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Women are among the fastest growing segment of the correctional population. At present, over 200,000 women are incarcerated and more than 1 million women are on probation (Ajinkya, 2012). Approximately one out of every 89 women in the U.S. is involved in the criminal justice system and over 85% are sanctioned within the community (i.e., probation, parole; Glaze & Bonczar, 2011; Greenfeld & Snell, 2000; Greenfeld & Snell, 1999; Sabol & Couture, 2008; Shilton, 2000). Among justice-involved women, psychological distress, substance use and violent victimization are intersecting epidemics that present a serious threat to public health and functioning. Research has consistently documented rates of psychological distress among justice-involved women that exceed both their male-counterparts and women in the community (Green, Miranda, Daroowalla, & Siddique, 2005; Jordan, Schlenger, Fairbank, & Caddell, 1996; Lynch, DeHart, Belknap, & Green, 2013; Steadman, Osher, Robbins, Case, & Samuels, 2009; Teplin, Abram, & McClelland, 1996). In a study examining the prevalence of serious mental illness (e.g., major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia spectrum disorder) among people in five jails, 31.0% of females were found to have a current serious mental illness as compared to 14.5% of the males (Steadman et al., 2009). Similarly, in a national survey of women randomly sampled from urban and rural jails, 43% and 32%, respectively, met the lifetime and 12 month criteria for a serious mental illness (Lynch, DeHart, Belknap, & Green, 2012b; Lynch et al., 2013). High levels of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are also found among females detained in jail. Estimates indicate that approximately a quarter of women in jail meet the criteria for a current PTSD diagnosis (Green, Miranda, Daroowalla, & Siddique, 2005; Teplin et al., 1996); 53% have a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD (Lynch et al., 2012b; Lynch et al., 2013). Incarcerated women with mental health problems are three times more likely to experience addiction than those without such problems (James & Glaze, 2006). Rates of cooccurring substance use and psychological distress range from 39% to 46% among women in jail (Lynch et al., 2012b; Lynch et al., 2013). In fact, substance abuse/dependence are the most common psychiatric disorders among women in the justice system. Among women in jail, lifetime prevalence of substance use is between 70% and 83% (Jordan et al., 1996; Lynch et al., 2012a; Teplin et al., 1996); they are almost nine times more likely to experience substance abuse or dependence than a comparison group of women in the general population (Jordan et al., 1996; Teplin et al., 1996). Compounding issues of psychological distress and substance use are histories of interpersonal victimization; up to 80% of women in the criminal justice system have experienced some form of victimization in their lifetimes (Browne, Miller, & Maguin, 1999; El-Bassel et al., 1996; Green et al., 2005; Greenfeld & Snell, 1999; Lynch et al., 2012b; Lynch, Fritch, & Heath, 2012; McClellan, Farabee, & Crouch, 1997; Owen & Bloom, 1995; Reichert, Adams, & Bostwick, 2010). For example, in a study involving jailed women with substance use histories, 25% of women reported sexual abuse as children (El-Bassel et al., 1996). Another study with incarcerated women found that 57% reported childhood victimization and 75% reported adult victimization (McClellan et al., 1997). While current research has documented the significance of psychological distress, substance use and victimization in the lives of justice-involved women (Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2003; Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2004; Daly, 2002-2003; Hall, Golder, Conley, & Sawning, 2013; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009), there remain significant gaps in understanding regarding the relationships among these factors and their implications for practice and policy. In particular, the emphasis on the overall prevalence of these issues obscures the heterogeneity that exists among women in the justice system. The identification of risk profiles among subgroups of justice-involved women has yet to be explored and may illuminate various, complex elements that affect women's behavior (Reisig, Holtfreter, & Morash, 2006). Establishing risk profiles provides the opportunity to empirically classify subgroups of women based on intersecting characteristics, which can guide the development of targeted, evidence-based risk assessment/management protocols and concomitant intervention and prevention strategies (Lanza & Rhoades, 2013). In order to address this need, this investigation applied latent class analysis (LCA) with a sample of victimized women on probation and parole. The present study sought to explore whether indicators of general psychological distress could be used to identify distinct subgroups of victimized women on probation and parole and to compare these groups across external indicators of PTSD, cumulative victimization, substance use and other domains of psychosocial functioning that are associated with engagement in high risk behaviors (Nyamathi, 1989) . Comparisons across the external indicators serves several purposes: a) validation of the identified subgroups by confirming the between-group differences; b) further elucidation of the substantive meaning of the subgroups; and c) provision of a more nuanced understanding of the intersections of psychological distress, victimization, substance use and other psychosocial domains among women on probation and parole. As an exploratory study, there were no a priori hypotheses regarding the number of possible subgroups or differences and similarities that might arise among the identified subgroups.

Studies of job satisfaction of correctional staff members have shown relatively low levels of job satisfaction. Important in these studies is the link between work stress and job satisfaction. However, to date, researchers have neglected consideration of the role that emotional dissonance may play in the job satisfaction of correctional staff members. Drawing on data from 211 staff members in two Kentucky prisons, the present research examines the role of emotional dissonance and perceived work stress on correctional staff members’ job satisfaction. Structural equation modeling shows that emotional dissonance is an antecedent of work stress, which in turn affects satisfaction with supervisors. Implications for policy and future research are discussed.

Drawing on self‐report survey data from a sample of 425 college students in 2001, this study examines whether parental support can mediate the link that low self‐control has with deviance. Using multiple measures of low self‐control and parental support and item parcels of deviance, structural equation models are developed to arrive at the results. Results reveal that parental support does not completely mediate the link between low self‐control and deviance. Importantly, we find that parental support can reduce the link that low self‐control has with deviance, suggesting that this is a measure that may be manipulated to reduce instances of deviance.

This study examines the distribution differences across sexes in key measures of self-control theory and differences in a causal model. Using cross-sectional data from juveniles (n = 1,500), the study shows mean-level differences in many of the self-control, risky behavior, and delinquency measures. Structural equation modeling findings support Gottfredson and Hirschi’s causal model for males and females. However, multiple-groups structural equation modeling findings support the theory that differences in the measures and causal model are present for both sexes.

Although researchers have examined software piracy using several correlates and theories, it is not clear whether self-control theory and social learning theory have an effect on software piracy that is conditioned by state morals. Using data collected from 318 college students, this study examines the effects that low self-control, differential association, and attitudes have on software piracy and whether morals can condition these effects. The results show that the effects of low self-control, differential association, and attitudes are present in the low moral subsample, but they disappear in the high moral subsample. However, z-tests show that there is no statistically significant difference between these effects in these groups.

Digital piracy is an emerging white‐collar crime that requires empirical investigation. Using a nonrandom sample of 392 university undergraduates, the present study examined how self‐control theory and social learning theory come together to explain digital piracy. The findings revealed that low self‐control and social learning theory could come together in different ways to explain digital piracy. That is, out of five models examined, the findings revealed that social learning theory partially mediated the effect that self‐control had on digital piracy. Implications of these findings are also discussed.

Previous research has well established the influence of demographics and work environment variables on the experience of job stress for correctional officers. However, the literature examining this phenomenon for other correctional staff is just beginning to emerge. Scant attention has also been previously devoted to the potential role of emotional issues, such as emotional dissonance, work environment variables of perceived organizational fairness, and feedback regarding job performance. The present research adds to this emerging literature through use of survey data from a sample of correctional staff employed in two prisons in Kentucky. Bivariate and multivariate analyses reveal that influences on perceived work stress are primarily organizational issues, including role conflict, emotional dissonance, and task control. Contrary to popular belief, the percent of one’s work time spent in contact with inmates reduces the experience of work stress.

Control balance theory has been previously tested using measures of contingencies. This article builds upon these studies by using data collected from 460 undergraduate students to examine the role of constraints and sensation-seeking in the control balancing process. The findings provide partial support for control balance theory (i.e., that the control deficit and the control surplus both have significant links to predation). Examining the contingency effects showed that the influence of the control deficits and surpluses on deviance was conditioned by contingencies (i.e., high levels of sensation-seeking and low levels of constraint). The findings from this study suggest the need for further exploration of control balance theory, with the focus to shift to Tittle's 2004 revision of the theory.

Although the literature examining Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory is growing, an understudied area of inquiry concerns the role that race plays in the theory. Thus, this study examines the role that race plays in self-control theory. Using a random sample of juveniles from the Gang Resistance and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) evaluation, the findings show that low self-control has a link with delinquency for each race. However, the findings partially support Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory, with respect to race. Specifically, the findings show that low self-control has a link with delinquency for whites, but not for blacks.

A growing body of research examines the relationship between procedural justice and discrimination and evaluations of the courts for different races/ethnicities and genders. This article uses a national probability sample to make this examination. The results show that fairness of treatment and the perception of performance are important to individuals in their evaluation of the courts. In the subsample analysis, the fairness of treatment by the courts is important to the evaluation of the courts. Further, z‐tests show that this measure impacts the evaluation of the courts equally for whites, blacks, Hispanics, males, and females. In addition, the study shows that fairness of treatment has about the same level of impact on evaluations of the courts when the subsample analysis is stratified by a combination of race/ethnicity and gender.

Computer crime—specifically, software piracy—is growing, and no research in criminology examines whether low self-control can help us understand the behavior. This study examines the link that Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) idea of low self-control has with software piracy. Using a nonrandom sample of college students and measures of low self-control, software pirating peers, software pirating attitudes, and moral beliefs toward software piracy, the findings show that low self-control has a link with software piracy. This finding expands the scope of self-control theory and provides an understanding of why the behavior occurs.

Using data collected from 460 undergraduate students, this study examines the role of two contingencies (i.e. constraints and sensation‐seeking) in the control balancing process. The findings partially support the link that the control ratio has with deviance (i.e. exploitation). Specifically, this study found that control deficit and the control surplus both have links with exploitation. Further, low constraints and high sensation‐seeking are individual contingencies on the link that the control ratio has with exploitation. Further, low constraints and high sensation‐seeking form a second‐order contingency that allows the control ratio to have its largest link with exploitation.

This study examined the distribution differences across genders in key measures from self‐control theory and differences in its central model. The study used responses to multiple measures of self‐control, parental management, and a single measure of deviance from 425 college students. The findings show that all the measures are different across genders. In addition, using structural equation modeling and multiple group structural equation modeling, the findings show the central model for males and females were similar. The findings suggest that self‐control theory is general in the sense that its central model is usable for male and female deviance.

This article presents a test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results of the study, which are based on self-reports from a sample of 422 university students, generally support the theory. The support is qualified by methodological and analytical limitations. Despite its limitations, the study represents an addition to the growing body of empirical support for Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory.

This article provides an overview of Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) self-control theory. The article details the development. The development pertains to the role of parents and schools. Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that peer association is not an issue with their theory. This article discusses the issues surrounding this viewpoint. In addition, it discusses gender differences. Each of these topics is applied to criminal and deviant behavior.

This article assesses Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime. This study presents support for the theory's primary model (parental management influences self-control which influences deviance), using a sample of college students (N=425) and multiple measures of the central constructs and structural equation modeling (SEM). Policy implications are also presented as they relate to the theory.

Guided by the Comprehensive Health Seeking and Coping Paradigm (CHSCP; Nyamathi, 1989), the present research sought to examine associations between victimization, psychological distress, lawbreaking and recent drug use (past 12 months) among 406 victimized women on probation and parole. Bivariate differences between women who reported recent drug use and those who did not report recent use were compared across the 4 domains of the CHSCP (sociodemographic characteristics, personal resources, lifetime victimization, dynamic crime and drug factors). Variables significantly related to recent drug use at the bivariate level were retained in the multivariate analysis. The final multivariate model, using stepwise logistic regression via backward elimination, retained five candidate variables indicating women who recently used drugs, were younger, were not sexually victimized as children, began using drugs before they were 13 years of age, were on probation, and had engaged in more recent lawbreaking. The final model accounted for approximately 30% of the variance in drug use over the past 12 months. Implications for intervention and future research are discussed.

The development and testing of general theories of crime and deviance are necessary to better understand these behaviors. Tittle's control balance theory aims to explain how imbalances of control lead to deviance. The theory highlights the importance of contingencies for understanding the connection between control imbalances and deviance. Keywords: Contingencies ; Control Balance ; Control Criminology ; Race ; Social Justice

Victimized women within the criminal justice system are an important group and understanding their substance use is critical. Substance use was examined among 406 victimized women on probation and parole in an urban community from 2010 to 2013. Ninety-three percent reported lifetime use of an illicit substance, whereas 58% and 45% reported use of at least one illicit substance in the past 2 years and 12 months, respectively. Among probationers, having been in a controlled environment was associated with a higher prevalence of illicit substance use as compared to parolees. Implications for practice, policy, and future research are discussed.

Cybercrime has exponentially increased in recent years as an unavoidable byproduct of greater internet use, generally, and presents a wide range of criminal threats to large companies and individuals alike. While cyber offenses (e.g., cyberharassment, cyberstalking, identity theft, and intellectual property theft) and their address have been examined across diverse academic disciplines including criminology, electrical engineering, sociology, and computer science, minimal consideration has been given to the role of e-government in combating cybercrime – a somewhat ironic oversight given the computerized context of both. After reviewing the nature of cybercrime, this chapter considers e-government policies addressing cybercrime awareness, prevention, and victimization services. Discussion centers on the prospects for cybercrime theoretical research program development toward best practices public policy.

Today, the amount of stress the correctional staff endures at work is an important issue. Research has addressed this issue, but has yielded no consensus as to a properly calibrated measure of perceptions of work stress for correctional staff. Using data from a non-random sample of correctional staff (n = 228), the Rasch model was used to assess whether a specific measure of work stress would fit the model. Results show that three items rather than six items accurately represented correctional staff perceptions of work stress.

This study considers a biosocial explanation of why johns, the purchasers of commercial sex exchanges, are almost exclusively male. Trivers's theory of parental investment and sexual selection predicts that differential parental investment by biological sex will lead to divergent sex-based reproductive instincts. The sex bearing the larger parental investment will tend to be choosier, whereas the sex bearing the lesser investment will tend to be relatively indiscriminate and competitive for access to sexual resources. We hypothesized that men are more likely than women to offer objects of value in exchange for access to sexual resources. Using self-reports of sex-purchasing from Add Health data (N = 14,544), we found that maleness was a robust predictor of john behavior even after controlling for well-known criminogenic risk factors.

This entry provides an examination of the past and present prevalence and issues surrounding online child pornography in the United States. Legal definitions of child pornography are explained, followed by an analysis of the current empirical knowledge on the topic, as well as the legal and legislative history. Finally, a brief discussion of the future research directions on the topic will be discussed.

Wolfe, & Marcum, 2008). Digital piracy is one form of intellectual property piracy that has been increasing in recent years (International Federation of Phonographic Industries [IFPI], 2008).Gopal, Sanders, Bhattacharjee, Agrawal, and Wagner (2004) dened digital piracy as the illegal act of copying digital goods, so¯ware, digital documents, digital audio (including music and voice), and digital video for any reason other than to back up without explicit permission from and compensation to the copyright holder. ›e Internet facilitates digital piracy because it allows the crime to take place in a context that is detached from the copyright holder (Wall, 2005). For instance, the Internet provides a sense of con-dentiality and anonymity. ›is is especially true for digital music piracy that is committed through a multitude of modus operandi (e.g., compact disc [CD] burning, peer-to-peer [P2P] networks, local area network [LAN] le sharing, digital stream ripping, and mobile piracy [see http://www.ifpi.org for a discussion of these techniques]). A problem with digital piracy is that the anonymity and condentiality provides the pirate with a sense that the crime is victimless. However, music piracy is far from a victimless crime and has been described as “the greatest threat facing the music industry today” (Chiou, Huang, & Lee, 2005, p. 161).

Network systems capture data about electronic activity in new, sometimes unprecedented forms. These new forms offer new, powerful tactical tools for investigations of electronic malfeasance under traditional leg al regulation of state power, particular that of Fourth Amendment limitations on police searches and seizures under the U.S. Constitution. But mis- appreciation of identity and authenticity issues with electronic data, particularly IP addresses and account numbers, raise issues of public policy, privacy and proper oversight network forensic investigations. The digital age uses digital facts, particularly alphanumerical identifiers used for addressing, hashing and authentication and identification in online transactions. These artifacts become the evidence supporting a state search or seizure Given the technical issues with evidence preservation and examination in electronic storage media, search warrants relating to computers may direct the seizure of computers and removal off-site for examination in a computer forensics facility. This can disrupt or even destroy records, objects and systems on those computers. This reliance on simple digital identification with minimal authentication further corrodes privacy and liberty rights in new ways. Technical security cannot protect privacy and security with such attitudes towards data. Security policy must extend into all domains of society. The challenge will be to establish a balance where courts set a stricter boundary for state searches and seizures based on electronic evidence of questionable reliability. As the United States v. Gourde court observed "We are acutely aware that the digital universe poses particular challenges with respect to the Fourth Amendment." That awareness still needs greater knowledge of the facts of identity and authenticity of electronic data as evidence, its mutability and evanescence, if the rights, liberties, and privacy of Americans are to be protected.

The experiences of lawyers with electronic evidence and digital forensics are examined. The assessment indicates disparate experiences based on case type as to 1) the use of different types of electronic evidence, 2) disputes over that use and 3) utilization of digital forensics experts. Further study indicates use of electronic evidence continues to increase, from which we infer increased challenges to the reliability of digital forensic testimony.

We consider the requirements for node-based probing and monitoring for network forensic investigation of the use of peer-to-peer technologies for distribution of contraband material. The architecture of peer-to-peer (P2P) data exchanges must be examined for opportunities to capture data on the transfer of contraband data with a focus on node structures in P2P exchanges. This examination is of technical, social and legal aspects of P2P use leading to the design and testing offorensically-sound investigative tools and protocols. Computational research must examine: 1. Undercover Node-based Probing and Monitoring to Build an Approximate Model of Network Activity 2. Flagging Contraband Content (keyword, hashes, other patterns) 3. Evaluation against different recipient querying, distribution and routing cases 4. Using the Evaluation results to fine-tune the node positioning strategy Legal and social research is needed to examine the U.S. and transnational legal constraints on the use of particular tools and the presence of possible behavioral signatures.

Tests of self-control theory have examined a substantial number of criminal behaviors, but no study has examined the correlation of low self-control with software piracy. Using data collected from 302 students in this university, this study examined the correlation of low self-control with software piracy and the moderating role of associating with deviant peers in this correlation. Low self-control correlated with software piracy more strongly for those who had high associations with deviant peers than for students with low associations with deviant peers. Analysis indicated differential links for lack of moral attitude in relation to software piracy and favorable attitudes for software piracy for varying association with deviant peers.