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This paper describes the morphology of the feet of a population of elite women from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE) in Shaanxi province. This is a social stratum, time, and place in which foot binding was practiced. Among a group of 31 skeletons exhumed from the cemetery, eight were women with well-preserved foot bones. Macroscopic examination revealed that half these women (4/8) had clearly altered foot bones: the metatarsal bones, and the few observable phalanges, were gracile and small, while the tarsal bones exhibited a slight reduction in size but no dramatic change in morphology. The other half of the women (4/8) had apparently unmodified metatarsal bones. T-tests comparing linear measurements of the foot bones between the two groups revealed that metatarsal bones were the most affected by binding, and among the tarsal bones, the talar trochlea and calcaneal dimensions were most impacted. This small group of skeletons reveals that some elite women in Shaanxi apparently still did not practice foot binding in the late Ming dynasty, or practiced a much milder form of foot binding, and that there was considerable variation even among those who did practice it.

Background and Aims Nucleotide Oligomerisation Domain 2 [NOD2] is a key gene of innate immunity which participates in the host defence against pathogens. Several loss-of-function NOD2 mutations are associated with Crohn’s disease [CD]. Their high frequencies in populations of European ancestry suggest a model of balancing selection. Because NOD2 deficiency has been associated with a resistance to Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in mice, we hypothesised that NOD2 mutations have been selected during past plague outbreaks due to the closely related bacterium Yersinia pestis. Methods Contemporary frequencies of the main CD-associated NOD2 mutations [R702W, G908R, and 1007fs], measured in healthy people from European and Mediterranean countries, were collected from 60 studies via a PubMed search. Plague exposure was calculated from a dataset providing outbreaks from 1346 to 1860 in Europe and the Mediterranean Bassin. A plague index was built to capture the intensity of plague exposure in the studied geographical areas. Results NOD2 mutation frequencies were associated with the past exposure to plague. Statistical significance was obtained for the most frequent mutation [R702W, p = 0.03] and for the pooled three mutations [p = 0.023]. The association remained significant when putative demographic biases were considered. Conclusions This result argues for a selection of CD-associated NOD2 mutations by plague outbreaks and further questioned the role of exposure to enteropathogenic Yersinia species in CD.

Objective: Increased prevalence of dental caries evidently is correlated with increasing intake of sugar and carbohydrate-rich foods. Preceding and accompanying this dietary alteration might have been a shift from a hunting-and-gathering subsistence strategy to one based on agriculture. We corroborated this conjecture by means of a study on the prevalence of caries, antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) and tooth wear among 16th to 19th century hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists who co-existed in West Siberia. Design: Indigenous skeletons (n = 75) exhumed from Tatar, Selkup, Khant, and Nenet graves along with Russian settler skeletons (n = 79) from Izyuk were examined. The prevalence of caries, AMTL and tooth wear among the indigenous peoples were compared with those among the Russian settlers. The resulting statistical inferences were tested using package R. Results: The agriculturalist Russian settlers showed a significantly higher prevalence of dental caries (11.88%) than did the non-agriculturalist indigenous Siberian people (3.85%). Among the latter, the prevalence was the lowest in the Khanty and the highest in the Tatars, suggesting that caries differently affected each sub-group of indigenous Siberian people. Correspondingly to the case of dental caries, the Russian settlers’ AMTL prevalence also was higher than that of the indigenous Siberians, regardless of age. On the other hand, the native Siberians and the Russian settlers did not show statistical differences in tooth wear. Conclusion: In the study on 16th to 19th century West Siberian populations, we were able to corroborate our presumption that agriculturalists ingesting a carbohydrate-rich diet would have higher rates of dental caries and AMTL than would hunter-gatherers.

OBJECTIVES This study provides a comprehensive analysis of crypt fenestration enamel defects (CFEDs) from the Eten and Morrope communities, Colonial period (A.D. 1,530-1,750), Lambayeque Valley, Peru. The goal is to help clarify the role of these lesions as reflections of early life environments as well as relationships growth and survival at future ages. MATERIALS AND METHODS CFED absence/presence was recorded in the mandibular canines of 105 individuals and 202 teeth. Defect prevalence was compared between the Eten and Morrope sites using a proportions test. Femoral growth residuals were compared between CFED present and absent samples. Mortality risk was evaluated using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. RESULTS CFED frequencies at Eten and Morrope were similar to previous studies. Greater frequencies of CFEDs were found at Eten compared to Morrope. There was no association between skeletal growth and CFEDs. No differences in mortality were found between CFED present and absent individuals within each site. General survivorship at Eten was significantly greater than Morrope. However, individuals without CFEDs at Eten had greater survivorship than those with and without CFEDs at Morrope. Individuals with CFEDs at Eten had greater survivorship than those with CFEDs at Morrope. These differences begin around 1.7 years. CONCLUSIONS CFEDs may be associated with stress experience, but associations with growth and survivorship at later ages is context dependent. CFED prevalence is an ambiguous indicator of stress when used in the absence of mortality data, and even under those circumstances, appears limited by differences in local demography.

Microsurgery is a term used to describe the surgical techniques that require an operating microscope and the necessary specialized instrumentation, the three "Ms" of Microsurgery (microscope, microinstruments and microsutures). Over the years, the crucial factor that transformed the notion of microsurgery itself was the anastomosis of successively smaller blood vessels and nerves that have allowed transfer of tissue from one part of the body to another and re-attachment of severed parts. Currently, with obtained experience, microsurgical techniques are used by several surgical specialties such as general surgery, ophthalmology, orthopaedics, gynecology, otolaryngology, neurosurgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, plastic surgery and more. This article highlights the most important innovations and milestones in the history of microsurgery through the ages that allowed the inauguration and establishment of microsurgical techniques in the field of surgery.

Skeletal lesions related to metabolic diseases in children have been systematically investigated in paleopathological literature only in recent years. This work presents an infant pathological specimen from the post-medieval cemetery of the St. Mary's Nativity church (15th-18th centuries, Segno, Trento, Trentino, Northeast Italy). The bones belonged to an individual of 9 ± 3 months of age, estimated upon an assessment of the stage of dental eruption. Metabolic diseases were diagnosed with paleopathological criteria according to previous literature. Differential diagnosis of the osteological evidence indicates a disease that might be caused by the lack of vitamin D or C. Comorbidity of vitamin C and D deficiency has been widely studied in clinical literature, particularly in children between 3 months and 5 years of age. The study of ancient osteoarchaeological materials allows us to improve our knowledge on diseases' effects on bone development in children and, in this case, it represents additional evidence of the presence of metabolic diseases in a rural contest of the Italian post-medieval period.

There is an almost innate urge in human beings to represent reality in a visual form. From rock art in the Paleolithic to images of galaxies, the quotidian and the extraordinary have been visually represented through the ages. Medical and scientific disciplines are no exception. Accurate representation of the human body structures and anatomy based on cadaver dissections was almost not possible up to the Renaissance due to ethical, social, and religious beliefs and objections. The works of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and others and, later, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), who produced De Humanis Corporis Fabrica, are considered landmarks in the history of medicine. During the following centuries medical and scientific illustration relied upon the expertise of physician-artists and scientist-artists until a new paradigm appeared in the realm of scientific (medical) illustration: the invention of photography in the 19th century. Two of the medical disciplines most rapidly influenced by photography were dermatology and pathology, both macro- and microscopic. Physicians rapidly started to use photographs as a tool for consultation, documentation, and education, and large collections of images were amassed by individuals and institutions for these purposes. Photographic images are produced by visible light impressing a light-sensitive material such as a silver halide plate, and nowadays a silicon chip. But photons are reflected by nontransparent objects, including the human skin. Developments in science and technology allowed the use of other types of radiation to reveal internal structures in the human body and, most interestingly, noninvasively. Thus today much of the medical diagnosis and treatment is guided by the so-called medical imaging with the use of these techniques, that is, medical photography, endoscopy, x-ray radiography, computer-aided tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, thermography, and nuclear medicine functional imaging techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Some of these techniques are being applied at the microscopic level to study cell structure and even functional changes in real time. All these advancements in science and technology applied to medicine and other disciplines pose the question as to what extent physicians are trading their capabilities as clinicians. Ethics issues add to the complexity of this new era governed by constant changes in scientific paradigms.

In the 15th century, Joseon dynasty’s goal for the stabilization of the ruling system, the ideological freedom of the era, and the necessity of medicine due to the introduction of Jin and Yuan dynasty’s medicine led to the increased interest in medicine by the nobility along with tolerant practice. The practice of reading medical books is a good example of this institutional demonstration. However, by the end of the 15th century, a noticeable change had taken place. Within the nobility, there was an ideological rigidity regarding technology other than those of Confucianism, as the nobility became concentrated on the principles of Neo-Confucianism. In addition, as the publication of large-scale editions such as Ŭibangyuch'wi (the Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions) came to an end, they have become less inclined to nurture talent at the level of the central government as in the previous period. In addition, as the discrimination against illegitimate children became stronger, technical bureaucrats such as medical officials, which were open to illegitimate children, came to be seen in increasingly disdainful and differentiated manners. From the late Sejong period to the early Seongjong period, the entrance of illegitimate sons into the medical bureaucracy solidified the negligence of medicine by the nobility. After then, the medical bureaucracy came to be monopolized by illegitimate sons. As for illegitimate sons, they were not allowed to enter society through Confucian practices, and as such, the only way for them to enter the government was by continuing to gain experience as technical bureaucrats. Technical posts that became dominated by illegitimate sons became an object of contempt by the nobility, and the cycle reproduced itself with the social perception that legitimate sons of the nobility could not become a medical official. Medical officials from the Yi clan of Yangseong had been legitimate sons and passers of the civil service examination in the 15th century. However, in the 16th century, only illegitimate sons became medical officials. The formation of Jungin (middleclass) in technical posts since the middle of the Joseon period is also related to this phenomenon. The Yi clan of Yangseong that produced medical officials for 130years over four generations since Yi Hyoji, a medical book reading official, is an exemplary case of the change in the social perception in the early Joseon period regarding medical bureaucrats.

OBJECTIVES The purpose of this article is to examine the impacts of physical and structural violence on the well-being of early modern enslaved Africans by comparing the growth of children in an archaeological sample recovered from Lagos, Portugal with that of modern children known to have lived under socially oppressive and racist political regimes. MATERIALS AND METHODS The age of 18 individuals was estimated from the length of developing teeth. Long bone lengths for age in the enslaved African sample were compared with two black juvenile known age samples: the Raymond Dart (South Africa) and Hamann-Todd (United States) collections. Z-scores were calculated for all samples using black children in the South Africa Long Bone (SALB) database as the reference. The similarity of growth across the samples was tested and skeletal growth profiles (SGPs) were devised for the three samples. RESULTS The children in the Lagos, Raymond Dart, and Hamann-Todd samples were all small for age compared to the SALB reference. While children in the Dart sample tended to be the smallest for age and in the Hamann-Todd the largest, with the children in the Lagos sample falling between them, the three samples did not show significant differences in growth status. DISCUSSION The growth deficits shown in this study demonstrate the severe impacts of physical and structural violence on the lives of these children. Although uncertainty remains regarding the timing of growth insults relative to arrival, slavery in Portugal as materialized in these individuals was as violent as in other countries.

This article, in noting the recent interest of historians in sleep, assesses both the difficulties and the advantages of studying human sleep in the past. The history of sleep affords important new perspectives not only on everyday life in earlier centuries but also on the underlying origins of contemporary sleep disorders, including middle-of-the-night insomnia.

This study investigates morphological changes in pulp chambers of living and archaeological individuals with past vitamin D deficiency. Living individuals (n = 29), four with detailed medical and dental records and three groups of archaeological individuals (n = 25) were radiographed; selected individuals were further evaluated histologically for the presence of incremental interglobular dentin (IIGD), indicative of deficiency (28 living; 17 archaeological). Measurements of pulp horns/chambers from radiographs were conducted to quantify morphological observations. One group had clear skeletal evidence of rickets from St. Matthew, Quebec (n = 1) and St. Jacques, France (n = 4); a second group had slight skeletal indicators from Bastion des Ursulines, Quebec (n = 6); and a third group lacked both skeletal and radiological evidence of deficiency from St. Antoine (n = 6) and Pointe-aux-Trembles (n = 4). Results showed archaeological individuals with clear and slight skeletal evidence of past deficiency displayed constricted or chair shaped pulp horns. Living individuals with deficiency exhibited similar pulp chamber morphology. Radiographic pulp horn/chamber measurements corroborated morphological findings and significant differences were found in pulp horn/chamber measurements between those with and without deficiency. Results suggest that radiograph assessment of teeth can be used as a screening technique to elucidate patterns of deficiency and select individuals for microCT or histological assessment.

The disturbances of the 11p15.5 chromosomal region are associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, Russell-Silver syndrome, Wilms tumor, IMAGe syndrome, and idiopathic hemihyperplasia. The aim of this research was to examine the hypothesis that 11p15.5 initially became unstable in the European population about 200 years ago. The medical literature from 1557 onwards, especially treatises on teratology, body asymmetry, and books of normal and pathologic anatomy, was searched for any mentioning of lateral body asymmetry, macroglossia and other possible visually detectable symptoms associated with the above-mentioned syndromes. The results indicate that lateral body asymmetry was not described before the first half of the 19th century, it was mentioned in the 1820s, and the first description of a true case was published in 1850. All first cases of hemihyperplasia were reported in continental Europe. Historical data suggest that the 11p15.5 chromosomal region became unstable in the first half of the 19th century. Our preliminary hypothesis is that de novo mutation occurred in continental Europe. Additional genetic research is needed to investigate the development of 11p15.5 instability during this period.

While the discipline of Teratology has existed for about 60 years, there has been a deep interest in the causes of human malformations for millennia. Absent the scientific method and acting on fervent beliefs that made sense to ancient/medieval populations, "mechanisms" were described and prognostications of future events were assigned to terata resulting in tragic (and unwarranted) sequelae. This article examines the collective beliefs and thinking within various eras in the hope of providing lessons to inform future behavior. The eugenics movement is an informative, recent example. Science of the 19th century had unraveled some of the mysteries of development and the role of genetics in determining birth outcomes. There was, however, a deep misunderstanding about the enormous amount of information that had yet to be uncovered. Based on immature science and faulty assumptions, it was suggested that "unfit" individuals be euthanized and their parents sterilized. Such "solutions" would be considered deplorable today. Surprisingly, such a reprehensible program was supported (at least in part) by many intelligent and highly regarded individuals. Today, it is imperative that we enter into the era of molecular biology and gene editing cautiously and perspicaciously. The history of teratology has elucidated our inability to understand where our new technologies and actions might take us and how unintended consequences could disrupt even our most carefully thought-out plans.

New Zealand was among the last habitable places on earth to be colonized by humans

We invite systematic consideration of the metaphors of cycles and circulation as a long-term theme in the history of the life and environmental sciences and medicine. Ubiquitous in ancient religious and philosophical traditions, especially in representing the seasons and the motions of celestial bodies, circles once symbolized perfection. Over the centuries cyclic images in western medicine, natural philosophy, natural history and eventually biology gained independence from cosmology and theology and came to depend less on strictly circular forms. As potent 'canonical icons', cycles also interacted with representations of linear and irreversible change, including arrows, arcs, scales, series and trees, as in theories of the Earth and of evolution. In modern times life cycles and reproductive cycles have often been held to characterize life, in some cases especially female life, while human efforts selectively to foster and disrupt these cycles have harnessed their productivity in medicine and agriculture. But strong cyclic metaphors have continued to link physiology and climatology, medicine and economics, and biology and manufacturing, notably through the relations between land, food and population. From the grand nineteenth-century transformations of matter to systems ecology, the circulation of molecules through organic and inorganic compartments has posed the problem of maintaining identity in the face of flux and highlights the seductive ability of cyclic schemes to imply closure where no original state was in fact restored. More concerted attention to cycles and circulation will enrich analyses of the power of metaphors to naturalize understandings of life and their shaping by practical interests and political imaginations.

Dissections and autopsies are critical for understanding human anatomy, pathology, and uncovering mechanisms of disease. This review presents an historical journey from ancient times until the late Middle Ages. The major steps and developments are summarized with key figures and events presented.

In ancient China, an unobstructed, convenient and efficient transmission system nationwide was established for long-distance transmission of information. The transmission system works to different degrees in different regions, which is an important index to measure the interregional information level. Yet, some minor differences, may not be easily sensed by people subjectively. Identifying and quantifying the influences of information transmission efficiency is the best way to solve this problem. Based on the historical information map visualized by ArcGIS software, this study established a hierarchy evaluation model suitable for the analysis of ancient information transmission efficiency from three aspects of Wei-Suo system, beacon system and post system. The information transmission systems in five different regions of Wenzhou in the Ming Dynasty were quantitatively explored respectively. The results break through the qualitative conclusions of the general studies, and find out that the overall information transmission efficiency of Wenzhou in Ming Dynasty was strong in coastal, northern and southern regions, but weak in inland and central regions, which was closely related to the geographical environment and military defense demands in coastal areas of the Ming Dynasty. The model is proven to greatly contribute to judging the spatial configuration of ancient information transmission system in different regions, and provides a new idea for the study on ancient information transmission system.

Trephination, the practice of boring a hole in the skull, is one of the oldest surgical procedures performed by and on humans. Fossil records show evidence of trephined skulls on separate continents throughout ancient history. Even more remarkably, fossils show that ancient humans actually survived the procedure, some more than once. Ancient mythologies and texts provide context to the fossil record, indicating that trephination was performed some of the time for medical indications, including traumatic head injury and intractable neurologic conditions. In the modern day, traumatic brain injury accounts for a significant percentage of the overall global burden of disease and its incidence is disproportionately increasing in low- and middle-income countries. In critical situations, neurosurgical intervention may be indicated. The burr hole procedure, or trephination, was identified as an essential surgical procedure that all first-level hospitals should be able to perform; however, there exists a dramatic lack of access to neurosurgical specialists and care globally, especially among low- and middle-income countries. Task-shifting/sharing is one paradigm that may be used effectively to broaden access to this life-saving procedure but it is at the moment a contested practice.

Summary The ectoparasite Pthirus pubis (PtP), commonly known as the crab or pubic louse, has plagued primates from prehistoric apes to Homo sapiens. We combed the literature from antiquity to the present day, reviewing the pubic louse’s origins, its evolution with mankind, and its presentation and management. MEDLINE and EMBASE provided the greatest yield of literature compared with other databases. Estimates for PtP incidence range from 0.3% to 4.6% and for prevalence around 2% in adults. War, disasters and overcrowding support lice transmission, but modern pubic hair grooming has reduced the incidence of PtP in recent years. PtP, is usually found on pubic hair, but may infest scalp and body hair, eyebrows and eyelashes. Reports suggest the possibility of PtP as a vector for Bartonella spp. and Acinetobacter spp., which require further study. Transmission of PtP is via close contact, so sexual abuse and concomitant sexually transmitted infections should be considered. Symptoms and signs of infestation include pruritus, red papules and rust/brown deposits from feeding or faecal matter. Visualization of live lice confirms the diagnosis. Traditional treatments include hand-picking and combing, but in modern times pediculicidal products may generate faster resolution. Permethrin or pyrethrins are the first-line recommendations. Resistance to pediculicides is common with head lice and is presumed likely with PtP, although data are lacking. Pseudoresistance occurs as a result of poor compliance, incorrect or ineffective dosing, and reinfestation. In true resistance, a different pediculicide class should be used, e.g. second-line agents such as phenothrin, malathion or ivermectin. Lice have existed long before humans and given their adaptability, despite habitat challenges from fashion trends in body hair removal, are likely to continue to survive.

While speech and language do not fossilize, they still leave traces that can be extracted and interpreted. Here, we suggest that the shape of the hard structures of the vocal tract may also allow inferences about the speech of long-gone humans. These build on recent experimental and modelling studies, showing that there is extensive variation between individuals in the precise shape of the vocal tract, and that this variation affects speech and language. In particular, we show that detailed anatomical information concerning two components of the vocal tract (the lower jaw and the hard palate) can be extracted and digitized from the osteological remains of three historical populations from The Netherlands, and can be used to conduct three-dimensional biomechanical simulations of vowel production. We could recover the signatures of inter-individual variation between these vowels, in acoustics and articulation. While ‘proof-of-concept’, this study suggests that older and less well-preserved remains could be used to draw inferences about historic and prehistoric languages. Moreover, it forces us to clarify the meaning and use of the uniformitarian principle in linguistics, and to consider the wider context of language use, including the anatomy, physiology and cognition of the speakers. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Reconstructing prehistoric languages’.

From the eleventh to the thirteenth century, three major events marked surgery in France: the appearance of an epidemic linked to ergotism which led to numerous amputations, the emergence of barber surgeons for civilian practice, and the organization of war surgery for the First Crusade.If a certain separation between medicine and surgery had appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages, it would have been from 1215 (at the time of the Lateran Council) that the real separation between medicine and surgery was made. Before this date, the surgery was done by the clergy (monks) who had some experience of surgical practice. After the Council de Lateran, the barbers will take charge of the surgery.In the Middle Ages, the first cause of amputation was linked to poisoning by ergot of rye, intoxication due to the ingestion of contaminated bread. Due to ergotamine-related vasoconstriction, many patients will die with a frequency ranging from 10 to 20% in times of starvation. For survivors, gangrenes will lead to amputations made at the beginning by monks, then by the barber surgeons after 1215. With the name of barber surgeon, barbers are initially responsible for small surgical procedures, then for amputations given the epidemics linked to ergotism which led to numerous amputations. By this practice, they will acquire the knowledge of anatomy and the knowledge of the surgery. Apart from this civilian practice of surgery carried out by barber surgeons, the military practice of surgery will appear with the conquests of England and the start of the crusades which will require a more professional organization of surgery.After 1371, as only barbers surgeons had some surgical practice, their knowledge surpassed knowledge of the university. This supremacy of the barber surgeon over the surgeons of the university will be demonstrated by Ambroise Paré.

《摘星楼治痘全书》被认为是明人治痘理论与经验集大成之作。目前有关该书及其作者朱一麟的著录时有谬误，也缺乏详细介绍。朱一麟字季祥，号应我，主要活动年代为万历至崇祯年间，他因病习医，擅长治痘，举业不第后专于行医，刊有《痘言蘧庐集》《论痘游戏篇》《治痘大成集》，并有医案流传于世。其《治痘大成集》尚存明天启元年刊本、日本抄本与台湾抄本残卷。清乾隆至道光年间，其后人朱法与朱珔又搜集朱一麟著述与医案，编成《摘星楼治痘全书》，于1826年刊刻，即道光耕乐堂藏板。一些工具书和教材将《摘星楼治痘全书》成书时间定为1619年、上海耕乐堂刻本版刻时间著录为清乾隆三十年(1765年)或乾隆七年(1742)序刻本，均误。此外，《摘星楼治痘全书》之《附摘钞种痘心法》是以《幼科种痘心法要旨》为基础，摘抄《痘疹定论》等多部书而成。.

Acupuncture is characterized by the insertion of a fine metal needle through the skin of the human body at an acupuncture point (acupoint) in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). It is an ancient form of therapy, and has a long history of prosperity and decline. Due to the persistent efforts of TCM practitioners, a number of well-designed clinical trials regarding acupuncture have been published in the past decade. Besides, numerous basic researches aiming to reveal the mechanisms of acupuncture have also been conducted. Several scientific explanations have been obtained to interpret the arcane TCM theory. This review provides brief information of acupuncture, including its history, status, evidence, and mechanisms.针灸是一种古老的中医治疗方式, 有着悠久的兴衰历史, 其特点是将细金属针刺入人体皮肤上特点的穴位。由于中医从业者的不懈努力, 在过去的十年中发表了许多精心设计的针灸临床试验。此外, 还开展了大量旨在揭示针灸作用机制的基础研究。为了解释神秘的中医理论, 人们已经获得了一些科学的解释。本文简要介绍了针灸的历史、现状、证据和作用机制。.

The Political Nature of Sex Questions about excluding transgender people from antidiscrimination protections reflect the polarizing nature of definitions of sex. Yet historians of medicine know tha...

Syphilis is the prime example of a “new disease” which triggered a transnational (European) discussion among physicians. It appeared between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Times (at the beginning of the sixteenth century), a time in which medicine was changing from a dogmatic to an experimental discipline. The main changes were in the field of anatomy: in 1543, the same year of the astronomy-disrupting work by Nicolas Copernicus, the new less dogmatic and more empirical approach to anatomy by Andreas Vesalius was published. Nevertheless, in the Renaissance, medicine remains a tradition-bound discipline, proud of its millennial history and its superiority over the empirical, non-academic healers. When syphilis appeared in Europe, several explanations were elaborated. In the mid-16th century, an Italian doctor Luigi Luigini (born in 1526) published in Venice a collection of all the works on syphilis that appeared until 1566. He wanted to entrust to colleagues, contemporary and future, a compendium of all that was known about the “new” disease (the Latin term Novus means both “new” and “strange”). According to the most authors of the collection, the disease is in fact “new” and “strange”. Some authors of the collection find it impossible that authorities like Hippocrates and Galen overlooked it. Luigini’s work shows the authors’ effort to absorb syphilis in the corpus of academic medicine and affirm the authority of academic physicians against the empirical healers., Sifilis je važan primjer “nove bolesti” koja je pokrenula transnacionalnu (europsku) raspravu među liječnicima. Bolest se pojavila između kraja srednjeg vijeka i početka modernog doba (početkom 16. stoljeća), u vrijeme u kojem se medicina iz dogmatske mijenjala u eksperimentalnu disciplinu. Glavne promjene dogodile su se na polju anatomije: u 1543., istoj godini u kojoj se pojavio rad Nikole Kopernika, koji je promijenio zakone astronomije, objavljen je novi, manje dogmatični i više empirijski pristup anatomiji u radu Andreasa Vesaliusa. Ipak, u renesansi medicina ostaje disciplina vezana uz tradiciju, ponosna na svoju tisućljetnu povijest i svoju superiornost nad empirijskim, neakademskim iscjeliteljima. Kada se sifilis pojavio u Europi, nekoliko je objašnjenja detaljno izloženo. Sredinom 16. stoljeća, talijanski liječnik Luigi Luigini (rođen 1526.) objavio je u Veneciji zbirku svih djela o sifilisu koja su se pojavila do 1566. Želio je prenijeti svojim suvremenicima i budućim kolegama sažetak svega što je bilo poznato o “novoj bolesti” (latinski pojam Novus znači i “novi” i “čudan”). Prema većini autora zbirke, bolest je “nova” i “čudna”. Neki autori čiji se radovi pojavljuju u zbirci smatraju nemogućim da su najveći autoriteti, poput Hipokrata i Galena, previdjeli tu bolest. Luiginijevo djelo pokazuje napor autora da uvrste sifilis u korpus akademske medicine i potvrde autoritet akademskih liječnika nasuprot empirijskih iscjelitelja.

The article describes the oldest locations and buildings for the treatment of patients in Rijeka. According to historical sources, the first known site for health care and treatment was a hospital founded in the 14th or 15th century in the Old Town, in the St Sebastian Street, in which also existed a little church of the same name. It is not known for sure when the hospital was moved to a new location, to a house opposite the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The Statute of Rijeka from 1530 mentions it under the name Hospital of St. Mary (hospitali Sanctae Mariae) but later changed its name to St. Spirit Hospital. It was named after the chapel located in the same block of buildings. As in the previous location, there was an orphanage and an almshouse within the hospital. The hospital and the orphanage operated in this building until 1822, when, at the initiative of the Municipality, they moved to Brajda, in an adapted complex of buildings of the former wax factory. The building of the former hospital has been adapted for residential use. At the end of World War II, the building was destroyed under aerial bombardment and later a new building was built in its place.U članku se opisuju najstarije lokacije i zgrade namijenjene liječenju bolesnika u Rijeci. Prema povijesnim izvorima, prvo poznato mjesto namijenjeno zdravstvenoj zaštiti i liječenju bio je hospital osnovan u 14. stoljeću u Starom gradu, u Ulici sv. Sebastijana u kojoj se nalazila i istoimena crkvica. Ne zna se pouzdano kada se bolnica premješta na novu lokaciju, u kuću nasuprot Zborne crkve, smještenu na istočnom kraju tadašnje Ulice sv. Marije (danas Užarska). Statut Rijeke iz 1530. spominje je pod nazivom Bolnica sv. Marije (Spedale di s. Maria), ali poslije mijenja ime u Bolnica sv. Duha po kapeli koja se nalazila u istom bloku zgrada. Kao i na prethodnoj lokaciji, u sklopu bolnice bilo je i sirotište i ubožnica. Bolnica i sirotinjski zavod u ovoj zgradi djelovali su sve do 1822., kada se, inicijativom Općine, premještaju na Brajdu u adaptirani kompleks zgrada nekadašnje tvornice voska. Zgrada nekadašnje bolnice adaptirana je za stambenu namjenu. Krajem Drugoga svjetskog rata stradala je u savezničkom bombardiranju i na njenom je mjestu izgrađena nova zgrada.

The key to evolution is reproduction. Pathogens can either kill the human host or can invade the host without causing death, thus ensuring their own survival, reproduction and spread. Tuberculosis, treponematoses and leprosy are widespread chronic infectious diseases whereby the host is not immediately killed. These diseases are examples of the co-evolution of host and pathogen. They can be well studied as the paleopathological record is extensive, spanning over 200 human generations. The paleopathology of each disease has been well documented in the form of published synthetic analyses recording each known case and case frequencies in the samples they were derived from. Here the data from these synthetic analyses were re-analysed to show changes in the prevalence of each disease over time. A total of 69,379 skeletons are included in this study. There was ultimately a decline in the prevalence of each disease over time, this decline was statistically significant (Chi-squared, p

The rodent-murine ectoparasite-human model of plague transmission does not correspond with historical details around plague pandemics in Europe. New analysis of ancient genomes reveal that Yersinia pestis was unable to be transmitted by rat fleas until around 4000 Before Present, which challenges the rodent-murine ectoparasite-human model of plague transmission and historical details around plague pandemics in Europe. In this Review, we summarise data regarding Y pestis transmission by human lice in the context of genomic evolution and co-transmission of other major epidemic deadly pathogens throughout human history, with the aim of broadening our view of plague transmission. Experimental models support the efficiency of human lice as plague vectors through infected faeces, which suggest that Y pestis could be a louse-borne disease, similar to Borrelia recurrentis, Rickettsia prowazekii, and Bartonella quintana. Studies have shown that louse-borne outbreaks often involve multiple pathogens, and several cases of co-transmission of Y pestis and B quintana have been reported. Furthermore, an exclusive louse-borne bacterium, namely B recurrentis, was found to be circulating in northern Europe during the second plague pandemic (14th-18th century). Current data make it possible to attribute large historical pandemics to multiple bacteria, and suggests that human lice probably played a preponderant role in the interhuman transmission of plague and pathogen co-transmission during previous large epidemics, including plague pandemics.

Raphael, in his painting "Healing of the Lame Man" shows one lame man encountering St. Peter and St. John while another lame man waits his turn. Children with unusually muscular bodies are also depicted in the painting. The possible causes of lameness in the men and muscle hypertrophy in the children are discussed.

The article starts with a report on the history of medical simulation with some examples, and then it explores the evolution of mannequins and the methods using simulation in medicine, from the beginning to their present use.

In most societies, devices evolved to enhance the mother’s working capacity. This article depicts the cradle’s development in some countries and delineates the scientific debate that led to its demise in the 19th century. A few basic forms of infant cots survived the centuries from antiquity: the carrying board, trough, hammock, sling, transverse rockers, and forward rockers. Romans discerned 2 types: the cuna stood on the floor and was moveable by wooden rockers. Lecti pensiles were suspended beds. Cradleboards of Native Americans revealed remarkable variety of shapes and decorations. The cradle’s hood was a 16th century development, intended to protect the baby’s face from flies, sunlight, and the evil eye. Already in the second century CE, Galen mentioned controversies about rocking. A fervent debate began in the 18th century. Propagators reasoned that rocking perpetuates habitual fetal movement, exercises the child, and avoids the need for somniferous drugs. Opponents claimed that rocking is dangerous, producing an unnatural sleep harmful to the brain, and impeding milk digestion. In the 20th century, cradles were replaced by pushchairs and prams, but they did not disappear. Despite centuries of debate, robust studies have never been conducted, and it remains unclear whether rocking has any benefit or harm for the infant.

Major declines in insect biomass and diversity, reviewed here, have become obvious and well documented since the end of World War II. Here, we conclude that the spread and intensification of agriculture during the past half century is directly related to these losses. In addition, many areas, including tropical mountains, are suffering serious losses because of climate change as well. Crops currently occupy about 11% of the world’s land surface, with active grazing taking place over an additional 30%. The industrialization of agriculture during the second half of the 20th century involved farming on greatly expanded scales, monoculturing, the application of increasing amounts of pesticides and fertilizers, and the elimination of interspersed hedgerows and other wildlife habitat fragments, all practices that are destructive to insect and other biodiversity in and near the fields. Some of the insects that we are destroying, including pollinators and predators of crop pests, are directly beneficial to the crops. In the tropics generally, natural vegetation is being destroyed rapidly and often replaced with export crops such as oil palm and soybeans. To mitigate the effects of the Sixth Mass Extinction event that we have caused and are experiencing now, the following will be necessary: a stable (and almost certainly lower) human population, sustainable levels of consumption, and social justice that empowers the less wealthy people and nations of the world, where the vast majority of us live, will be necessary.

A large scholarship currently holds that before the onset of anthropogenic global warming, natural climatic changes long provoked subsistence crises and, occasionally, civilizational collapses among human societies. This scholarship, which we term the ‘history of climate and society’ (HCS), is pursued by researchers from a wide range of disciplines, including archaeologists, economists, geneticists, geographers, historians, linguists and palaeoclimatologists. We argue that, despite the wide interest in HCS, the field suffers from numerous biases, and often does not account for the local effects and spatiotemporal heterogeneity of past climate changes or the challenges of interpreting historical sources. Here we propose an interdisciplinary framework for uncovering climate–society interactions that emphasizes the mechanics by which climate change has influenced human history, and the uncertainties inherent in discerning that influence across different spatiotemporal scales. Although we acknowledge that climate change has sometimes had destructive effects on past societies, the application of our framework to numerous case studies uncovers five pathways by which populations survived—and often thrived—in the face of climatic pressures. Methodological challenges in HCS Challenges in statistical approaches Challenges in qualitative approaches A research framework for HCS Case studies of resilience Exploiting new opportunities Resilient energy systems Resources of trade and empire Political and institutional adaptations Migration and transformation Better histories for better futures

Ethnopharmacological relevance Traditional Chinese Medicine is subject to changes over time: product names, botanical ingredients, processing methods and uses have varied throughout the course of history. Historic collections of Chinese materia medica (CMM) are of great value for research on the evolvement, development and variability of Chinese herbal medicine over time. These changes may have a significant influence on the safety and efficiency of nowadays’ clinical practice. Here we investigate a historic collection of Chinese medicinal products purchased in Indonesia in c. 1870, containing about 395 specimens. Aim of the study This study compares the specimens contained in late 19th century collection of CMM with contemporary marketed materials by investigating changes in vernacular names, botanical identity and processing methods which are important aspects for safety and clinical practice today. Materials and methods The contents and associated documentation of the CMM collection of Dr. C.H.A. Westhoff (University Museum Utrecht) were revised by means of morphological identification and study of the associated historic documentation. We compared this Westhoff collection with contemporary CMM, information from literature and various quality standards, including the official Chinese pharmacopoeia. Results The Westhoff collection represents a unique, well preserved collection of Chinese materia medica, with original uniform bottles, Chinese labels and a partly intact handwritten catalogue. Among the 395 specimens (bottles) of CMM surveyed, there are 387 contain a single component drug, while eight contain multiple components drugs. A total of 293 of the 395 specimens are mentioned in the modern Chinese pharmacopoeia. Ca. 25% of the specimens had been processed, such as stir-fried with or without adjuvants. Our analysis of local Chinese names, botanical content and processing methods indicate that this collection originates from southern part of China, possibly including in the region of Taiwan and was meant as a showcase for pharmaceutical education and/or as curiosity object. Conclusion Differences in vernacular names, plant parts and processing methods between the Westhoff collection and the current Chinese pharmacopoeia illustrate the regional variety of CMM and changes in CMM in the course of time. This work contributes to the understanding of the evolvement of CMM from a historic perspective.

Metagonimiasis is foodborne intestinal parasitism occurring by the definitive hosts' ingestion of raw or undercooked fish, mostly commonly sweetfish. Most Metagonimus infection is caused by Metagonimus yokogawai but also rarely by Metagonimus takahashii as well as Metagonimus miyatai. Despite recent molecular work on Metagonimus spp., there are still insufficient data to reveal the genetic characteristics of ancient M. yokogawai in a wide geo-historical scope. In this study, we were successful in the analysis of M. yokogawai ancient DNA (aDNA) using coprolite samples retrieved from 16th- to 17th-century Korean mummies. In BLAST and phylogenetic analyses, M. yokogawai 28S rDNA of Korean mummies were clustered along with the 28S rDNA taxa of M. takahashii and M. miyatai in GenBank. Conversely, the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of M. yokogawai aDNA from Korean mummies was distinctly clustered apart from M. takahashii and M. miyatai sequences. This study is the first report of its kind to identify M. yokogawai aDNA retrieved from the archaeological specimens and confirms the usefulness of COI in molecular diagnosis of M. yokogawai. Considering the rarity of reports on the genetics of genus Metagonimus spp., our study will be fundamental for the future study of M. yokogawai paleogenetics.

The plague epidemics wiped out large parts of the city population from the 15th to the 17th century in the Netherlands. The plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) is transmitted to humans through infected rats and fleas and has been transferred from China to Europe via the trade routes over land and sea. Meetings were banned, plague victims were isolated at home or in pest houses, and ships quarantined. In the densely populated, poor neighborhoods of the cities, however, isolation and keeping distance were not feasible, which allowed the plague to rapidly spread. The lessons we have learned from the plague epidemics are timeless. Isolation, keeping your distance and quarantine were key principles and now apply again in the approach to the current Covid-19 pandemic. How effective these measures are depends on the social context in which they are applied.

In the struggle with COVID-19, art offered a way to face the solitude of the lockdown. The focus of this paper is primarily on Caravaggio's painting The Seven Works of Mercy, with references to other paintings to amplify some aspects of the artist's approach to life and his uniqueness in the artistic landscape of his time. Darkness was part of Caravaggio's research for spiritual truth and by entering the stories of his life and exploring the tales told through imaginative expression in his paintings, it is possible to understand his process of exploration of ancestral darkness. The author uses her imagination to reflect on how art can help to contact the profound fears buried in the unconscious which are now being awakened by the pandemic. The contemplation of this painting facilitated the emergence of emotions related to the darkness of our time, with the discovery that empathy and mercy offer a way to come to terms with the pandemic. This approach demands a different understanding of reality with Caravaggio's dark creative world becoming a companion that permits the exploration of what is not yet thinkable in daily life. Images accompany the author's research that relies on her imagination and amplifications.Dans la bataille avec la COVID-19, l’art a offert une manière de faire face à la solitude du confinement. L’accent de cet article vient principalement du tableau du Caravage Les sept œuvres de miséricorde, avec des références à d’autres tableaux pour amplifier certains aspects de l’approche de l’artiste et sa singularité dans le paysage artistique de son époque. Pour le Caravage, la noirceur fait partie de la recherche de vérité spirituelle. En entrant dans les histoires de sa vie et en explorant les récits racontés au travers de l’expression imaginative dans ses tableaux, il est possible de comprendre son processus d’exploration de la noirceur ancestrale. L’auteur utilise sa propre imagination pour réfléchir à comment l’art peut aider à contacter les peurs enterrées dans l’inconscient et qui sont maintenant éveillées par la pandémie. La contemplation de ce tableau a facilité l’émergence d’émotions liées à la noirceur de notre époque, avec la découverte que l’empathie et la compassion offrent une voie pour se confronter à la pandémie et l’accepter. Cette approche requiert une compréhension différente de la réalité et le monde noir et créatif du Caravage devient un compagnon qui permet l’exploration de ce qui n’est pas encore pensable dans la vie quotidienne. Des images accompagnent la recherche de l’auteur qui se fie à son imagination et ses amplifications.Im Kampf mit COVID-19 bot die Kunst einen Weg, sich der Einsamkeit des Lockdowns zu stellen. Der Schwerpunkt dieses Beitrages liegt hauptsächlich auf Caravaggios Gemälde Die sieben Werke der Barmherzigkeit, wobei auf andere Gemälde verwiesen wird, um einige Aspekte der Lebenseinstellung des Künstlers und seiner Einzigartigkeit in der künstlerischen Landschaft seiner Zeit zu erweitern. Die Dunkelheit war Teil von Caravaggios Forschungen zur spirituellen Wahrheit. Indem man in die Geschichten seines Lebens eintritt und die Geschichten erforscht, die durch den phantasievollen Ausdruck in seinen Gemälden erzählt werden, ist es möglich, seinen Prozeß der Erforschung der angestammten Dunkelheit zu verstehen. Die Autorin benutzt ihre Phantasie zur Reflektion darüber, wie Kunst helfen kann, mit den tiefen im Unbewußten verborgenen Ängsten in Kontakt zu treten, die jetzt durch die Pandemie geweckt werden. Die Betrachtung dieses Gemäldes erleichterte die Entstehung von Emotionen im Zusammenhang mit der Dunkelheit unserer Zeit, mit der Entdeckung, daß Empathie und Barmherzigkeit einen Weg bieten, sich mit der Pandemie auseinanderzusetzen. Dieser Ansatz erfordert ein anderes Verständnis der Realität, wobei Caravaggios dunkle kreative Welt zu einem Begleiter wird, der die Erforschung dessen ermöglicht, was im täglichen Leben noch nicht denkbar ist. Bilder begleiten die Forschung der Autorin, die sich auf ihre Vorstellungskraft und ihre Verstärkung stützt.Nella lotta contro il COVID-19, l'arte ha offerto un modo per fronteggiare la solitudine del lockdown. Il focus di questo articolo è primariamente il dipinto di Caravaggio Le sette opere di misericordia, con riferimenti anche ad altri dipinti per amplificare alcuni aspetti dell'approccio dell'artista alla vita e la sua unicità nel panorama artistico del suo tempo. Il buio è stato parte della ricerca di Caravaggio per la verità dello spirito, ed entrando nelle storie della sua vita ed esplorando i racconti fatti attraverso le espressioni delle immagini nei suoi dipinti, è possibile comprendere il suo processo di esplorazione del buio ancestrale. L'Autrice utilizza la sua immaginazione per riflettere su come l'arte possa aiutare a contattare le paure profonde sepolte nell'inconscio che vengono ora risvegliate dalla pandemia. La contemplazione di questo dipinto facilita l'emergere di emozioni legate al buio dei nostri tempi, con la scoperta che l'empatia e la misericordia offrono una strada per affrontare la pandemia. Questo approccio richiede una diversa comprensione del buio mondo creativo di Caravaggio, divenendo un compagno che permette l'esplorazione di ciò che non è ancora pensabile nella vita quotidiana. Le immagini accompagnano la ricerca dell'Autrice che si appoggia anche sulla sua immaginazione e sulle sue amplificazioni.В борьбе с Ковид-19 искусство предложило способ пережить уединение в локдауне. В центре внимания этой статьи - картина Караваджо «Семь деяний милосердия», также упоминаются другие картины с целью амплификации некоторых аспектов подхода художника к жизни и его уникальности в творческой среде того времени. Тьма была частью исследования Караваджо духовной правды. Через постижение историй его жизни и сюжетов, рассказанных выразительными средствами в его картинах, становится возможным понять процесс исследования исконной тьмы. Автор использует свое воображение, чтобы поразмышлять о том, как искусство может помочь соединиться с глубинными зарытыми в бессознательном страхами, которые сейчас оказались разбужены пандемией. Созерцание этой картины способствовало возникновению эмоций, связанных с тьмой нашего времени, с пониманием того, что эмпатия и милосердие оказываются способом примириться с пандемией. Этот подход требует иного понимания реальности: мрачный творческий мир Караваджо становится компаньоном, позволяющим изучить то, что еще не мыслимо в повседневной жизни. Образы сопровождают исследование автора, основанное на ее воображении и амплификациях.En la lucha con el COVID-19, el arte ofreció una vía para enfrentar la soledad del confinamiento. El foco del presente trabajo es principalmente la pintura Siete obras de Misericordia, de Caravaggio, con referencias a otras pinturas para amplificar algunos aspectos del acercamiento del artista a la vida, y su singularidad en la escena artística de su tiempo. La oscuridad fue parte de la búsqueda de Caravaggio por la verdad espiritual, y al entrar en las historias de su vida y explorar los cuentos narrados a través de su expresión imaginativa en sus pinturas, es posible comprender su proceso de exploración de la oscuridad ancestral. La autora utiliza su imaginación para reflexionar sobre cómo el arte puede ayudar a contactar miedos profundos enterrados en el inconsciente, los cuales ahora están siendo despertados por la pandemia. La contemplación de esta pintura facilitó la emergencia de emociones relacionadas con la oscuridad de nuestro tiempo, con el descubrimiento de que la empatía y la compasión ofrecen una vía para poder llegar a términos con la pandemia. Este abordaje demanda una comprensión diferente de la realidad con el mundo creativo de Caravaggio volviéndose un aliado que posibilita la exploración de lo que aún no puede ser pensado en nuestra vida cotidiana. Imágenes acompañan la investigación de la autora, que se basa en su imaginación y en amplificaciones.艺术对生活的支持:卡拉瓦乔和瘟疫 在对抗新冠期间, 艺术提供了一种方式让我们面对封锁下的孤独。本文关注的是卡拉瓦乔的绘画“七善行”, 其中也关联到别的绘画, 用以放大艺术家生活取向的某些方面, 以及其作品所呈现的风格在他所处时代的独特性。黑暗是卡拉瓦乔对灵性真实探索的一部分, 通过进入他生命的故事, 透过他绘画中的想象表达来探索他所诉说的故事, 我们可能可以理解他探索祖先的黑暗的过程。作者用她的意象来反思艺术如何帮助人们接触到那些当下被疫情所唤起的, 埋藏于无意识中的巨大恐惧。对这一绘画的反思, 帮助那些与当下黑暗有关的情绪的呈现, 发现了共情和善行可以提供一种方法来应对疫情。这一取向要求对现实有不同的理解, 卡拉瓦乔黑暗的创造性世界变成了一种陪伴, 来允许在日常中尚未被想起的那些事物得到探索。作者依赖想象和放大完成研究, 其研究伴随着意象一起呈现。.

This article presents new radiocarbon and isotopic data to provide further information about the diet of the indigenous population of La Gomera and its possible changes across time.δHuman dates range from the 3rd to 15th centuries AD, while faunal dates range from the 1st to 17th centuries AD. Stable carbon and nitrogen values are significantly different between the human and goat samples and have also a trophic increase of 3.4‰. Although male and female δRadiocarbon dates from humans correlate with other dates obtained in the rest of the archipelago. Animal radiocarbon dates generally coincide except for one date, which requires further study. Isotopic δ

Taxonomy is the science that explores, describes, names, and classifies all organisms. In this introductory chapter, we highlight the major historical steps in the elaboration of this science, which provides baseline data for all fields of biology and plays a vital role for society but is also an independent, complex, and sound hypothesis-driven scientific discipline.In a first part, we underline that plant taxonomy is one of the earliest scientific disciplines that emerged thousands of years ago, even before the important contributions of the Greeks and Romans (e.g., Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides). In the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, plant taxonomy benefited from the Great Navigations, the invention of the printing press, the creation of botanic gardens, and the use of the drying technique to preserve plant specimens. In parallel with the growing body of morpho-anatomical data, subsequent major steps in the history of plant taxonomy include the emergence of the concept of natural classification , the adoption of the binomial naming system (with the major role of Linnaeus) and other universal rules for the naming of plants, the formulation of the principle of subordination of characters, and the advent of the evolutionary thought. More recently, the cladistic theory (initiated by Hennig) and the rapid advances in DNA technologies allowed to infer phylogenies and to propose true natural, genealogy-based classifications.In a second part, we put the emphasis on the challenges that plant taxonomy faces nowadays. The still very incomplete taxonomic knowledge of the worldwide flora (the so-called taxonomic impediment) is seriously hampering conservation efforts that are especially crucial as biodiversity has entered its sixth extinction crisis. It appears mainly due to insufficient funding, lack of taxonomic expertise, and lack of communication and coordination. We then review recent initiatives to overcome these limitations and to anticipate how taxonomy should and could evolve. In particular, the use of molecular data has been era-splitting for taxonomy and may allow an accelerated pace of species discovery. We examine both strengths and limitations of such techniques in comparison to morphology-based investigations, we give broad recommendations on the use of molecular tools for plant taxonomy, and we highlight the need for an integrative taxonomy based on evidence from multiple sources.

Wa Na Qi(), is a traditional-curing male impotence medicinal. We have made several conclusions through a field investigation to Antarctica, material medica literature research, and current market investigation. Throughout history, Wa Na Qi (also known ashaigou shen) was a word of vague connotation which was not the meaning of a specific product. However, the most common meaning of Wa Na Qi was the penises of several different species of seals. The name Wa Na Qi was adapted from a foreign word, and it is believed to sound like walrus, which has also been credited as a source for Wa Na Qi. In Chinese, Wa Na was a reference to the roundness of the walrus but eventually became a general description of heaviness. Later, it became a name for fur seals. The Song Dynasty Materia Medica腽肭脐为一味传统的补肾壮阳药，通过本草考证、香港及内地市场及生产厂家的调查，南极半岛及南设得兰群岛海域的实地考察，提出以下结论：腽肭脐(海狗肾)在历史上其实是一个比较笼统的概念，主要指源自海狗、海豹类几种海洋动物的外肾。腽肭脐一词，属于古代的外来语，其读音贴近海狗肾来源之一的海象Walrus一词。因为海象的肥耎，汉语中出现了一个音译词"腽肭"。最初宋代的《本草图经》与明代的《本草品汇精要》描述的原动物为海豹类。《本草纲目》(金陵版)所绘者与有鬃毛的海狗(毛皮海狮)的特征比较符合。《补遗雷公炮制便览》及此后本草书中，加入了主观臆想成分，进而以讹传讹。通过在南极周边海域的实地考察，了解到历史上腽肭脐可能源自海狗(毛皮海狮)及海豹类，这与现今药材市场海狗与海豹两大种群基本吻合。经对现今中国内地与香港市场品种实地考察，以海狗肾之名售卖者，包括海狗、海象、海豹类外生殖器。.

地黄是一味常用的大宗药材，历代经典名方中常收录生地黄、干地黄、熟地黄、干熟地黄、生干地黄等多个品种。为理清经典名方中不同地黄炮制品的来源及品种演变关系，本文对历代本草著作进行了梳理。古今地黄均来源于玄参科植物地黄