancies between the fisher samples called for the investigation of alternative theories.

Sensational interests, i.e. a curiosity for the violent and macabre, are reputedly common in mentally disordered offenders. However, ostensibly well-adjusted individuals are also interested in these topics. We tested the hypothesis that individual differences in sensational interests may partially reflect intrasexual competition for status and have an underlying evolutionary function. Several predictions derive from this hypothesis. First, age and sex should be directly related to individual differences in mating effort (the degree that an individual devotes resources to finding and guarding sexual partners). Second, mating effort should directly influence sensational interests. Third, there should also be direct effects of age and sex on sensational interests. To test these predictions we collected data on 969 university undergraduates using the Revised Version of the Sensational Interests Questionnaire (SIQ-R) and the Mating effort Scale (MES). A structural equations model revealed that a single factor accounted for the majority of the variance of the three SIQ-R subscales, Paranormal, Militarism, and Criminal Identity. This model also included direct effects of age and sex on the MES and two SIQ-R subscales and direct effects of the MES on the SIQ-R. Model fit statistics indicated that this model was a good fit to the data. We conclude that, even in a non-clinical sample, an affinity for sensational interests might serve a form of intrasexual competition.

Managers must consider an animal’s potential for aggression when they decide to change or form a captive social group formation. In this study we compared two introduction methods (termed ‘‘sequential’’ and ‘‘nonsequential’’ introductions) in African elephants to assess their effectiveness in managing aggression and minimizing stress. Both introduction methods included four phases: baseline, visual contact, limited tactile contact, and physical introduction. In the sequential introduction, these steps were followed sequentially, and empirical data were considered during decision-making. In the nonsequential introduction, these steps were not followed sequentially, and decision-making was based primarily on intuitive assessments by animal managers. Behavioral data and fecal corticoid concentrations were measured throughout both types of

Although testicular hydrocele is the most common clinical manifestation of bancroftian filariasis, its pathogenesis is poorly understood, as is its relationship to inflammatory scrotal nodules following death of adult Wuchereria bancrofti. Between 1994 and 1998, we prospectively determined the incidence and clinical evolution of nodule-associated acute hydrocele in men attending 2 outpatient clinics in Recife, Brazil who were infected with W. bancrofti, had living adult worms detectable by ultrasound in the intrascrotal lymphatic vessels, and were scheduled for treatment with 6 mg/kg diethylcarbamazine (DEC). A total of 132 men developed 173 scrotal nodules 1-7 (mean 4.2) d after DEC treatment and another 47 developed 58 spontaneous nodules before they received DEC treatment. These 179 men with a single 'nodule event' (simultaneous development of > or =1 scrotal nodules) were followed-up by serial physical and ultrasound examinations for 18 months. Overall, 40 (22.3%) men developed acute hydrocele, 3 of whom underwent biopsy and hydrocele repair. Of the remaining 37 men, 9 (24.3%) developed chronic hydrocele and 28 had acute hydrocele resolution within 14-210 (mean 60.9) d. Rate of chronic hydrocele was similar for men who received DEC and those with spontaneous nodules. Seventeen (42.5%) men with hydrocele had multiple scrotal nodules, compared with 28 (20.1%) men who did not develop hydrocele (P= 0.007). Of 134 men with single nodules, superior paratesticular nodules were found in 56.5% and 29.7% of those with and without hydrocele, respectively (P = 0.02). Acute hydrocele occurs frequently following death of adult W. bancrofti and single episodes of scrotal nodule formation. Chronic hydrocele may develop following 5.1% of these episodes.

Background: We used an economic model based on evolutionary theory to guide an examination of relations among self-reported depressive symptoms and ratings of mate values of self, social, and sexual partners. This model treats assortative mating as a form of social exchange between partners of socially and sexually desirable traits. Methods: Two studies used variants of the Mate Value Inventory (MVI), a multivariate assessment of attributes desired in social or sexual partners. For study 1, 115 male and 124 female undergraduates provided self reports on four forms of the MVI-11 and on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI); for study 2, 208 male and 277 female undergraduates provided self reports on seven forms of the MVI-7 and on the BDI-II. Results: Both multisample structural equations models indicated that the parameters were statistically equivalent between female and male subsamples and provided an adequate fit to the data. The models revealed significant relations between the mate values ascribed to the self and those ascribed to short- and long-term partners as well as best friends. Furthermore, greater BDI scores significantly predicted lesser ratings of mate value for the self, and hence indirectly predicted lesser ratings of mate value for all types of partners evaluated. Limitations: Although the data obtained from the MVI demonstrated good psychometric validity, external validity has not yet been established. Conclusions: The results are consistent with models predicting: (1) assortative mating by mate value, (2) differential exchange rates of mate value for different types of partners, (3) a negative relation between depressive symptoms and assessment of one's own mate value, and (4) a possibly consequential mismatch of mate values when one partner exhibits or recovers from significant depressive symptoms. The results are inconsistent with models predicting (5) a generalized negativity bias due to depression.  2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

FUNDAMENTOS: Este é um estudo retrospectivo e anatomopatológico de 704 carcinomas basocelulares de 623 pacientes, diagnosticados no período de 1991 a 1996, no setor de Dermatopatologia da Clínica Dermatológica do Hospital das Clínicas da UFPE e em um laboratório privado de dermatopatologia da cidade do Recife. OBJETIVOS: Caracterizar aspectos clínicos e anatomopatológicos dos carcinomas basocelulares diagnosticados nos dois serviços da região de Pernambuco. MÉTODOS: Para o estudo clínico, os dados foram retirados dos prontuários e para o estudo anatomopatológico, macro e microscópicos, foram feitas revisão dos preparados histológicos. Para o crescimento vertical empregaram-se métodos baseados nas técnicas histoprognósticas de Clark e Breslow, aplicadas ao melanoma maligno. RESULTADOS: Clínicos: a maior incidência foi no sexo feminino (55,7%), faixa etária de 55 a 72 anos, tempo de evolução com variabilidade elevadíssima, desde um mês a 40 anos, e a cabeça foi a região topográfica mais freqüente (73,8%), principalmente nasal (21,1%) e zigomática (18,5%). A forma nodular pigmentada (47,4%) foi a mais encontrada e o tamanho das lesões independeu do tempo evolutivo. Histologicamente os padrões considerados baseados apenas nos arranjos parenquimais, foram os adenóide, compacto, fibroepitelial de Pinkus plexiforme, pseudocístico, reticulado, superficial e tricoepitelial, predominando o adenóide (28,3%). A média de crescimento foi em 2/3 da derme reticular (32,4%), e os tumores que mais se aprofundaram mostraram fibroplasia intensa. Houve concomitância de vários tipos celulares em um mesmo tumor e o pigmento melânico esteve mais presente nos tricoepitelioides. CONCLUSÃO: A fundamental importância da caracterização clínica e anatomopatológica dos carcinomas basocelulares destes serviços, sem diferenças muito significativas para os grupos e atenção para definições comportamentais e proposições ao relatório histopatológico. BACKGROUND: A retrospective and anatomopathological study was performed on 704 basal carcinomas of 623 patients, diagnosed from 1991 to 1996, at the Dermatopathology section of the Dermatology Clinic of the Hospital das Clinicas, UFPE and at a private dermatopathology laboratory in the city of Recife. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the clinical and anatomopathological aspects of the basal cell carcinomas diagnosed by the two services of Pernambuco region. METHODS: For the clinical study, the data were collected from the patient files and for the anatomopathological, macro and microscopic study a revision was made of the histological specimens. For determination of vertical growth, methods were used based on Clark and Breslow's histoprognostic techniques applied to malignant melanoma. RESULTS: Clinical: the highest incidence was in the feminine sex (55.7%) and in the 55 to 72-year-old age group. Disease duration was highly variable, ranging from one month to 40 years, and the head was the most frequent topographical area (73.8%), mainly nasal (21.1%) and zygomatic (18.5%). The nodular pigmented form (47.4%) was found most frequently and the size of the lesions did not depend on the disease duration. Histologically the patterns considered based only on the parenchymal arrangements, were the adenoid, compact, plexiform Pinkus fibroepithelioma, pseudocystic, reticulated, superficial and trichoepithelioid, though predominantly the adenoid form (28.3%). The mean growth involved 2/3 of the reticular dermis (32.4%), and the deepest tumors presented intense fibroplasia. There was concomitance of several cellular types within a single tumor and melanin pigment was found mostly in the trichoepithelioid type. CONCLUSION: The clinical and anatomopathological characterization of the basal cell carcinomas is of fundamental importance at these services, where there is no major difference between groups, calling attention to behavioral definitions and propositions for the histopathological report of these tumors.

Objective: The diagnosis of breast cancer, the most common type of cancer among American women, elicits greater distress than any other diagnosis regardless of prognosis. Therefore, the present study examined the efficacy of a stress reduction intervention for women with breast cancer. Methods: As part of a larger, randomized, controlled study of the effects on measures of stress of a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention for women with breast cancer, the current analyses examined the effects on sleep complaints. Results: Analyses of the data indicated that both MBSR and a free choice (FC) control condition produced significant improvement on daily diary sleep quality measures though neither showed significant improvement on sleep-efficiency. Participants in the MBSR who reported greater mindfulness practice improved significantly more on the sleep quality measure most strongly associated with distress. Conclusion: MBSR appears to be a promising intervention to improve the quality of sleep in woman with breast cancer whose sleep complaints are due to stress.

Adolescent males who sexually offended against prepubescent children were contrasted with those who targeted pubescent and postpubescent females. As hypothesized, path analyses revealed that the former group had greater deficits in psychosocial functioning, used less aggression in their sexual offending, and were more likely to offend against relatives. Theorized relationships between developmental risk factors, personality mediators, and sexual and nonsexual offense characteristics were assessed in both groups of juvenile sex offenders. Deficits in psychosocialfunctioning were found to mediate the influence of childhood exposure to violence against females on adolescent perpetration of sexual and nonsexual offenses. Additional univariate analyses were conducted to further explore some associations among early risk factors, personality mediators, and outcomes. Childhood physical abuse by a father or stepfather and exposure to violence against females were found to be associated with higher levels of comorbid anxiety and depression. Noncoercive childhood sexual victimization by a male nonrelative was found to be associated with sexual offending against a male child. Clinical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

We propose a hierarchical model of multilevel selection to explain the various direct and indirect causal pathways through which life history (LH) selection influences social evolution and development. This multilevel selection model describes a hierarchical cascade of consequences wherein natural selective pressures generate both individual and social sequelae, which in turn produce social selective pressures that generate sexual sequelae, which in turn produce sexual selective pressures that generate further sexual sequelae. Thus, the generative natural selective pressures constrain (but do not determine) the social selective pressures, which then constrain the sexual selective pressures that drive both LH evolution and development. Further, as in Bronfenbrenner’s (The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1979) ecological systems theory, the directionalities of these probabilistic transactions among levels may also operate in the opposite direction, from the lower to the higher levels of the hierarchy.

Although morphology is generally limited to static images, the histopathological features of bancroftian lymphatic disease are presented here in a way that is as dynamic as possible and closely associated with the clinical, ultrasonographic and surgical characteristics. The protean spectrum of alterations seen in the host's lymphatic vessels is discussed, and the changes caused by the live and dead worms are highlighted, as independent events. Evidence of a remodelling process, in which the lymphatic endothelial cells appear to have a key role, is provided for the first time. Despite many new pieces of information, there remain many 'blank pages' in the natural history of bancroftian filariasis.

Four nested, theoretically specified, increasingly complex models were tested representing cognitive mediation of rape's effects on mental, physical, and social health. Data were cross-sectional (N = 253 rape survivors). Outcomes were standardized assessments of social maladjustment, physical, and psychological symptoms, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The best-fitting model was not fully cognitively mediated. Personological and rape characteristics influenced the level of self-blame experienced and the intensity of maladaptive beliefs about self and others. Self-blame and maladaptive beliefs predicted psychological distress, which strongly influenced all health outcomes. Self-ratings of rape memory characteristics contributed little to predicting postrape distress. The model accounted for 56% of the variance in general distress, including 91% of psychological symptom severity; 54% of PTSD symptoms; 65% of social maladjustment; and 17% of physical symptoms. Longitudinal replication is planned.

This paper describes a randomized clinical trial investigating a stress management program for women with breast cancer, which inadvertently turned quasi-experimental. Due to logistical considerations, group assignment was disclosed to participants (n = 63) prior to baseline assessment. Analyses of baseline measures unexpectedly revealed statistically significant differences between groups on psychological functioning. We suggest that what appears to be failed randomization may in fact point toward an important phenomenon which we have termed premature disclosure effect (PDE). A hierarchical regression model, developed to help explain the PDE, accounted for 47% of the variance. The findings indicate the importance of considering participant belief, preferences, and attributes when designing research protocols and interventions. Potential implications of PDE for clinical research in behavioral medicine are discussed and specific statistical methodologies suggested.

The current paper synthesizes theory and data from the field of life history (LH) evolution to advance a new developmental theory of variation in human LH strategies. The theory posits that clusters of correlated LH traits (e.g., timing of puberty, age at sexual debut and first birth, parental investment strategies) lie on a slow-to-fast continuum; that harshness (externally caused levels of morbidity-mortality) and unpredictability (spatial-temporal variation in harshness) are the most fundamental environmental influences on the evolution and development of LH strategies; and that these influences depend on population densities and related levels of intraspecific competition and resource scarcity, on age schedules of mortality, on the sensitivity of morbidity-mortality to the organism’s resource-allocation decisions, and on the extent to which environmental fluctuations affect individuals versus populations over short versus long timescales. These interrelated factors operate at evolutionary and developmental levels and should be distinguished because they exert distinctive effects on LH traits and are hierarchically operative in terms of primacy of influence. Although converging lines of evidence support core assumptions of the theory, many questions remain unanswered. This review demonstrates the value of applying a multilevel evolutionary-developmental approach to the analysis of a central feature of human phenotypic variation: LH strategy.

Independent samples of 128 women and 106 men were interviewed in a study site in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. Respondents were screened for involvement in a committed sexual relationship during the past year, but not with each other. Questions pertained to family structure, support, and conflict; females reported on victimization by spousal aggression and males on perpetration. Previously documented effects of their partner's mate quality ("sex") and socioeconomic status ("money") were cross-culturally replicated. The following family structure parameters were also measured: (1) the local density of female kin, (2) the local density of male kin, (3) the social support provided by local kin, (4) the socioeconomic status of close kin, and (5) the "culture of honor" revenge ideology of the respondents. The same interactions of local density of male kin that protected women from spousal abuse also empowered men to perpetrate it. The risk of spousal abuse was mitigated by the "sexual balance of power" between the family structures of potential victims and potential perpetrators. Evidence was also found partially supporting several alternative hypotheses tested regarding local cultural and ideological mechanisms (culture of honor and patriarchal beliefs), major dimensions of psychopathology (anxiety and depression) and substance abuse (alcohol), and indicators of general criminality (permissive and risk-taking attitudes).

Summary Does experiential avoidance predict PTSD severity among rape survivors? We tested a hypothesized model where causal attributions, cognitive schemas, and memory characteristics mediated the relationship between experiential avoidance and PTSD. Experiential avoidance was measured as a cognitive coping strategy; women scoring high on this measure did not try to integrate or make meaning of their rape experiences, but rather attempted to block out memories of their rapes or minimize or rationalize their rape experiences in some way. Data were cross-sectional. Participants were rape survivors (N = 139; 23% with current PTSD). Results included a measurement model of social cognitive factors and PTSD and the structural model. Two sets of pathways were delineated, both exacerbated PTSD. Overall, 60% of the variance in PTSD was explained. The results suggested that the effects of experiential avoidance on psychological outcomes were detrimental, but small. Re-experiencing was the only memory characteristic...