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Receptor of activated C kinase1 (RACK1) is a versatile scaffold protein that binds to numerous proteins to regulate diverse cellular pathways in mammals. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), RACK1 has been shown to regulate plant hormone signaling, stress responses, and multiple processes of growth and development. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism underlying these regulations. Here, we show that an atypical serine (Ser)/threonine (Thr) protein kinase, WITH NO LYSINE8 (WNK8), phosphorylates RACK1. WNK8 physically interacted with and phosphorylated RACK1 proteins at two residues: Ser-122 and Thr-162. Genetic epistasis analysis of rack1 wnk8 double mutants indicated that RACK1 acts downstream of WNK8 in the glucose responsiveness and flowering pathways. The phosphorylation-dead form, RACK1AS122A/T162A, but not the phosphomimetic form, RACK1AS122D/T162E, rescued the rack1a null mutant, implying that phosphorylation at Ser-122 and Thr-162 negatively regulates RACK1A function. The transcript of RACK1AS122D/T162E accumulated at similar levels as those of RACK1S122A/T162A. However, although the steady-state level of the RACK1AS122A/T162A protein was similar to wild-type RACK1A protein, the RACK1AS122D/T162E protein was nearly undetectable, suggesting that phosphorylation affects the stability of RACK1A proteins. Taken together, these results suggest that RACK1 is phosphorylated by WNK8 and that phosphorylation negatively regulates RACK1 function by influencing its protein stability.

Heterotrimeric G proteins are crucial for the perception of external signals and subsequent signal transduction in animal and plant cells. In both model systems, the complex is comprised of one Gα, one Gβ and one Gγ subunit. However, in addition to the canonical Gγ subunits (Class A), plants also possess two unusual, plant-specific classes of Gγ subunits (Classes B and C) not yet found in animals. These include Gγ subunits lacking the C-terminal CaaX motif (Class B) which is important for membrane anchoring of the protein, and thus give rise to a flexible subpopulation of Gβ/γ heterodimers that is not necessarily restricted to the plasma membrane. Even more interesting, plants also contain Class C Gγ subunits which are twice the size of canonical Gγs, with a predicted transmembrane domain, and a large cysteine-rich, extracellular C-terminus. However, neither the presence of the transmembrane domain nor the membrane topology has been unequivocally demonstrated. Here, we provide compelling evidence that AGG3, a Class C Ggamma subunit of Arabidopsis, contains a functional transmembrane domain, which is sufficient but not essential for plasma membrane localization, and that the cysteine-rich C-terminus is extracellular.

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are composed of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits and regulate many fundamental processes in plants. Nonetheless plants have a considerably simpler repertoire of G-protein signaling components than metazoans. In animals, ligand binding to 7 transmembrane (7TM) cell surface receptors designated GPCRs leads to G protein activation, however, activation of the plant G protein complex is constitutive, therefore the exact role of plant 7TM proteins is unclear. MLOs are the best characterized 7TM plant proteins. While genetic ablation of either MLO2 or G proteins alters resistance to pathogens, it is unknown if G proteins directly couple signaling through MLO2. Here we exploited two well-documented phenotypes of Arabidopsis mlo2 mutants, broad-spectrum powdery mildew resistance and spontaneous callose deposition, to assess the relationship of MLO2 proteins to the G protein complex. Although our data reveal modulation of antifungal defence responses by Gβ and Gγ subunits, our findings are overall inconsistent with a role of MLO2 as a canonical GPCR. We discovered that mutants defective in the Gβ subunit show delayed accumulation of a subset of defence-associated genes following exposure to the microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP), flg22. Moreover Gβ mutants were found to be hypersusceptible to spray-inoculation with the bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae. In sum, our data do not support a function for MLO proteins as GPCRs, but unravel a role for Gβ and Gγ subunits as modulators of basal defence against biotrophic and hemibiotrophic phytopathogens.

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are composed of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits and regulate many fundamental processes in plants. Nonetheless plants have a considerably simpler repertoire of G-protein signaling components than metazoans. In animals, ligand binding to 7 transmembrane (7TM) cell surface receptors designated GPCRs leads to G protein activation, however, activation of the plant G protein complex is constitutive, therefore the exact role of plant 7TM proteins is unclear. MLOs are the best characterized 7TM plant proteins. While genetic ablation of either MLO2 or G proteins alters resistance to pathogens, it is unknown if G proteins directly couple signaling through MLO2. Here we exploited two well-documented phenotypes of Arabidopsis mlo2 mutants, broad-spectrum powdery mildew resistance and spontaneous callose deposition, to assess the relationship of MLO2 proteins to the G protein complex. Although our data reveal modulation of antifungal defence responses by Gβ and Gγ subunits, our findings are overall inconsistent with a role of MLO2 as a canonical GPCR. We discovered that mutants defective in the Gβ subunit show delayed accumulation of a subset of defence-associated genes following exposure to the microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP), flg22. Moreover Gβ mutants were found to be hypersusceptible to spray-inoculation with the bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae. In sum, our data do not support a function for MLO proteins as GPCRs, but unravel a role for Gβ and Gγ subunits as modulators of basal defence against biotrophic and hemibiotrophic phytopathogens.

The heterotrimeric G-protein complex provides signal amplification and target specificity. The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Gβ-subunit of this complex (AGB1) interacts with and modulates the activity of target cytoplasmic proteins. This specificity resides in the structure of the interface between AGB1 and its targets. Important surface residues of AGB1, which were deduced from a comparative evolutionary approach, were mutated to dissect AGB1-dependent physiological functions. Analysis of the capacity of these mutants to complement well-established phenotypes of Gβ-null mutants revealed AGB1 residues critical for specific AGB1-mediated biological processes, including growth architecture, pathogen resistance, stomata-mediated leaf-air gas exchange, and possibly photosynthesis. These findings provide promising new avenues to direct the finely tuned engineering of crop yield and traits.

While studying blue light-independent effects of cryptochrome 1 (cry1) photoreceptor, we observed premature opening of the hook in cry1 mutants grown in complete darkness, a phenotype that resembles the one described for the heterotrimeric G-protein α subunit (GPA1) null mutant gpa1. Both cry1 and gpa1 also showed reduced accumulation of anthocyanin under blue light. These convergent gpa1 and cry1 phenotypes required the presence of sucrose in the growth media and were not additive in the cry1 gpa1 double mutant, suggesting context-dependent signaling convergence between cry1 and GPA1 signaling pathways. Both, gpa1 and cry1 mutants showed reduced GTP-binding activity. The cry1 mutant showed wild-type levels of GPA1 mRNA or GPA1 protein. However, an anti-transducin antibody (AS/7) typically used for plant Gα proteins, recognized a 54 kDa band in the wild type but not in gpa1 and cry1 mutants. We propose a model where cry1-mediated post-translational modification of GPA1 alters its GTP-binding activity.

Heterotrimeric G protein complexes are conserved from plants to mammals, but the complexity of each system varies. Arabidopsis thaliana contains one Gα, one Gβ (AGB1), and at least three Gγ subunits, allowing it to form three versions of the heterotrimer. This plant model is ideal for genetic studies because mammalian systems contain hundreds of unique heterotrimers. The activation of these complexes promotes interactions between both the Gα subunit and the Gβγ dimer with enzymes and scaffolds to propagate signaling to the cytoplasm. However, although effectors of Gα and Gβ are known in mammals, no Gβ effectors were previously known in plants. Toward identifying AGB1 effectors, we genetically screened for dominant mutations that suppress Gβ-null mutant (agb1-2) phenotypes. We found that overexpression of acireductone dioxygenase 1 (ARD1) suppresses the 2-day-old etiolated phenotype of agb1-2. ARD1 is homologous to prokaryotic and eukaryotic ARD proteins; one function of ARDs is to operate in the methionine salvage pathway. We show here that ARD1 is an active metalloenzyme, and AGB1 and ARD1 both control embryonic hypocotyl length by modulating cell division; they also may contribute to the production of ethylene, a product of the methionine salvage pathway. ARD1 physically interacts with AGB1, and ARD enzymatic activity is stimulated by AGB1 in vitro. The binding interface on AGB1 was deduced using a comparative evolutionary approach and tested using recombinant AGB1 mutants. A possible mechanism for AGB1 activation of ARD1 activity was tested using directed mutations in a loop near the substrate-binding site.

This thesis describes the development of a synthetic route that encodes a library of compounds containing medium-sized ring systems, with particular emphasis on the use of oxidative fragmentation and rearrangement strategies. Chapter 1 introduces diversity oriented synthesis (DOS) with particular emphasis on medium-sized ring synthesis and fragmentation/rearrangement protocols to achieve diversity. A more detailed discussion of oxidative fragmentation and rearrangement methods is also presented. Chapter 2 describes strategies for the synthesis of a collection of heterocyclic compounds known as diazabenz[e]aceanthrylenes. The scope of the reaction was explored as a function of a range of substituents and of the ring size of the N-aryl lactam that was used. Spectroscopic observations associated with this set of compounds are also discussed. Chapter 3 describes the development of an m-CPBA-mediated oxidative fragmentation of the diazabenz[e]aceanthrylenes. Analysis of the products from these reactions revealed the presence of atropisomerism due to restricted rotation about the N sp²-C(aryl) sp² bond. Chapter 4 focuses on a related example of oxidative fragmentation from the literature. A previously overlooked stereogenic axis is explored in this system using X-ray crystallographic analysis and variable temperature ¹H NMR spectroscopy. Reinterpretation of the reported mechanism-probing experiment led to the isolation of an alternative isomeric product and an improved interpretation for the reaction outcome is presented. Variable temperature ¹H NMR spectroscopic experiments revealed the energy barrier to racemisation in the medium-sized ring-containing analogues and based on this data the mode of ring inversion is discussed. Chapter 5 describes three rearrangements of the medium-sized ring system created in Chapter 3 including the formation of an azepinoindole ring structure, a Favorskii reaction and spiro-oxindole synthesis. A rationalisation for these reaction outcomes is included along with experimental support of mechanistic proposals. The generality and scope of the reactions are demonstrated including a nucleophile screen. Chapter 6 describes the synthesis of a library of 69 compounds consisting of examples of the core structures described in Chapters 2, 3 and 5. A discussion of the selection process and adaption of the protocol to parallel synthesis is presented. This chapter concludes with preliminary screening of the library against a variety of strains of yeasts and bacteria.

Release of dormancy and induction of seed germination are complex traits finely regulated by hormonal signals and environmental cues such as temperature and light. The Red (R):Far-Red (FR) phytochrome photoreceptors mediate light regulation of seed germination. We investigated the possible involvement of heterotrimeric G-protein complex in the phytochrome signaling pathways of Arabidopsis thaliana seed germination. Germination rates of null mutants of the alpha (Gα) and beta (Gβ) subunits of the G-protein (Atgpa1-4 and agb1-2, respectively) and the double mutant (agb1-2/gpa1-4) are lower than the wildtype (WT) under continuous or pulsed light. The Gα and Gβ subunits play a role in seed germination under hourly pulses of R lower than 0.1 μmol m−2 s−1 whereas the Gβ subunit plays a role in higher R fluences. The germination of double mutants of G-protein subunits with phyA-211 and phyB-9 suggests that AtGPA1 seems to act as a positive regulator of phyA and probably phyB signaling pathways, while the role of AGB1 is ambiguous. The imbibition of seeds at 4°C and 35°C alters the R and FR light responsiveness of WT and G-protein mutants to a similar magnitude. Thus, Gα and Gβ subunits of the heterotrimeric G-protein complex modulate light induction of seed germination by phytochromes and are dispensable for the control of dormancy by low and high temperatures prior to irradiation. We discuss the possible indirect role of the G-protein complex on the phytochrome-regulated germination through hormonal signaling pathways.

Plants use sugars as signaling molecules and possess mechanisms to detect and respond to changes in sugar availability, ranging from the level of secondary signaling molecules to altered gene transcription. G-protein-coupled pathways are involved in sugar signaling in plants. The Arabidopsis thaliana Regulator of G-protein Signaling protein 1 (AtRGS1) combines a receptor-like seven transmembrane domain with an RGS domain, interacts with the Arabidopsis Gα subunit (AtGPA1) in a D-glucose-regulated manner, and stimulates AtGPA1 GTPase activity. We determined that AtRGS1 interacts with additional components, genetically defined here, to serve as a plasma membrane sensor for D-glucose. This interaction between AtRGS1 and AtGPA1 involves, in part, the seven-transmembrane domain of AtRGS1.

Signaling through heterotrimeric G proteins is conserved in diverse eukaryotes. Compared to vertebrates, the simpler repertoire of G-protein complex and accessory components in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) offers a unique advantage over all other multicellular, genetic-model systems for dissecting the mechanism of G-protein signal transduction. One of several biological processes that the G-protein complex regulates in Arabidopsis is cell division. We determined cell production rate in the primary root and the formation of lateral roots in Arabidopsis to define individually the types of modulatory roles of the respective G-protein alpha- and beta-subunits, as well as the heterotrimer in cell division. The growth rate of the root is in part a consequence of cell cycle maintenance in the root apical meristem (RAM), while lateral root production requires meristem formation by founder pericycle cells. Thus, a comparison of these two parameters in various genetic backgrounds enabled dissection of the role of the G-protein subunits in modulation of cell division, both in maintenance and initiation. Cell production rates were determined for the RAM and lateral root formation in gpa1 (Arabidopsis G-protein alpha-subunit) and agb1 (Arabidopsis G-protein beta-subunit) single and double mutants, and in transgenic lines overexpressing GPA1 or AGB1 in agb1 or gpa1 mutant backgrounds, respectively. We found in the RAM that the heterotrimeric complex acts as an attenuator of cell proliferation, whereas the GTP-bound form of the Galpha-subunit's role is a positive modulator. In contrast, for the formation of lateral roots, the Gbetagamma-dimer acts largely independently of the Galpha-subunit to attenuate cell division. These results suggest that Arabidopsis heterotrimeric G-protein subunits have differential and opposing roles in the modulation of cell division in roots.

To identify divergent seven-transmembrane receptor (7TMR) candidates from the Arabidopsis thaliana genome, multiple protein classification methods were combined, including both alignment-based and alignment-free classifiers. This resolved problems in optimally training individual classifiers using limited and divergent samples, and increased stringency for candidate proteins. We identified 394 proteins as 7TMR candidates and highlighted 54 with corresponding expression patterns for further investigation.

Signal recognition by seven-transmembrane (7TM) cell-surface receptors is typically coupled by heterotrimeric G-proteins to downstream effectors in metazoan, fungal, and amoeboid cells. Some responses perceived by 7TM receptors in amoeboid cells and possibly in human cells can initiate downstream action independently of heterotrimeric G-proteins. Plants use heterotrimeric G-protein signaling in the regulation of growth and development, particularly in hormonal control of seed germination, but it is not yet clear which of these responses utilize a 7TM receptor. Arabidopsis GCR1 has a predicted 7TM-spanning domain and other features characteristic of 7TM receptors. Loss-of-function gcr1 mutants indicate that GCR1 plays a positive role in gibberellin- (GA) and brassinosteroid- (BR) regulated seed germination. The null mutants of GCR1 are less sensitive to GA and BR in seed germination. This phenotype is similar to that previously observed for transcript null mutants in the Galpha-subunit, gpa1. However, the reduced sensitivities toward GA and BR in the single gcr1, gpa1, and agb1 (heterotrimeric G-protein beta-subunit) mutants are additive or synergistic in the double and triple mutants. Thus, GCR1, unlike a typical 7TM receptor, apparently acts independently of the heterotrimeric G-protein in at least some aspects of seed germination, suggesting that this alternative mode of 7TM receptor action also functions in the plant kingdom.