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In this chapter, Frank Jacob carefully examines another significant manifestation of collective violence in Asian history: the mass atrocities committed by Japanese soldiers against Chinese in the Rape of Nanking in 1937 and 1938. First analyzing at length the contentious historiography and historical evidence surrounding this pivotal episode of collective violence performed by agents of the Japanese state, Jacob then closely examines the violence perpetrated at Nanking from a theoretical perspective, arguing that it displayed both dynamics of state-sponsored macro-violence such as warfare and genocide as well as some qualities of extralegal micro-violence, such as lynching.

Despite the fact that one would not usually connect the history of the Nation of Islam with that of Japan, the interrelationship of American religion and Japanese imperial ambitions is especially visible in the history of the Nation. Japan's interest in the Islamic world became especially strong as a consequence of its antagonism toward the Russian Empire, where many Muslims were longing for liberation. This chapter presents a survey of the Islam-oriented policy of Japan from the end of the Russo-Japanese War until the Second World War. It discusses the Nation of Islam and its branches to highlight the existing bonds between the Nation and Japan. The chapter provides the international perspective on the Nation of Islam as well as a description of Japanese war-oriented strategies of cultural counter-insurgency. Black Nationalism in the United States was in most forms a separatist movement, because it aspired to segregation from the existing white-dominated society.

En avtalsparts vetskap eller culpösa ovetskap om ett visst betydelsefullt förhållande kan leda till att ett avtal eller en annan rättshandling ogiltigförklaras eller ges ett annat innehåll än eljest. Men hur förhåller det sig när den relevanta vetskapen finns hos den som för avtalspartens räkning framförhandlat avtalet? I denna uppsats kommer författaren att utreda under vilka förutsättningar en mellanmans (fullmäktigs) onda tro får samma betydelse för avtalspartens (huvudmannens) rättsställning som om huvudmannen själv varit i ond tro. Det har från olika håll ifrågasatts om full behörighet att träffa ett avtal måste föreligga för att huvudmannen ska tillräknas ond tro hos en fullmäktig. Tidig rättspraxis ger vid handen att en fullmäktigs insikter och åtgärder under förhandlingar med motparten saknar betydelse vid tolkningen av avtalet, när fullmäktigens behörighet varit begränsad till att förhandla och förmedla anbud. Inte heller i ogiltighetshänseende har en fullmäktigs onda tro utan vidare tillmätts betydelse, när det villkor som tredje man felaktigt utgått från legat utom behörigheten. Den beskrivna ordningen stämmer dåligt överens med hur tredje man i allmänhet uppfattar situationen och den går inte särskilt väl ihop med rättsläget efter det att avtal väl slutits; från och med detta ögonblick kommer huvudmannen (avtalsparten) att ansvara för sina anställda och andra medhjälpare på samma sätt som för sig själv (in contractu). HD har på senare år ändrat sin praxis och mycket talar numera för att huvudregeln är den motsatta; så länge fullmäktigen utrustats med en förhandlingsfullmakt kan hans eller hennes insikt om motpartens uppfattning tillräknas huvudmannen. Vilken rättsföljden blir av ett tillräknande avgörs av ett samspel mellan hur tvisten formuleras av parterna samt vad grundläggande avtals- och fullmaktsrättsliga principer ger vid handen. Utgångspunkten är att huvudmannen inte kan bli bunden av en sidolöpare (d.v.s. ett villkor som inte täcks av behörigheten), men i ogiltighetshänseende ska han stå risken för vad fullmäktigen vet om tredje mans uppfattning. Föreligger emellertid konsensus om avtalets giltighet i sig och tvist endast råder om dess innehåll, måste en tolkning av avtalet göras av domstolen till förmån för den ena eller andra parten. I ett sådant fall får fullmäktigens vetskap om tredje mans uppfattning, en omständighet som normalt endast leder till ogiltighet, betydelse för tolkningen av avtalet.

Die starke Verbreitung von Angeboten, die Nachfrager in ihrem Alltag unterstutzen, fuhrt innerhalb der Forschung zu einer zunehmenden Auseinandersetzung mit den Nutzungsprozessen der Nachfrager. Eine theoretische Grundlage fur diese Auseinandersetzung bietet die Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing. Sie geht davon aus, dass die eigentliche Nutzenentfaltung fur einen Nachfrager nicht durch den blosen Produktbesitz, sondern erst im Nutzungsprozess in Form von Value-in-Use entsteht. Bislang existiert jedoch keine allgemein anerkannte Methode, mit deren Hilfe sich Nutzungsprozesse erfassen und im Hinblick auf den Value-in-Use analysieren lassen. Im Beitrag wird daher eine Methode zur Erfassung des Value-in-Use vorgeschlagen. Hierzu wird auf die Repertory-Grid-Methode zuruckgegriffen, welche gemas den zugrundeliegenden theoretischen Annahmen adaptiert und im Rahmen einer qualitativen Studie zur Smartphone-Nutzung empirisch getestet wird. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse ermoglichten die Erarbeitung einer spezifischen Value-in-Use-Skala. Eine quantitative Studie validierte diese abschliesend. Die adaptierte Repertory-Grid-Methode wird folglich als ein vielversprechender Ansatz zur Erfassung von Nutzungsprozessen und dem dabei entstehenden Value-in-Use betrachtet.

The increasing number of offerings that support consumers’ daily routines has led to a growing discussion in scientific research about consumers’ usage processes. A theoretical foundation for this discussion is offered by the service-dominant logic of marketing. The central idea is that value creation for a consumer is not based on mere product ownership but rather evolves through the usage of various offerings in terms of value-in-use. However, there is no universally accepted method to capture usage processes and analyze them with regard to value-in-use. The article therefore suggests a method for capturing value-in-use. For this purpose the repertory grid method is applied which is further adapted according to the underlying theoretical assumptions and empirically tested in a qualitative study on smartphone usage. On the basis of the findings, a specific value-in-use scale is then developed. Finally, this scale is validated in a quantitative study. The results indicate that the adapted repertory grid method is a promising approach to capture usage processes and the value-in-use created through these processes.

The paper focuses on the solution business. Here we argue that the strategy can only lead a company to perform better if it encompasses a direct and positive effect on satisfaction with a supplier’s consulting capabilities. Hence we introduce the concept of consulting satisfaction, identify antecedents and analyze its consequences. To do so, we apply a mixed-methods approach. Content analysis from open interviews with company professionals yields a list of antecedents of consulting satisfaction used to devise a set of hypotheses. The latter was translated into a questionnaire based measurement instrument in order to first collect and then analyze data from a larger sample survey. Since three of the antecedents could not be supported by our study, possible explanations are presented. With our approach we tap new dimensions of solutions research. First, we inaugurate research on buying behavior within the field of solutions. Second, we stress the role of capabilities in this field and extend service–profit chain thinking. And third, we present consulting satisfaction as a lever to translate the S-D logic of marketing into more practical applications. To our knowledge this is a novel insight and can help industry decision makers better prepare for the solution business.

Many modern business negotiations cross borders, and one plausible idea for successfully managing such negotiations is to equip negotiation teams with a “cultural moderator,” an individual who has the same cultural background as the business partner. This study investigates the effect of cultural moderators on both the negotiation process (e.g., use of integrative strategies) and economic outcomes (e.g., profit). Using German and French negotiators in an experimental setting, the authors show that a cultural moderator's influence on the team's use of integrative strategies depends on the moderator's degree of collectivism. With respect to economic outcomes, the presence of a cultural moderator always improves a team's results. Together, these findings suggest that the benefits of using a cultural moderator are not unconditional; rather, they depend on the cultural moderator's cultural background and on the negotiation goals (process vs. outcome) of the team that employs the moderator.

PurposeCustomer decision‐making uncertainty (DMU) is a persistent phenomenon in business‐to‐business markets. However, there is substantial variation in the degree to which customers perceive DMU and how suppliers should react to it. The purpose of this paper is to explain variation in customer decision‐making uncertainty.Design/methodology/approachBased on existing industrial buying typologies, this paper proposes a new classification scheme to explain variance in customer decision‐making uncertainty. Market offering complexity and co‐creation are used as defining dimensions in the construction of four archetypal types of industrial market offerings.FindingsThe paper demonstrates on a theoretical level that customer decision‐making uncertainty is especially prevalent in complex offerings characterized by high degrees of co‐creation.Practical implicationsThis typology helps to provide a more nuanced understanding of the effects of co‐creation on customer value. Firms should adapt their selling approaches to the degree of complexity and co‐creation that they offer their customers.Originality/valueThe originality of the paper rests in explaining customer decision‐making uncertainty in relation to complexity and co‐creation. Thus, it sheds light on the dark side of co‐creating market offerings.

Trotz des zunehmenden technischen Fortschritts kann man der heutigen Offentlichkeit ein Interesse an der Vergangenheit nicht absprechen. Geschichte bewegt die Menschen, gerade weil nicht alle von ihnen einer Meinung sind, wenn es um die Interpretation von historischen Ereignissen geht. Schlieslich sind stets verschiedene Versionen der geschichtlichen Vergangenheit in der Gesellschaft prasent, die miteinander, mitunter aufgrund politischer Betrachtungsweisen, um die Uberlegenheit der ultima ratio ringen.