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Copyright of Medunarodni Problemi is the property of Institute of International Politics & Economics and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Jurídica (0103-3506) is the property of Revista Juridica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The subject of the paper is the principle of national treatment, namely one of the basic principles of international trade. The objective is to determine its outreach and contents set in the forms of international trade organising, primarily in the World Trade Organization, from a legal perspective, naturally, all in the context of the Serbian law. The analysis that has been carried out indicates that there is an obvious intention of our legislators to harmonise in principle our legislation with the WTO requirements and standards, which are incomplete themselves and cause disputes that are not resolved in the practice of dispute resolving either entirely or consistently. In our law, a step forward has been made in relation to the situation from the previous relevant legislation, because the application of this principle is extended not only to trade with goods but also to trade with services, and to industrial property rights. However, in the most significant, basic field, namely trade with goods, it is still being done in a general way, by simplifying the entire topic and bringing it down only to protection against discrimination and neglecting the sphere of protectionism. Such acting does not include all the complexity of this matter and it is not entirely harmonised with the WTO requirements. However, a good side of such an approach is that it gives the state more freedom for acting in this sphere, which may be acceptable in the transition period until full membership of Serbia in this organization.

Copyright of Hacettepe Law Review is the property of Hacettepe Law Review and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Commerce had become a “reason of state” in the eighteenth century. With the publication of Smith’s Wealth of Nations, the idea that free international trade was economically beneficial however gradually gained prominence. The long nineteenth century indeed saw timid – bilateral – attempts to implement the new politico-economic philosophy. Yet the First World War and the Great Depression destroyed almost all trade liberalisation already achieved, and the neo-mercantilist policies of the 1920s and 1930s seemed to turn the wheels of commerce backwards. Nonetheless: after the Second World War the belief that a peaceful world order could only be founded on a stable international economic order emerged strengthened; and a number of institutional attempts to liberalise – and harness – the world economy were immediately made, culminating in the creation of the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International trade in used electrical and electronics equipment (UEEE) provides an avenue for socio-economic development in the developing world and also serves as a conduit for transboundary dumping of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) also referred to as electronic waste or e-waste. The latter problem arises from the absence of a regulatory framework for differentiating between functional UEEE and junk e-waste. This has resulted in both functional UEEE and junk e-waste being concurrently shipped to developing countries under the guise of international trade in used electronics. Dealing with these problems will require effective regulation of international trade in UEEE from both exporting and importing countries. Although, the export of e-waste from the European Community to developing countries is currently prohibited, significant amounts of e-waste from the region continue to flow into developing countries due to lax regulatory measures in the latter. Hence, there is a need for a regulatory regime in developing countries to complement the prohibitive regime in the major e-waste source countries. This paper proposes trade measures modelled in line with WTO rules that could be adopted by developing countries in addressing these problems. The proposed measures include the development of a compulsory certification and labelling system for functional UEEE as well as trade ban on commercial importation of UEEE not complying with the said certification and labelling system. The paper then goes further to examine these proposed measures in the light of WTO rules and jurisprudence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores possible bases for the progress of world trade regime and the rise of new protectionism based on existing studies in international trade and commercial policy area. Using analytical frameworks of these studies, the paper then discusses what we can expect for the future of world trade regime and new protectionism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the World Trade Organization (WTO) begins its third decade, its future is uncertain. The initial expectation that the WTO would be the fulcrum for future international trade agreements has not been met. At best, its tenure has had mixed results. This review addresses the political consequences of WTO membership, focusing on the rules and norms of the regime and why they have become less functional over time; looks at the effectiveness of the WTO and the dispute settlement system in encouraging trade and compliance with agreements; and offers some general thoughts on the impact of shifting mass opinion on the virtue of trade agreements and other stumbling blocks the WTO faces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews the journey of Hong Kong attaining and retaining the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) membership as a separate customs territory, and examines the present challenges for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) to maintain its status within the multilateral trade system. By exploring the related facts and laws, the article concludes that Hong Kong has been a separate customs territory member of the GATT and WTO by virtue of the multilateral trade rules, and other countries are not entitled to revoke the HKSAR's separate customs territory status through unilateral measures. Given the past journey and present challenges with the separate customs territory status of Hong Kong, the following prospects can be drawn. The HKSAR remains qualified to possess full autonomy when conducting external commercial relations. A malfunctioning Appellate Body of the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) may be incapable to safeguard the interests of HKSAR as a separate customs territory., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

The history of the anti-dumping regulation formed by two closely interrelated components: national and international. Antidumping regulation was born on a national basis. The uniform rules consist of article VI of GATT and special international agreements, commonly referred to anti-dumping codes. Following the adoption and changes of the uniform rules new provisions and changes in anti-dumping laws are adopted. The law of the United States notably stands out by its influence on the uniform rules, and specific approaches to resolving many issues. In the given article an attempt to discover the issues of development of international component of the antidumping regulation is made.

This article studies the latest trends observed in the area of contradictory relations between countries with regard to international trade, which cause changes in the paradigm of international trade disputes. It has been found out that any state of inconsistent relations between the countries is recently characterized as a «trade war». It has been analyzed the notions of «dispute», «conflict», «war» according to international regulatory documents and determined the applicability of these terms depending on a number of criteria. It has been studied the evolution of the objects of international trade disputes since the time of ancient Greece until today, and new trends based on this have been revealed with regard to use of trade policy instruments that cause disputes between countries. Several specific examples of international trade disputes and causes of their occurrence have been considered. A quantitative analysis of international trade disputes in general and in relations between the leading countries in terms of a number of the trade disputes in which they were involved has been performed.

Se expone la interrelación que existe entre la economía y la cultura dentro del contexto de un mundo globalizado. Se analiza también la necesidad de crear un instrumental pertinente, con la finalidad de que el intercambio cultural no sufra perjuicios propios del intercambio económico y de otras razones ajenas como el proteccionismo ideológico.

This article gives an insight into the most essential issues of EC/EU membership in the WTO. After briefly explaining the main functions of the GATT and the WTO, the author gives an overview of the EC/EU role in the GATT/WTO. The article outlines the major challenges that both the EU and WTO face today. It argues that many of the changes within the EU have been influenced by its membership of the WTO. Finally, the article summarises the status of GATT and WTO agreements in EU law.

The article is dedicated to the principle of the territoriality of IP rights of Intellectual property law. The article pays special attention to the problem of conflict of laws and Intellectual Property Rights and analyses some of international conventions.

Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) lays down the legal principles with which regional trade agreements have to conform. Based on these principles, WTO members have the mandate to determine the legality of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) under the GATT. Article XXIV permits both regional and bilateral preferential trade agreements leading to the formation of customs unions and free trade areas, and seeks to integrate them in the multilateral trading system envisioned for the world. SADC is an RTA created under this Article. Notwithstanding the controversies surrounding the provisions and interpretation of Article XXIV, this paper seeks to establish the extent to which the SADC Protocol on Trade and free trade area comply with WTO rules. An analysis of selected Article XXIV provisions and the SADC Trade Protocol provisions will be undertaken in trying to establish this compliance.

Genetic algorithms (GA’s) are global search mechanisms that have been applied to many disciplines including music composition. Computer system MELEC composes music using evolutionary computation on two levels: the object and the meta. At the object-level, MELEC employs GAs to compose melodic motifs and iteratively refine them through evolving generations. At the meta-level, MELEC forms the overall musical structure by concatenating the generated motifs in an order that depends on the evolutionary process. In other words, the structure of the music is determined by a geneological traversal of the algorithm’s execution sequence. In this implementation, we introduce a new data structure that tracks the execution of the GA, the Genetic Algorithm Traversal Tree, and uses its traversal to define the musical structure. Moreover, we employ a Fibonacci-based fitness function to shape the melodic evolution.

International politics are moving towards an economical and culturalunification (globalisation), in which all nations are related by trade interactions.If environmental protection commitments are to be honoured,environmental law has to cease to be considered a separate discipline and find synergies that allow it to become an important stakeholder in trade relations.In this paper it is argued that international commerce and environmentallaw have coevolved in the last three decades to reach a balance embodied in the concept of sustainable development.The essay explores this coevolution, and proposes that the WorldTrade Organization (WTO) can play an important role in environmentalprotection goals if its “green provisions” and dispute resolutionmechanism are to be used to promote them, as is already happening. In order to illustrate this point, a brief overview of commercial and environmental treaties signed since the seventies is presented, followed by an explanation of the WTO’s treaty suite provisions that can be considered as “green”, in the hopes of finding convergence points that can be used by the member parties in order not only tojustify the passing of environmental protection domesticlegislations, but also to compel other countries to comply with their obligations in this area.

Este artigo trata da política comercial brasileira nos governos de José Sarney (1985-1990), Fernando Collor de Mello (1990-1992) e Itamar Franco (19921994), analisando como, ao longo desse período, o Brasil deixou de buscar derrogações dos princípios do GATT de liberalização progressiva e não discriminação e passou a incorporá-los na formulação da política comercial sob responsabilidade tanto do Ministério das Relações Exteriores quanto dos ministérios econômicos do governo. Explico a convergência de políticas nessas distintas burocracias do Estado pela gradual ocupação das instâncias decisórias por grupos com concepções convergentes sobre a funcionalidade do comércio exterior na promoção do desenvolvimento econômico, o que contribuiu para a evolução da posição brasileira na Rodada Uruguai do GATT e para a reforma do regime de importações. Para sustentar esta hipótese, procurei verificar a relação entre a evolução do pensamento econômico dos grupos responsáveis pela formulação da política comercial e a redefinição de políticas nessa área.This article concerns the Brazilian trade policy during the governments of José Sarney (1985-1990), Fernando Collor de Mello (1990-1992) and Itamar Franco (1992-1994), studying how, throughout this period, Brazil stopped trying to derogate the GATT principles of progressive liberalization and nondiscrimination and began to incorporate them in the elaboration of the trade policy under the responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the government's ministries of economy. I seek to explain the convergence of policies between those distinct State bureaucracies through the gradual occupation of the decisory instances by groups with convergent conceptions of the foreign trade functionality on the promotion of economic development, which contributed to the evolution of the Brazilian stance at GATT Uruguay Round and to the reform of the imports regime. To support this hypothesis, I have tried to verify the relationship between the evolution of the economic thought of groups responsible for the formulation of the commercial policy and the redefinition of policies in this area.

GATT article I (1) provides for WTO members to accord Most-Favoured-Nation treatment to like products of other WTO members regarding tariffs, regulations on exports and imports, internal taxes and charges, and internal regulations. The MFN is a fundamental principle of the WTO.The GATT and the WTO Agreement provide for certain exceptions to the MFN principle, for example, generalized system of preferences, non-application of multilateral trade agreements and other exceptions. Exceptions guarantee the account of interests of participants and flexibility of the WTO law, but related exceptions need to be carefully administered so as not to undermine the MFN principle.

In this paper the author examines GATT/WTO's actual contribution to lower tariffs and more open markets. The GATT has played a core role in the reduction of non-agricultural tariffs in developed countries, but some of the oft-quoted trade liberalization figures may be misleading. Developing countries for many decades prior to the Uruguay Round made little use of the GATT to reduce or bind their tariffs. Uruguay Round commitments have mostly extended the binding coverage, sometimes at levels far above the applied rates. It is also important to evaluate the effect of the GATT/WTO on border measures. Here again, the multilateral system can claim partial success. The author also examines GATT/WTO's contribution to world trade growth.

Purpose: To provide 4-year data on the efficacy and safety of gonioscopy-assisted transluminal trabeculotomy (GATT) in patients with open-angle glaucoma., Design: Retrospective case series., Participants: Eyes of patients > 18 years of age who underwent GATT by a single surgeon at Wills Eye Hospital with at least 36 months follow-up., Methods: Postoperative changes in outcome measures including intraocular pressure (IOP), medication use and visual acuity were recorded. Failure was defined as IOP > 21 mmHg or less than 20% reduction below baseline at any postoperative visit after 3 months or need for further glaucoma surgery., Main Outcome Measures: Main outcome measures were failure rate, IOP, number of glaucoma medications, and visual acuity at 4 years., Results: Fifty-nine patients (74 eyes), age 57.1 ± 18.5 years (37.8% female) underwent the GATT procedure. Average follow-up was 47.0 ± 6.7 months (range 35.6-76.5 months). Mean IOP was 27.0 ± 10.0 mmHg preoperatively and 14.8 ± 6.5 mmHg at 4 years (45% IOP decrease; P < 0.01). Mean number of medications decreased from 3.2 ± 1.0 preoperatively to 2.3 ± 1.0 at 4 years (P < 0.01). The cumulative failure rate at 4 years was 53.9%, and the cumulative reoperation rate was 42.0%. No significant differences between patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and other types of glaucoma were found., Conclusions: Gonioscopy-assisted transluminal trabeculotomy can be a safe and effective conjunctival-sparing surgery for treating various forms of open-angle glaucoma at 4 years., Financial Disclosure(s): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references., (Copyright © 2023 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

O trabalho traça uma análise histórica do Sistema Multilateral de Comércio (SMC), tendo como foco a sua importância para a conformação da ordem econômica internacional do pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial. A partir de uma perspectiva analítico-evolutiva, faz-se uma apresentação do contexto internacional no qual o sistema multilateral foi gerado e identificam-se as interações entre as transformações históricas mundiais, tanto no plano político quanto no econômico, e a estruturação do Sistema Multilateral de Comércio, desde o Acordo Geral sobre Tarifas e Comércio (em inglês, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)) até a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC). Ademais, o papel desempenhado pela diplomacia econômica brasileira na construção e transformação do SMC será discutido ao longo do presente trabalho. Também são feitas considerações sobre a atual Rodada de negociações multilaterais, a Rodada Doha, e a sua relevância na ótica dos países em desenvolvimento.This work brings a historical analysis of the multilateral trading system, focusing on its importance to the building up of the international economic order, after the Second World War. From an evolutionary perspective, the international context in which the multilateral trading system was created is presented. Moreover, the interactions between world historical transformations and the development of the multilateral trading system, from GATT to WTO, are analyzed, both in political and economic points of view. Furthermore, the role played by the Brazilian economic diplomacy in building and transforming the multilateral trading system is analyzed. Some considerations are also made on the Doha Round of trade talks and its importance to the developing countries.

O ensaio busca documentar e contextualizar a evolução dos tratamentos especiaisno sistema GATT/ OMC (Organização Mundial doComércio) às políticas dos países industrializados eàs dos países em desenvolvimento. Historicamente,a busca pelos países em desenvolvimento de umtratamento jurídico adequado às necessidades do seuprocesso de desenvolvimento combinou açõesbasicamente defensivas, com relação à aplicação dasnormas multilaterais e formulações mais positivaspara a redução de barreiras que afetavam as suasexportações nos mercados dos paísesindustrializados.The essay aims at providing documentalevidence on the evolution of special treatments toindustrial and developing countries’ policies withinthe GATT/ WTO (World Trade Organization)system, and on the historical context in which thediscussion evolved. Historically, while searchingfor a legal treatment that could be adequate todevelopment process needs, developing countriescombined defensive actions, vis à vis theimplementation of multilateral norms, as well asmore positive attitude concerning the reductionof trade barriers that affected their exports inindustrial countries’ markets.

Uno de los objetivos fundamentales del sistema de solución de diferencias de la Organización Mundial de Comercio consiste en otorgar seguridad y previsibilidad al sistema multilateral de comercio. El presente artículo pretende otorgar una visión panorámica acerca de la forma en que se lleva a cabo este objetivo, a través de un análisis orgánico y procesal de las actuaciones ante los Grupos Especiales y el Órgano de Apelación. De esta manera, el artículo identificará las materias fundamentales a través de las cuales el sistema funciona, así como los criterios del Órgano de Solución de Diferencias que han permitido su desarrollo desde 1995 hasta la fecha. El autor examina de esta manera el Órgano de Solución de Diferencias y los órganos que le sirven de soporte (Grupos Especiales y Órgano de Apelación), el fundamento de las reclamaciones, y los actores del sistema.

Copyright of Historia y Politica: Ideas, Procesos y Movimientos Sociales is the property of Departamento De Historia del Pensamiento y de los Moviemientos Sociales y Politicos (Madrid) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In studying the concepts of trade and culture in the context of international law, it appears at first that the two are at odds: the cultural exception approach vouches for protectionism and national sovereignty while trade defends liberalization and globalization. However, within this distinction lies a misconception. Culture doesn't necessarily reject trade. The word "exception" does. This study presents and analyzes the notion of cultural exception within the framework of international trade law, specifically examining the legal protections and recourses offered by the World Trade Organization ("WTO") and alternative treaties and agreements (e.g. Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement ("CUSFTA"), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ("UNESCO")). While this study shows that cultural exception proponents have a hard time making a case on the international legal stage, the challenge lies in how culture is perceived and understood from a legal standpoint. This study delves into a number of WTO cases to assess to what extent culture plays a role in furthering trade liberalization, taking into account the current international debate regarding the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership ("TTIP") and the Trans-Pacific Partnership ("TPP"). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A educação superior faz parte dos setores de serviços negociáveis no Acordo Geral sobre Comércio de Serviços (Gats), um dos tratados de liberalização existente na Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC). Neste artigo se busca analisar as conseqüências desta liberalização. Em específico, os impactos jurídicos das obrigações do Gats na conduta das políticas de educação superior de seus Membros. Entende-se que embora o Gats possua a potencialidade de gerar efeitos relevantes, seu modo de operação pode ser utilizado para anular ou minimizar seus efeitos, de acordo com o grau de liberalização pretendido por cada Membro. Por fim, o artigo apresenta um panorama sobre as posições dos Membros, destacando os argumentos pró e contra a liberalização da educação superior.Higher education is one of the sectors negotiable under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (Gats), one of the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. This paper analyzes the consequences of this liberalization. Specifically, it assesses the legal impacts of Gats obligations for the pursuance of higher education policies by WTO Members. The paper argues that despite the potential effects of Gats, the way it works can be used to nullify or mitigate its effects, in accordance with the level of liberalization sought by each Member. At the end, this paper also presents an overview of Members' positions, stressing their arguments pro and against liberalization.

This article aims at addressing the question on the role of global civil society movement and its significance to the WTO and developing countries. The WTO has been critized as the Rich Man's Club since it primarily serves the benefits of developed countries. The emergence of global civil society movement can be considered as the opportunity to diminish the undesirable effects of the existing trading order. However, the findings show that despite the rapid growth of such a movement, their agendas do not always correspond to the developing countries needs. Some facts even demonstrate that sometimes their activities are conflicting with developing countries main interests.

This article aims at presenting the content and the frame of the TRIPs. Agreement. It starts by introducing the reader to the terms that defined the world economical climate by the time of the Agreement negociation. Also, it explains the need of having an Agreement on intellectual property rights with impact on the business world. Moreover, the article reviews the main provisions of the Agreement and the most important intellectual property rights.

the present paper analyses the first traces of the debates on environmental issues in the context of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), in the period that comprehends the negotiations of the charter of the intended International Trade Organization (ITO), 1947, until the end of the Tokyo Round, 1979. In order to assess this subject, this paper mainly refers to the texts of the agreements of the mentioned period and the documents produced during the negotiation rounds. The study of these three initial decades is relevant for a full grasp of the origins of a discussion that would gain strength in the subsequent years, and that rebounds until the present days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]