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The annual report of the Institute for Nuclear and Energy Technologies of KIT summarizes its research activities and provides some highlights of each working group, like thermal-hydraulic analyses for nuclear fusion reactors, accident analyses for light water reactors, and research on innovative energy technologies: liquid metal technologies for energy conversion, hydrogen technologies and geothermal power plants. The institute has been engaged in education and training in energy technologies.

Summary Advanced hydrogen technologies contribute essentially to the decarbonization of our industrialized world. Large-scale hydrogen production would benefit from using the abundantly available water reservoir of our planet’s oceans. Current seawater-desalination technologies suffer from high energy consumption, high cost, or low performance. Here, we report technology for water desalination at seawater molarity, based on a polymer ion-exchange membrane fuel cell. By continuously supplying hydrogen and oxygen to the cell, a 160-mM concentration decrease from an initial value of 600 mM is accomplished within 40 h for a 55-mL reservoir. This device’s desalination rate in 600 mM NaCl and substitute ocean water are 18 g/m2/h and 16 g/m2/h, respectively. In addition, by removing 1 g of NaCl, 67 mWh of electric energy is generated. This proof-of-concept work shows the high application potential for sustainable fuel-cell desalination (FCD) using hydrogen as an energy carrier.

The energy supply system used in the housing and communal sector is a crucial element of the construction industry. The energy efficiency of buildings can be improved by using hydrogen technologies, such as fuel cells, hydrogen gas turbines, innovative hydrogen storage and distribution systems, etc. The use of these elements for the energy supply systems will require special safety measures and space-planning solutions. However, along with the generation of energy from renewable energy sources, this will decarbonize the housing and communal sector.

Hydrogen has the potential to offer deep decarbonisation across a range of global heavy-emitting sectors. To have an impact on the global energy system, hydrogen technologies must be deployed with greater urgency. This review article facilitates the much needed, multi-disciplinary discussion around hydrogen. In doing so, the paper outlines recent advancements, prevailing challenges and areas of future research concerning hydrogen technologies, policy, regulation and social considerations in a UK setting. Findings suggest that hydrogen will play a significant role in decarbonising several UK sectors whilst simultaneously addressing challenges faced by alternative low-carbon technologies. Optimal production, delivery and storage systems must be developed to accommodate perceived future demand. Whilst this will be largely dictated by scale, efficiency, cost and technological maturity, significant improvements in existing policies and regulation will also be critical. The future role of hydrogen in the UK’s decarbonisation strategy is not clearly defined. In comparison to alternative low-carbon technologies, policy and regulatory support for hydrogen has been minimal. Whilst there is growing evidence concerning the public perception of hydrogen in UK homes, additional research is required given its many potential applications. The findings detailed in this article support the urgency for further multi-disciplinary collaborative research.

We substantiated the need for searching for, and realization of, fundamentally new approaches, using more efficient physical, heat-mass-exchanging and aerodynamic processes, which will make it possible to improve energy effectiveness and ecological cleanliness of heat generation in the systems for individual and decentralized heat supply. For the heat supply to large cities and industrial regions, we examined the advantages of using highly efficient contact heat-generators of different types, which include compactness due to low metal consumption and, as a result, attractive price. It is proposed to use a heat-generator of contact type of the new generation, with the aid of which it was possible to solve a set of problems on the qualitative combustion of fuel and effective heat exchange of gases with the heated water. The use of tubular technology for the combustion of gas is its special feature. Due to it, quality heat exchanging characteristics are provided. In view of further studies, we presented the relevance of creating heat-generators with the use of highly effective hydrogen technologies, which will make it possible to devise the new energy paradigm of heat supply for residential areas and industrial zones through the possibility of accumulation of electrical energy and accumulation of hydrogen.

ConspectusThe need to drastically reduce CO2 emissions will lead to the transformation of our current, carbon-based energy system to a more sustainable, renewable-based one. In this process, hydrogen will gain increasing importance as secondary energy vector. Energy storage requirements on the TWh scale (to bridge extended times of low wind and sun harvest) and global logistics of renewable energy equivalents will create additional driving forces toward a future hydrogen economy. However, the nature of hydrogen requires dedicated infrastructures, and this has prevented so far the introduction of elemental hydrogen into the energy sector to a large extent. Recent scientific and technological progress in handling hydrogen in chemically bound form as liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC) supports the technological vision that a future hydrogen economy may work without handling large amounts of elemental hydrogen. LOHC systems are composed of pairs of hydrogen-lean and hydrogen-rich organic compounds that st...

Today, there is a great opportunity for alternative energies and specifically for hydrogen technologies to flourish within Mexico. The opportunity for the hydrogen production research to contribute to the advance and viable application of the related technologies is today of paramount importance. The present paper is aimed to present a review of research activities in the field of hydrogen production in Mexico. Main research activities are reflected in journal publications and conference proceedings within the last seven years. These resulted in the following topics and contributions: Hydrogen production (HP) from biological processes and wastes 40.4%, followed by HP through conventional and non-conventional fuels (CO 2 capture and Catalysis) 22.4%, HP by photocatalysis and photo-electrocatalysis 14.1%, HP systems and controls 12.2%, theoretical and thermodynamic studies for HP 7.7%, and HP by electrolysis 3.2%. A wide variety of potential applications can be followed by these contributions, while the spread of this research can be a key for future national or international collaborations that may strengthen this important area to take advantage of the upcoming opportunities in the country and worldwide.

This paper presents a framework for the design and assessment of a renewable energy sources (RES)-based hydrogen supply system. We generate an integrated renewable hydrogen supply (IRHS) system that includes various types of RES and hydrogen technologies such as production, storage, and transportation. We then develop a multi-period deterministic optimization model for the IRHS system by using a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) technique. The proposed model optimizes the configuration and operational strategy of the IRHS system. The capability of the proposed model is demonstrated through its application to the design problem of Korea's future hydrogen economy. We perform an economic evaluation to identify the major parameters for the required cost of the energy system infrastructure.

Hydrogen is believed to be an important energy storage vector to fully exploit the benefit of renewable and sustainable energy. There was a rapid development of hydrogen related technologies in the past decades. This paper provides an overall survey of the key technologies in hydrogen energy storage system, ranging from hydrogen production using both fossil fuels, biomass and electricity generated from renewable power sources, to hydrogen storage in both pressurised gas, liquefied and material-based methods, as well as associated electricity generation technologies using hydrogen. The state-of-the-art and the future development of individual technology is also discussed.

In this paper the authors review the activities of Singapore-based research institutions and business players in the field of fuel cells and associated hydrogen technologies undertaken till date. The scope of this paper spans almost 15 years of accomplishments and focuses on highlighting the acquired capabilities and achievements. The review shows slow, but consistently growing research activities, demonstration undertakings and business endeavours of local and overseas companies.

The increasing demand for sustainable energy results in the development of new technologies of energy generation. The key objective of hydrogen economy is the introduction of hydrogen as main energy carrier, along with electricity, on a global scale. The key goal is the development of hydrogen-related technologies needed for hydrogen generation, hydrogen storage, hydrogen transportation and hydrogen distribution as well as hydrogen safety systems. It is commonly believed that hydrogen is environmentally clean since its combustion results in the formation of water. However, the technology currently employed for the generation of hydrogen from natural gas, does in fact lead to the emission of greenhouse gases and climate change. Therefore, the key issues in the introduction of hydrogen economy involve the development of environmentally clean hydrogen production technology as well as storage and transport. The clean options available for hydrogen generation using nuclear energy; such as advanced nuclear fission and, ultimately, nuclear fusion, are discussed. The latter, which is environmentally clean, is expected to be the primary approach in the production of hydrogen fuel at the global scale. The present work considers the effect of hydrogen on properties of TiO2 and its solid solutions in the contexts of photocatalytic energy conversion and the effect of tritium on advanced tritium breeders.

This paper provides an overview of the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) hydrogen and fuel cell activities within the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), focusing on key targets, progress towards meeting those targets, and materials-related issues that need to be addressed. The most recent, state-of-the-art data on metrics such as cost, durability, and performance of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies are presented. Key technical accomplishments to date include a 50% reduction in the modeled high volume cost of fuel cells since 2006, and an 80% cost reduction for electrolyzers since 2002. The statuses of various hydrogen production, delivery, and storage technologies are also presented along with a summary of materials-related challenges for hydrogen infrastructure technologies such as compression, dispensing, seals, pipeline materials/embrittlement, and storage materials. Specific examples and areas requiring more research are discussed. Finally, future plans including EERE’s lab consortium approach such as HyMARC (Hydrogen Storage Materials Advanced Research Consortium) and FC-PAD (Fuel Cell Performance and Durability) Consortia, are summarized.

The transit authority in Perth, Western Australia, has put several alternative fuel buses, including diesel-electric hybrid and hydrogen fuel cell buses, into revenue service over the years alongside conventional diesel and natural gas buses. Primary data from this fleet is used to construct a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) model, providing an empirical LCC result. The model is then used to forecast possible scenarios using cost estimates for next generation technologies. The methodology follows the Australian/New Zealand Standard for Life Cycle Costing, AS/NZS 4536:1999. The model outputs a dollar value in real terms that represents the LCC of each bus transportation technology. The study finds that Diesel buses deliver the lowest Total Cost of Ownership (TCO). The diesel-electric hybrid bus was found to have a TCO that is about 10% higher than conventional diesel. The premium to implement and operate a hydrogen bus, even if industry targets are attained, is still substantially greater than the TCO of a conventional diesel bus, unless a very large increase in the diesel fuel price occurs. However, the hybrid and hydrogen technologies are still very young in comparison to diesel and economies of scale are yet to be realised.

Hydrogen fuel provided via green method is renewable and environmentally friendly. However, the lack of practical storage methods has restricted its use to such an extent that hydrogen storage is currently a crucial obstacle in the development of a hydrogen economy. For mobile applications hydrogen storage system needs to be lightweight and compact. Current technologies such as compressed gas or liquefied hydrogen have severe disadvantages especially in volumetric terms compared to fossil fuels and the storage of hydrogen in light weight solids could be the solution to further enhances the energy density of hydrogen tanks. This article reveals overview of novel solid hydrogen storage materials, highlighting their main advantages and drawbacks.

The question of the role of hydrogen energy in the development of the welfare society can be seen in only one aspect, namely the decent life of a community can only be achieved with full use of hydrogen technologies. The potential of hydrogen is far from being exhausted in the traditional energy sector. As the successful solution of the problems of hydrogen storage and the creation of highly efficient fuel cells will be implemented absolutely reliable backup system own needs when abnormal modes of operation of the power plant. One of the limiting factors in the development of hydrogen energy are existing storage technologies (cryogenic and bottled) and energy consuming unsafe.

Hydrogen is one of the most promising fuel options for the future and it is considered as a green energy carrier. Nowadays, hydrogen can be produced from several energy resources, including those that are renewable and non-renewable. In this context, solar energy has a significant and unique potential in renewable based hydrogen production methods. The utilization of solar energy for hydrogen production promises to be one of the most viable options to replace fossil-based hydrogen production. In this paper, various solar-based hydrogen production methods are discussed and compared in terms of their pros and cons.

The assessment of public perception and social acceptance of hydrogen energy systems is crucial to avoid reluctance to the deployment of hydrogen technology and infrastructure. However, the number of regional studies evaluating these aspects is scarce. This work aims at assessing the attitude of the Spanish society towards the potential role of hydrogen for transportation. A quantitative approach was followed through the design and open electronic distribution of a survey with 12 closed-ended questions. The final size of the sample involved 1005 respondents. The analysis of the responses provided relevant information under three main aspects: perception of the concept “hydrogen”; supporting attitude towards the implementation of hydrogen technologies and infrastructure; and determining factors for the purchase of a hydrogen vehicle. Overall, the respondents are willing to accept hydrogen as a key energy carrier within the energy and transport sector. Nevertheless, further policy, industry and research efforts are required in order to overcome current obstacles hampering the success of hydrogen. The results of this study may be relevant not only to hydrogen stakeholders and decision-makers in Spain but also to counterparts in other regions without strong initiatives towards a well-established hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen is expected to play a key role as an energy carrier in future energy systems of the world. As fossil-fuel supplies become scarcer and environmental concerns increase, hydrogen is likely to become an increasingly important chemical energy carrier and eventually may become the principal chemical energy carrier. When most of the world’s energy sources become non-fossil based, hydrogen and electricity are expected to be the two dominant energy carriers for the provision of end-use services. In such a “hydrogen economy,” the two complementary energy carriers, hydrogen and electricity, are used to satisfy most of the requirements of energy consumers. A transition era will bridge the gap between today’s fossil-fuel economy and a hydrogen economy, in which non-fossil-derived hydrogen will be used to extend the lifetime of the world’s fossil fuels—by upgrading heavy oils, for instance—and the infrastructure needed to support a hydrogen economy is gradually developed. In this paper, the role of hydrogen as an energy carrier and hydrogen energy systems’ technologies and their economics are described. Also, the social and political implications of hydrogen energy are examined, and the questions of when and where hydrogen is likely to become important are addressed. Examples are provided to illustrate key points.

The article reports on the technical regulation issues related with safety of use of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies taking into account requirements of legislative and normative-technical base of the Russian Federation, the countries of the Eurasian union and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology (ROSSTANDART) participates in work of the ISO and IEC on developing the standards in the field of fuel cells and hydrogen technologies focused on harmonization of safety requirements in the market of industrially developed countries. To date ROSSTANDART introduced more than 30 standards regulating safety requirements in the specified spheres of activity the most part of which is identical to ISO and IEC international standards. Implementation of technical policy of the Russian Federation in the field of fuel cells and hydrogen technologies in the internal market is performed within system of technical regulation of the Customs union of the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) comprising at the present time such states as are: the Republic of Belarus (1991), Kazakhstan (1991), Russia (1991), Armenia (2015), Kyrgyzstan (2015). Safety issues in the field of technologies of fuel cells and the related hydrogen technologies are regulated by the corresponding technical regulations of the Customs union, and also standards of the Euro Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC) representing regional association of national authorities on standardization of the states entering the CIS.

A technoeconomic analysis of photoelectrochemical (PEC) and photovoltaic-electrolytic (PV-E) solar-hydrogen production of 10 000 kg H_2 day^(−1) (3.65 kilotons per year) was performed to assess the economics of each technology, and to provide a basis for comparison between these technologies as well as within the broader energy landscape. Two PEC systems, differentiated primarily by the extent of solar concentration (unconcentrated and 10× concentrated) and two PV-E systems, differentiated by the degree of grid connectivity (unconnected and grid supplemented), were analyzed. In each case, a base-case system that used established designs and materials was compared to prospective systems that might be envisioned and developed in the future with the goal of achieving substantially lower overall system costs. With identical overall plant efficiencies of 9.8%, the unconcentrated PEC and non-grid connected PV-E system base-case capital expenses for the rated capacity of 3.65 kilotons H_2 per year were $205 MM ($293 per m^2 of solar collection area (m_S^(−2)), $14.7 W_(H2,P)^(−1)) and $260 MM ($371 m_S^(−2), $18.8 W_(H2,P)^(−1)), respectively. The untaxed, plant-gate levelized costs for the hydrogen product (LCH) were $11.4 kg^(−1) and $12.1 kg^(−1) for the base-case PEC and PV-E systems, respectively. The 10× concentrated PEC base-case system capital cost was $160 MM ($428 m_S^(−2), $11.5 W_(H2,P)^(−1)) and for an efficiency of 20% the LCH was $9.2 kg^(−1). Likewise, the grid supplemented base-case PV-E system capital cost was $66 MM ($441 m_S^(−2), $11.5 W_(H2,P)^(−1)), and with solar-to-hydrogen and grid electrolysis system efficiencies of 9.8% and 61%, respectively, the LCH was $6.1 kg^(−1). As a benchmark, a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) based grid-connected electrolysis system was analyzed. Assuming a system efficiency of 61% and a grid electricity cost of $0.07 kWh^(−1), the LCH was $5.5 kg^(−1). A sensitivity analysis indicated that, relative to the base-case, increases in the system efficiency could effect the greatest cost reductions for all systems, due to the areal dependencies of many of the components. The balance-of-systems (BoS) costs were the largest factor in differentiating the PEC and PV-E systems. No single or combination of technical advancements based on currently demonstrated technology can provide sufficient cost reductions to allow solar hydrogen to directly compete on a levelized cost basis with hydrogen produced from fossil energy. Specifically, a cost of CO_2 greater than ∼$800 (ton CO_2)^(−1) was estimated to be necessary for base-case PEC hydrogen to reach price parity with hydrogen derived from steam reforming of methane priced at $12 GJ^(−1) ($1.39 (kg H_2)^(−1)). A comparison with low CO_2 and CO_2-neutral energy sources indicated that base-case PEC hydrogen is not currently cost-competitive with electrolysis using electricity supplied by nuclear power or from fossil-fuels in conjunction with carbon capture and storage. Solar electricity production and storage using either batteries or PEC hydrogen technologies are currently an order of magnitude greater in cost than electricity prices with no clear advantage to either battery or hydrogen storage as of yet. Significant advances in PEC technology performance and system cost reductions are necessary to enable cost-effective PEC-derived solar hydrogen for use in scalable grid-storage applications as well as for use as a chemical feedstock precursor to CO_2-neutral high energy-density transportation fuels. Hence such applications are an opportunity for foundational research to contribute to the development of disruptive approaches to solar fuels generation systems that can offer higher performance at much lower cost than is provided by current embodiments of solar fuels generators. Efforts to directly reduce CO_2 photoelectrochemically or electrochemically could potentially produce products with higher value than hydrogen, but many, as yet unmet, challenges include catalytic efficiency and selectivity, and CO_2 mass transport rates and feedstock cost. Major breakthroughs are required to obtain viable economic costs for solar hydrogen production, but the barriers to achieve cost-competitiveness with existing large-scale thermochemical processes for CO_2 reduction are even greater.

Hydrogen sourced from energy recovery processes and conversion of waste materials is a method of providing both a clean fuel and a sustainable waste management alternative to landfill and incineration. The question is whether waste-to–hydrogen can become part of the zero-carbon future energy mix and serve as one of the cleaner hydrogen sources which is economically viable and environmentally friendly. This work critically assessed the potential of waste as a source of hydrogen production via various thermochemical (gasification and pyrolysis) and biochemical (fermentation and photolysis) processes. Research has shown hydrogen production yields of 33.6 mol/kg and hydrogen concentrations of 82% from mixed waste feedstock gasification. Biochemical methods such as fermentation can produce hydrogen up to 418.6 mL/g. Factors including feedstock quality, process requirements and technology availability were reviewed to guide technology selection and system design. Current technology status and bottlenecks were discussed to shape future development priorities. These bottlenecks include expensive production and operation processes, heterogeneous feedstock, low process efficiencies, inadequate management and logistics, and lack of policy support. Improvements to hydrogen yields and production rates are related to feedstock processing and advanced energy efficiency processes such as torrefaction of feedstock which has shown thermal efficiency of gasification up to 4 MJ/kg. This will affect the economic feasibility and concerns around required improvements to bring the costs down to allow waste to viewed as a serious competitor for hydrogen production. Recommendations were also made for financially competitive waste-to-hydrogen development to be part of a combined solution for future energy needs.

Hydrogen technologies will become more prominent in the next coming years, in particular systems operating at close to ambient temperature, in the context of sustainability and renewable energies. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) has been the most primary part of the conventional polymer electrolyte fuel cells as well as unitized regenerative fuel cells. This paper summarizes the important steps and latest developments in the preparation of the assembly such as membrane treatment, preparation of electrodes followed by hot pressing for low temperature (

A potential solution to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector is to use alternatively fueled vehicles (AFV). Heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) emit a large share of GHG emissions in the transport sector and are therefore the subject of growing attention from global regulators. Fuel cell and green hydrogen technologies are a promising option to decarbonize HDVs, as their fast refueling and long vehicle ranges are consistent with current logistic operational requirements. Moreover, the application of green hydrogen in transport could enable more effective integration of renewable energies (RE) across different energy sectors. This paper explores the interplay between HDV Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) that produce hydrogen locally and the power system by combining an infrastructure location planning model and an electricity system optimization model that takes grid expansion options into account. Two scenarios – one sizing refueling stations to support the power system and one sizing them independently of it – are assessed regarding their impacts on the total annual electricity system costs, regional RE integration and the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). The impacts are calculated based on locational marginal pricing for 2050. Depending on the integration scenario, we find average LCOH of between 4.83 euro/kg and 5.36 euro/kg, for which nodal electricity prices are the main determining factor as well as a strong difference in LCOH between north and south Germany. Adding HDV-HRS incurs power transmission expansion as well as higher power supply costs as the total power demand increases. From a system perspective, investing in HDV-HRS in symbiosis with the power system rather than independently promises cost savings of around seven billion euros per annum. We therefore conclude that the co-optimization of multiple energy sectors is important for investment planning and has the potential to exploit synergies.

Durability and performance of electrochemical energy converters such as fuel cells and electrolysers are not only dependent on the properties and the quality of the used materials. They strongly depend on operation conditions. Variations in external parameters, such as flow, pressure, temperature and, obviously, load can lead to significant local changes of current density, even local transients. The segmented cell technology was developed with the purpose to gain insight into local operation conditions in electrochemical cells, during operation. The operando measurement of the local current density and temperature distribution allows effective improvement of operation conditions, mitigation of potentially critical events and assessment of the performance of new materials. The segmented cell, which can replace a regular bipolar plate in the current state of the technology, can be used as monitoring tool and for targeted developments. This article gives an overview over the development and applications for proton exchange membrane fuel cell of this technology, such as water management or fault recognition. Recent advancements towards locally resolved monitoring of humidity and to current distributions in electrolysers are outlined.

There is increasing interest in carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) and hydrogen-based technologies for decarbonising energy systems and providing flexibility. However, the overall value of these technologies is vigorously debated. Value chain optimisation can determine how carbon dioxide and hydrogen technologies will fit into existing value chains in the energy and chemicals sectors and how effectively they can assist in meeting climate change targets. This is the first study to model and optimise the integrated value chains for carbon dioxide and hydrogen, providing a whole-system assessment of the role of CCUS and hydrogen technologies within the energy system. The results show that there are opportunities for CCUS to decarbonise existing power generation capacity but long-term decarbonisation and flexibility can be achieved at lower cost through renewables and hydrogen storage. Methanol produced from carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) becomes profitable at a price range of £72–102/MWh, compared to a current market price of about £52/MWh. However, this remains well below existing prices for transport fuels, so there is an opportunity to displace existing fuel demands with CCU products. Nonetheless, the scope for decarbonisation from these CCU pathways is small. For investment in carbon capture and storage to become attractive, additional drivers such as decarbonisation of industry and negative emissions policies are required. The model and the insights presented in this paper will be valuable to policymakers and investors for assessing the potential value of the technologies considered and the policies required to incentivise their uptake.

The spread of electric mobility in Germany lags far behind government's targets. High vehicle and energy prices, the limited vehicle range and obligatory time-consuming conductive charging processes are the main obstacles to mass adoption. Strategic mobility concepts, such as electric vehicles with high performance batteries (BEV), hydrogen technologies (FCEV), or dynamic inductive charging (IPTEV), i.e. a constant energy supply while the vehicle is in motion, can overcome those obstacles in Germany and beyond. Numerous studies investigated the different energy sources and compared potential drive technologies. However, in most prior studies, only partial aspects of a specific technology are considered. The contribution of this study is in providing a comprehensive technology comparison, enabling a thorough analysis and evaluation of various technological alternatives for solving the range problem of electric vehicles. For this purpose, a general framework as well as technology-specific key indicators and aspects are presented. The holistic evaluation of the technologies is carried out on the basis of specially defined evaluation criteria, with the focus on passenger car and commercial vehicle applications. In order to ensure a comparison that is as unbiased and objective as possible, measures are adjusted to avoid bias of key figures. Finally, the consideration of foreseeable macroeconomic and technological developments should ensure that long-term valid statements can also be derived from the results of the investigation.

Understand, Select, and Design Sensors for Hydrogen-Based Applications The use of hydrogen generated from renewable energy sources is expected to become an essential component of a low-carbon, environmentally friendly energy supply, spurring the worldwide development of hydrogen technologies. Sensors for Safety and Process Control in Hydrogen Technologies provides practical, expert-driven information on modern sensors for hydrogen and other gases as well as physical parameters essential for safety and process control in hydrogen technologies. It illustrates how sensing technologies can ensure the safe and efficient implementation of the emerging global hydrogen market. The book explains the various facets of sensor technologies, including practical aspects relevant in hydrogen technologies. It presents a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the theory (physical and chemical principles), design, and implementations of sensors in hydrogen technologies. The authors also offer guidance on the development of new sensors based on the analysis of the capabilities and limitations of existing sensors with respect to current performance requirements. Suitable for both technical and non-technical personnel, the book provides a balance between detailed descriptions and simple explanations. It gives invaluable insight into the role sensors play as key enabling devices for both control and safety in established and emerging hydrogen technologies.

The introduction of hydrogen technologies in the automotive and energy industry requires research in all areas of its possible application including production of hydrogen, through its operation. All of these stages are burdened by the risk caused by interaction of hydrogen with the environment and technological subject. Security group risks represent significant risk of handling hydrogen due to the possibility of explosion. Based on the risk value, the safety level of the individual subsystems of hydrogen production and utilization process is subsequently assessed. Consequently, it is possible to assess the overall safety of the mobile system based on the final/resulting value of the risk. In case of improper handling, technical failure/incident or unexpected adverse event, there is a risk of hydrogen leak into the environment. With the wide range of explosive capacity of hydrogen-air mixture, it can represent a high risk of explosion with a relatively little energy initialization.

Previous studies have noted the importance of electricity storage and hydrogen technologies for enabling large-scale variable renewable energy (VRE) deployment in long-term climate change mitigation scenarios. However, global studies, which typically use integrated assessment models, assume a fixed cost trajectory for storage and hydrogen technologies; thereby ignoring the sensitivity of VRE deployment and/or mitigation costs to uncertainties in future storage and hydrogen technology costs. Yet there is vast uncertainty in the future costs of these technologies, as reflected in the range of projected costs in the literature. This study uses the integrated assessment model, MESSAGE, to explore the implications of future storage and hydrogen technology costs for low-carbon energy transitions across the reported range of projected technology costs. Techno-economic representations of electricity storage and hydrogen technologies, including utility-scale batteries, pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and hydrogen electrolysis, are introduced to MESSAGE and scenarios are used to assess the sensitivity of long-term VRE deployment and mitigation costs across the range of projected technology costs. The results demonstrate that large-scale deployment of electricity storage technologies only occurs when techno-economic assumptions are optimistic. Although pessimistic storage and hydrogen costs reduce the deployment of these technologies, large VRE shares are supported in carbon-constrained futures by the deployment of other low-carbon flexible technologies, such as hydrogen combustion turbines and concentrating solar power with thermal storage. However, the cost of the required energy transition is larger. In the absence of carbon policy, pessimistic hydrogen and storage costs significantly decrease VRE deployment while increasing coal-based electricity generation. Thus, R&D investments that lower the costs of storage and hydrogen technologies are important for reducing emissions in the absence of climate policy and for reducing mitigation costs in the presence of climate policy.

One of the priority tasks of modern power engineering is the development of renewable energy sources (RES). Solar and wind are usually used as primary energy sources for RES based power plants. If there is an extended sea or ocean line, the energy of tidal and wave power plants can be used as an effective renewable source. Highly efficient energy storage systems can be created on the basis of hydrogen technologies. The main advantages of hydrogen energy storage systems are: high efficiency (efficiency can reach 50% for fuel cells and 80% for electrolyzers), low inertia, long service life, minimum start time. The water electrolyzer is one of the three key elements of energy storage systems based on hydrogen energy technologies. In this paper, a modern type of high pressure alkaline water electrolyzers (up to 100 bars) intended for the accumulation of renewable energy is described.

We conducted experimental studies aimed at determining the purity of hydrogen obtained at the electrolysis installation made by Hydrogen Technologies (Norway) at the pipe plant Centravis Production Ukraine in the city of Nikopol, Ukraine.It was established that the determination of hydrogen purity and the degree of its purification from impurities (nitrogen) in microconcentrations involves two stages of measurements:− research into the presence of nitrogen in the samples of production hydrogen in the microconcentrations of [[N2] 0.001−0.01 % (rough estimate);− research into the presence of nitrogen in the samples of production hydrogen in the microconcentrations of [[N2] 0.001−0.01 % (fine assessment).We determined that the purity of production hydrogen, obtained during research, was 99.9±0.1 %. A given value for purity does not match certification indicators for purity of production hydrogen claimed by the manufacturer to equal 99.9999 %.We analyzed the reasons for the mismatch between the purity of obtained hydrogen and claimed characteristics. A detailed analysis revealed that the possible cause of high nitrogen concentration in hydrogen is the worn piston rings in the stage of compressor pistons, which causes the penetration of nitrogen in microconcentrations into production hydrogen. Piston rings in the compressor's stage were replaced. Repeated studies into purity of production hydrogen indicate that the purity of production hydrogen amounted to 99.99±0.01 %, which corresponds to the hydrogen of grade A., На діючій електролізній установці на водневій станції отримання водню виконані дослідження чистоти продукційного водню високого ступеню очищення на вміст у ньому мікроконцентрації азоту на рівні 0,00005−0,0001 %. Для достовірності контролю чистоти технічного водню застосована цифрова фільтрація сигналу хроматографа, що заснована на байєсовському підході при мовах априорної невизначеності результатів досліджень. Визначена чистота отриманого продукційного водню на відповідність сертифікаційним показниками чистоти водню марки А, На действующей электролизной установке водородной станции получения водорода выполнены исследования чистоты продукционного водорода высокой степени очистки на содержание в нем микроконцентрации азота на уровне 0,00005−0,0001 %. Для достоверности контроля чистоты технического водорода применена цифровая фильтрация сигнала хроматографа, основанная на байесовском подходе при условии априорной неопределенности результатов исследований. Определенна чистота полученного продукционного водорода на соответствие сертификационным показателями чистоты водорода марки А

A wide range of problems related to the scientific and technical direction “Hydrogen energy and environmentally friendly technologies” is considered. The data on the physicochemical and thermotechnical properties of hydrogen as the most universal environmentally friendly energy carrier and its use in modern energy are presented. Based on the results of fundamental research in the field of thermodynamics, thermal physics, strength and reliability of power plant designs, conceptual approaches to the creation of new equipment based on hydrogen technologies have been developed to increase the efficiency of using alternative energy sources and renewable energy sources. Scientific and technical aspects of energy-saving technology for producing hydrogen in membraneless high-pressure power lines are described, and thermodynamic cycles and schemes of energy-technological installations using hydrogen as a working medium or an environmentally friendly energy carrier are programmed. Based on the results of thermogasdynamic analysis of energy conversion processes, quantitative characteristics of the influence of regime and design factors on their energy and environmental efficiency are obtained. For energy specialists, researchers, graduate students and students of energy specialties.

This paper aims to analyze the dynamics of the emergence of Corsican hydrogen storage. Using a science studies approach and ethnographic interviews, we look into the socio-technical conditions of the expansion of the project. Trials and controversies, doubts, oppositions of value, and legitimizations take part in the construction of the hydrogen economy and local system. Considering the island context, we demonstrate the close links between the technical aspects and the political obligations, the need for structural modifications, and the impacts of stakeholders moving during the project.

Current lifestyle makes energy to be essential beyond satisfying our basic needs. Nowadays, is not possible to talk about energy without dealing with its effect on the climate. The European Union (EU) consider that energy must be secure, competitive and sustainable and the energy union and climate is a European Commission’s priority. The EU’s Energy Union framework strategy was adopted back on February of 2015 and since then, the State of the Energy Union shows by its reports the progress made and the new targets and initiatives for the closest years. The Energy Union’s strategy is hold up by five key pillars mutually reinforcing which are: energy security, market integration, energy efficiency, decarbonisation of the economy and innovation. The EU’s Energy Union supports numerous cutting edge innovation projects where hydrogen is used. The main proposes related with hydrogen are for nuclear energy applications, energy storage and fuel cells. Hydrogen, which is the most abundant element in the universe, can be converted to electricity through electrochemical processes in a fuel cell in a single step and without any moving part. In addition, in a fuel cell the by-products are waste heat and water. For these reasons, fuel cells technology (specially PEMFCs technology) have the potential to be a element to take into account in energy production satisfying the global warming targets. However, PEMFCs need more research and development and an H2 large scale infrastructure. Nowadays, only the 4% of the hydrogen consumed is produced by electrolysis, the 96% left came from fossil fuels. The present bachelor thesis focuses in one of the main current challenges in fuel cell industry: water management. A correct water management is a key factor for high PEMFC performance and durability. In order to achieve a global vision of water management and also to set a zone of stable operation in the UC3M PEMFC laboratory for upcoming works this bachelor thesis is divided in 5 main chapters. The first chapter focuses in fuel cell technology from its origin to its nowadays main applications. The second chapter deals with the PEMFC and its state of art. In the third chapter a simplified modelling of balance of mass and water is performed for a theoretical analysis of the experimental conditions. The fourth chapter summarizes all the experiments performed in the UC3M PEMFC laboratory and gives as a result a zone of stable operation that will be useful for further projects. Finally, a global conclusion of the results obtained over the bachelor thesis is presented. This present bachelor thesis involves the starting point for future hydrogen PEMFC investigation in the UC3M. Ingeniería de la Energía

Due to its environmentally benign properties, hydrogen has been discussed as a future “energy vector.” Key applications for hydrogen are as a carbon-free fuel and as a fuel for hydrogen-driven fuel cells for automotive applications. Hydrogen is being used in fuel cells typically in units of capacity from 50 kW to 1 MW. The application of fuel cells has not grown as fast as predicted due to high investment costs as well as competition from advanced gas turbines. Lately, hydrogen driven fuel cells (30–50 kW) have attracted great interest for mobile applications. The issue, then, is where to produce the hydrogen: in large centralized plants, at gas stations, or in the car. Difficulties in storing sufficient hydrogen mean that commercial vehicles will probably involve hydrogen generation onboard the vehicle from hydrocarbons or methanol. In areas with a high cost of hydrocarbon feedstock, methanol may be considered an alternative. One possible scheme involves production of methanol in an area with very inexpensive natural gas, with subsequent transportation of the methanol to the hydrogen plant. A methanol-based hydrogen plant is a simple unit and less costly than a natural gas and naphtha-based plant with a steam reformer. In this chapter, after discussing conventional methods of hydrogen production from methanol (reforming and partial oxidation), we will be focused on extending the new technology applications such as solar energy systems, membrane reactors, and microreactors in hydrogen production from methanol feedstock during reforming processes. Moreover, the prospects and future challenges of these new technologies are also highlighted.

Hydrogen has been often recognized as the likely energy carrier for the future energy systems because it would represent the universal remedy for the growing concerns in accordance with fossil resource depletion, global warming, and increased air pollution. The benefits are motivated given the great number of primary energy sources used for its production, such as natural gas, coal, biomass, and water, contributing toward greater energy safety and flexibility. Generally, hydrogen is produced, stored, and then transported to the end users; in general, it must be transported from production plants to the storage or demand points. So that, the delivery process of its supply chain brings new hazards exposures. Hence, a safe and sustainable transition to the use of hydrogen requires that the safety issues associated with the hydrogen have to be investigated and fully understood. For planning and installing on a large-scale production and distribution infrastructure in urban areas, good standards and best practices are indispensable. Safe practices in the production, storage, distribution, and use of hydrogen are essential for the widespread acceptance of hydrogen technologies. Public authorities have to find the correct balance between socially important standards in terms of safety and promoting R&D in the hydrogen sector. It may be reasonable not to set standards too strictly during premarket development, in order to maintain enough stimuli for private investment in R&D.

Spanish company Ajusa Hydrogen Technologies and the Thermal Engineering Group at the University of Sevilla are completing a research project named AGUAPEM (Research on water management in PEM Fuel Cells and optimisation of their power systems), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

As the interest in hydrogen energy is being increased, it is a widely issue to develop a lot of hydrogen technologies in the field of production, storage, transportation, application and others. In the aftermath, there is a hydrogen town in Ul San, which is expected to expand application fields of hydrogen energy, as a demonstration project. The hydrogen town in Ul San can consist of high and low pressure part by the gas pressure. The high pressure part is managed by 'the high pressure gas safety control act'. And, low pressure part is managed by 'the guideline for the safety management of demonstration project of hydrogen town'. In this paper, to improve efficiency of safety management, the direction of safety management is reviewed by an analysis of low pressure hydrogen facility and safety management items. And then, some improvement directions are suggested. In the end, it is expected that the results of this study could help to activate construction of hydrogen town and improve efficiency of safety management as well.

This article discusses the implementation of national standards on the application of hydrogen as a fuel. There are several entities involved in this activity in the Russian Federation, namely, National Association of Hydrogen Energy (NAHE) supported by the Technical Committee for Standardization TC 029 "Hydrogen Technologies" of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology (GOST R). The article presents the international classification of hydrogen fuel and gives a summary of the Russian national standards and draft standards dedicated to hydrogen application as a fuel. By now, 22 national standards on hydrogen and fuel cell technologies have been implemented and the other 10 draft standards are under development. Four active standards determine the requirements for physical and chemical properties of hydrogen as a commercial product, two of them provide the requirements for physical and chemical properties of hydrogen used as a fuel for various types of power plants. Besides that, we have one draft standard on the requirements for hydrogen used as a fuel for stationary fuel cell power plants with proton exchange membranes. In accordance with the national standardization program this draft standard is to be introduced by 2016-2017.

Off-grid hybrid systems, based on the integration of hydrogen technologies (electrolysers, hydrogen stores and fuel cells) with battery and wind/solar power technologies, are proposed for satisfying the continuous power demands of telecom remote base stations. A model was developed to investigate the preferred role for electrolytic hydrogen within a hybrid system; the analysis focused on powering a 1 kW telecom load in three locations of distinct wind and solar resource availability. When compared with otherwise equivalent off-grid renewable energy systems employing only battery energy storage, the results show that the integration of a 1 kW fuel cell and a 1.6 kW electrolyser at each location is sufficient, in combination with a hydrogen storage capacity of between 13 and 31 kg, to reduce the required battery capacity by 54–77%, to increase the minimum state-of-charge from 37 to 55% to >81.5% year-round despite considerable seasonal variation in supply, and to reduce the amount of wasted renewable power by 55–79%. For the growing telecom sector, the proposed hybrid system provides a ‘green’ solution, which is preferable to shipping hydrogen or diesel to remote base stations.

While hydrogen is a promising source of clean energy, the safety and optimization of hydrogen technologies rely on controlling ignition through explosion limits: pressure-temperature boundaries separating explosive behavior from comparatively slow burning. Here, we show that the emergent nonequilibrium chemistry of combustible mixtures can exhibit the quantitative features of a phase transition. With stochastic simulations of the chemical kinetics for a model mechanism of hydrogen combustion, we show that the boundaries marking explosive domains of kinetic behavior are nonequilibrium critical points. Near the pressure of the second explosion limit, these critical points terminate the transient coexistence of dynamical phases-one that autoignites and another that progresses slowly. Below the critical point temperature, the chemistry of these phases is indistinguishable. In the large system limit, the pseudo-critical temperature converges to the temperature of the second explosion limit derived from mass-action kinetics.

Future energy systems will be determined by the increasing relevance of solar and wind energy. Crude oil and gas prices are expected to increase in the long run, and penalties for CO2 emissions will become a relevant economic factor. Solar- and wind-powered electricity will become significantly cheaper, such that hydrogen produced from electrolysis will be competitively priced against hydrogen manufactured from natural gas. However, to handle the unsteadiness of system input from fluctuating energy sources, energy storage technologies that cover the full scale of power (in megawatts) and energy storage amounts (in megawatt hours) are required. Hydrogen, in particular, is a promising secondary energy vector for storing, transporting, and distributing large and very large amounts of energy at the gigawatt-hour and terawatt-hour scales. However, we also discuss energy storage at the 120–200-kWh scale, for example, for onboard hydrogen storage in fuel cell vehicles using compressed hydrogen storage. This article focuses on the characteristics and development potential of hydrogen storage technologies in light of such a changing energy system and its related challenges. Technological factors that influence the dynamics, flexibility, and operating costs of unsteady operation are therefore highlighted in particular. Moreover, the potential for using renewable hydrogen in the mobility sector, industrial production, and the heat market is discussed, as this potential may determine to a significant extent the future economic value of hydrogen storage technology as it applies to other industries. This evaluation elucidates known and well-established options for hydrogen storage and may guide the development and direction of newer, less developed technologies.

The relevance is established by the widespread titanium application in the modern machine engineering on the one hand, on the other hand – by low manufacturability. In this context, this article is aimed to exposure fundamental laws of the reversing hydrogen alloying for the titanium alloys manufacturability improvement during the plastic yield process. Deformability of titanium alloys, formation of the structure and properties during deformation and the influence of hydrogen on these processes has been extensively studied recently [1-14]. The leading research approach is to determine stress-related characteristics by the compression-test method at the isothermal conditions and then to compare the results for three different alloys: commercial titanium, α - Ti-6Al alloy and α+β – Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Hydrogen alloying is also used as a flexible phase composition management tool for the investigated alloys. In this paper the effect of hydrogen as an alloying element on the yield stress in commercial titanium and Ti-6Al and Ti-6Al-4V alloys is investigated. The connection is made between the strain resistance and phase composition in the wide range of temperatures. It has been found that the hydrogen alloying of commercial titanium in the α-field is accompanied by the yield stress decrease. The role of volume phase ratio in the alloys softening in α+β-field has been shown. The hydrogen hardening parameters in α-field are defined. The paper materials are of a usage value for researchers and technologists, developing innovative technological processes of strained semi-finished titanium products manufacturing.