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Cognitive interventions that involve executive functions (EF)-demanding activities are effective in changing task-related brain activity in children from homes with low socioeconomic status (SES). However, less is known about the efficiency of EF-based interventions in modifying segregation and integration properties of the functional neural organization during a resting state. Further, the consideration of the initial cognitive performance in the design of interventions and its role in the outcome of cognitive training has been poorly studied. The present study aimed to examine the impact of two individualized cognitive interventions with EF-demanding activities on brain connectivity in preschoolers (n = 79) from low-SES homes in Argentina using complex network analysis. At baseline, participants were classified as high- or low-performers based on their performance in an inhibitory control task, and then they were assigned into intervention and control groups within each performance level. Before and after the intervention, the neural activity of each child was recorded at rest using a mobile electroencephalogram device. We found significant intervention-related changes in global efficiency, global strength, and the strength of long-range connections in the [theta] frequency band in the intervention low-performing group. These findings support the idea that patterns of processing crucial information in the brain may be modified in children from low-SES homes through an EF-based intervention. Finally, these findings show different intervention-related effects on neural activity between children with low and high initial cognitive performance and add new evidence about the interaction between individual characteristics and intervention approaches.

Young children have informal knowledge of fractions before learning about fraction symbols in school. In the current study, we followed 103 children in the Mid-Atlantic United States from the fall to the spring of first grade to characterize the development of individual differences in early informal fraction knowledge, as well as its relation to other mathematical and cognitive skills. Most children in our sample showed some early fraction knowledge at the beginning of first grade, especially with nonsymbolic fractions and halving, and this knowledge improved over the school year without explicit instruction in fractions. However, there were large individual differences in early fraction knowledge at the start of first grade, which explained significant variance in math achievement at the end of first grade, even when controlling for whole number knowledge and a variety of cognitive skills. Start-of-year whole number knowledge, but not spatial scaling or proportional reasoning, also predicted early end-of-year fraction knowledge. These data can inform activities for learning in the early years to foster both early fraction and integer knowledge in parallel, which may better prepare students for later formal instruction in fractions.

Girls and boys might differ in autistic symptoms and associated cognitive difficulties such as executive function (EF). We investigated sex differences in the relationship between parent rated EF and autistic symptoms in 116 children and adolescents (25 girls) aged 5-19 years with an intelligence quotient above 70 and an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. They were rated with the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF) and the autism diagnostic interview revised (ADI-R). We found a positive association between EF and the ADI-R domains of reciprocal social interaction (p < 0.001) and communication (p = 0.001) in girls, while these relationships were small and non-significant in boys. Our results provide a greater understanding of the sex-specific characteristics of children and adolescents with ASD.

Although it has been found that autistic children exhibit delays in executive function abilities and atypical patterns of attention, less is known about the relationship between executive function and attention abilities and social and language skills in early childhood. In this study, 180 autistic children, age 2-8 years, participated in a study examining the relationship between executive function abilities, measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, and assessments of sustained attention measured via eye-tracking and several language and social communication measures. Results revealed that children with higher caregiver-reported executive function skills, specifically, working memory and planning/organization abilities, demonstrated higher levels of caregiver-reported receptive-expressive social communication abilities measured via the Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory. Higher executive function abilities across all domains were associated with lower levels of social pragmatic problems. Children who were able to sustain their attention for a longer duration demonstrated higher expressive language abilities. These results suggest that executive function and attention skills may play an important role in multiple domains of functioning in autistic children. It will be useful to determine whether therapies that seek to improve executive function skills in autistic individuals also positively influence their social/communication and language abilities.

This study examined whether set-shifting ability for children with autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability would be affected differentially by verbal or nonverbal feedback as the outcome of previous research tentatively suggests that verbal feedback may lead to slower set-shifting. Overall, 56 children participated (42 male; 14 female); 28 with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (24 male) and 28 (21 male) typically developing children matched on cognitive and verbal abilities. Each group was exposed to a set-shifting task using cards varying in three dimensions. One group of typically developing children, and one group of autism spectrum disorder children, received verbal feedback on their performance, and one group received nonverbal feedback. Children with autism spectrum disorder learned an initial categorisation rule as fast as matched typically developing children. There was little difference in the impact of the type of feedback on acquisition. However, on shifting the classification rule, children with autism spectrum disorder showed slower rates of learning the new rule, relative to matched controls, which was worse when verbal feedback was used compared to nonverbal feedback. This finding has implications for the interpretations of set-shifting performance and for classroom use of feedback strategies.

Autistic burnout is an experience commonly described by autistic people (#AutBurnout and #AutisticBurnout on social media). Recently, two definitions of this syndrome have been published. Both describe debilitating exhaustion with onset related to various stressors including masking, though several differences exist, such as the characteristic of interpersonal withdrawal. We sought to explore the content validity of these definitions including duration and frequency criteria, using descriptive statistics, content analysis and reflexive thematic analysis. A co-produced survey of 141 autistic adults with experience of autistic burnout showed strong endorsement of the definition by Higgins et al., where exhaustion and interpersonal withdrawal occur alongside reduced functioning, executive functioning difficulties, and increased manifestation of autistic traits. Duration and frequency criteria were unresolved, with qualitative data highlighting varying (both acute and chronic) experiences. Autistic burnout is frequently misdiagnosed as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder or other conditions. Work is needed to increase community and clinician awareness, as well as initiatives to improve unaccommodating neurotypical environments. More research and validation are needed in larger samples not restricted to autistic adults who have experienced autistic burnout to determine prevalence and risk factors as well as duration and frequency.

Executive functions (EFs) are an umbrella term that includes various cognitive abilities (such as inhibition, planning, goal-setting, monitoring, and shifting). There is common agreement that there are three main EFs: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. Further studies have reported that compared to typically developing peers, children with cerebral palsy (CP) show deficits in EF skills. This study aims to evaluate children with CP's inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility skills. Forty children with CP between the ages of 7-13 were included in the present study. EF scores of the CP group were compared with scores of typically developing peers matched one-to-one by age and sex. The EF skills were evaluated with Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST), Stroop color-word test (SCWT) TBAG Form, and executive function behavior rating scale parent form (BRIEF-P). It was determined that there was a significant difference in the WCST total trials, total errors, categories completed, and percent conceptual level responses scores (p < 0.05); SCWT-TBAG scores (p < 0.05), and BRIEF-P all scores (p [less than or equal to] 0.01) of children with CP. The results of this study suggest that children with CP are disadvantaged with EF skills in terms of inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility.

This study examined the use of a wearable smartwatch-based intervention to support the executive functioning needs of college students with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. The study was designed to address the universal design for learning guidelines and checkpoints for Provide options for Executive Functions. Three students with intellectual disability, two on the autism spectrum, participated in this multiple-probe across participants with an embedded ABAB design to determine whether a causal relationship exists between the smartwatch intervention and the percentage of tasks completed independently. Students were taught to use a wearable smartwatch device to enter novel appointments for the coming week and the associated tasks. All students self-operated the wearable device to enter appointments, attend appointments on time, and complete associated tasks. Results are discussed in the context of applying new technology applications to assist individuals with intellectual disability and autism to self-manage technological supports to learn new skills, set reminders, and enhance independence.

Working memory plays an important role in learning since it serves as the buffer between past sensations and future behavior, making it essential to understand not only how we encode and recall sensory information in memory but also how we plan for its upcoming use. This study examined the effect of working memory training on vocabulary recall and retention of Iranian EFL learners using the dual N-back task technique. N-back requires the individual to remember an item that was presented a certain number of items previously. To this end, 50 EFL learners were randomly assigned to the experimental (n = 25) and control (n = 25) groups. The participants were taught 100 English words in 20 sessions. In each session, the experimental group also received a dual n-back task. After the treatment, immediate and delayed vocabulary posttests were administered. The obtained data were analyzed through two-way repeated-measures ANOVA and independent samples "t"-tests. The results showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in target words' recall and retention.

Exposure to teachers and teaching-related activities is vital for young children's learning. When COVID-19 closed schools, teachers responded with a mix of live- and prerecorded lessons and one-on-one communication with students, which necessitated shifts in planning time. The current study identifies pre-COVID predictors of time teachers devoted to each of these teaching-related activities to illuminate actionable levers for supporting educators during widespread educational disruption. Teachers with higher prepandemic job commitment devoted more overall time to pandemic-induced remote teaching. Teachers' prepandemic executive functioning and observed classroom instructional and organizational quality--features of successful teachers during normal times--predicted more during-pandemic time remote teaching, while teacher older age and having more high-needs students was associated with less remote teaching time. These results contribute to an emerging literature that spotlights potential promising avenues for supporting teachers via professional development during normal times as well as in future widespread educational disruptions.

Developing executive functions (EF) is a crucial issue in early childhood development which is also important in 21st-century learning. EF guideline was developed by Permsubhirunya and co to provide a guide for teachers who seeks to develop learning activities that could improve executive functions in children under the age of 6. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of the utilization of the EF guideline on the development of early childhood teachers' abilities in designing learning experiences for EF development. The study was conducted with a qualitative approach. The participants were 65 teachers in public early childhood centers in Thailand. The participants were purposively selected using the criteria of their work status and experience. The instruments were the EF guideline, an evaluation form for learning management design ability and learning material selection, and an interview form. The data were analyzed using content analysis and thematic analysis. The results of the study were in the descriptive presentation. The findings could be summarized that the use of the EF guideline was beneficial in developing teachers' knowledge of the early childhood executive functions, abilities to design learning management, and ability in selecting or creating learning material. The findings also suggested that teachers perceived the EF guideline as potential learning material that help them make a connection between the plan, activities, and evaluation. Therefore, it also helped them control the process of learning management and contribute to a meaningful learning environment.

This research aimed to 1) study the level of self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function of undergraduate students, 2) study the relationship among self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function of undergraduate students, and 3) investigate the effect of self-efficacy, self-awareness, and social skills on executive function in undergraduate students. The sample used in the study was 400 undergraduate students from Mahasarakham University in the academic year 2021, selected by multi-stage random sampling. The research instruments included four questionnaires including self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function questionnaire. The statistics used in the data analysis were percentage, mean (M), standard deviation (S.D.), and multiple regression analysis. The results revealed that 1) students' self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function, in general, were at a very high level. 2) There were statistically significant at the 0.01 level correlations between students' self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function. 3) Students' self-efficacy (SELE), self-awareness (SELA), and social skills (SOCS) affected executive function, with a prediction of 70.20%.

The ubiquity of multitasking has led researchers to investigate its potential costs for reading and learning (Clinton-Lisell, 2021). While some studies have not shown detrimental effects of multitasking for reading comprehension (Bowman et al., 2010; Cho et al., 2015; Pashler et al., 2013), one particular study has found a benefit of multitasking (Tran et al., 2013). These results, nevertheless, do not converge with the findings of recent meta-analyses, which have suggested both a negative effect of multitasking for reading comprehension (Clinton-Lisell, 2021), as well as the disruptive effects of listening to lyrical music while reading for comprehension (Vasilev et al., 2018). Previous research seems to converge with the theories of how working memory copes with the complexity of reading as a process, since several subprocesses must be orchestrated so that the ultimate goal of reading -- the construction of a mental representation -- is fully achieved (Tomitch, 2020). In addition to that, no previous study has investigated reading as a multilevel construct in which both literal and inferential comprehension (Alptekin & Erçetin, 2010; Kintsch, 1998) is assessed in a multitasking setting. With that in mind, we investigated whether working memory capacity, measured by the Self-Administrable Reading Span Test (Oliveira et al., 2021), predicts proficient bilinguals' performance in literal and inferential comprehension, by means of comprehension questions (Pearson & Johnson, 1978) and reading times, under a multitasking setting in two conditions -- listening to lyrical music (experimental) as opposed to listening to non-lyrical music (control). Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that working memory capacity significantly predicted inferential, but not literal comprehension nor reading times, and only when participants were listening to lyrical music. Results are discussed both in terms of the effects of multitasking on reading comprehension as well as the role of working memory in language comprehension.

This study examines the results of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF2) (Gioia et al., 2015) reported by parents of children with Specific Learning Disability (LD) and/or other comorbid disabilities. LD is most notably associated with comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Alloway & Stein, 2014; Westby &Watson, 2004; Willcutt et al., 2013). A total of 43 parents completed the BRIEF-2 rating scale. Findings suggest children with LD and ADHD display greater challenges with inhibition, working memory, planning, along with greater challenges in organization and metacognition. Parents of children with LD reported their children have greater levels of executive function difficulties in comparison to children with LD who do not have a secondary diagnosis of ADHD.

This study aims at investigating the relationship between working memory updating and working memory capacity in preschool children. A sample of 176 preschoolers (36-74 months) was administered a working memory updating task (Magic House) along with three working memory capacity tests that specifically measure their core attentional component (M capacity, as defined in the theory of constructive operators): Backward Word Span, Mr. Cucumber, and Direction Following Task. Correlational analyses and cross-classification prediction analyses were performed. Updating and capacity were significantly correlated, although the correlations were not high when age was partialled out. Capacity increased with age, and mediated the relation between age and updating. More importantly, cross-classification prediction analysis revealed that high updating scores with low M capacity, and low updating scores with relatively high M capacity, are possible events; the only combination ruled out was a low updating score with precocious development of M capacity. These facts demonstrate that updating skills in preschoolers depends on M capacity but does not coincide with it. Therefore, in cognitive developmental theories, the constructs of working memory updating and capacity should be distinguished, and on practical grounds, different tests should be used to measure them.

Despite the lasting interest towards the relationship between intelligence and creativity, comparably less attention is paid to its age-related changes. Our paper considers the organization of fluid intelligence and psychometric indicators of creativity and is based on the experimental data obtained for children aged 11 (n = 99) and for young adults (n = 77). We used two figural and verbal tasks with and without time limit. We found that the age-related differences in creativity are dependent on the context and the type of testing. The young adults were different from the children, having higher indicators of verbal and figurative creativity, except for the originality of the drawings created within the Incomplete Figures test, and having considerably higher test results for fluid intelligence. These age-related differences, together with the discovered closer relationship between the creativity indicators in the young adults group compared to the children, might suggest insufficient contribution of the components of the executive control of information selection (inhibition, shifting, and updating), which had not fully formed in eleven-year-olds. The comparison of the various indicators of creativity suggests that the most complex task for the children was the composition of an original sentence by joining nouns from various semantic categories.

The ability to efficiently compare number symbols, such as digits, is associated with mathematics competence across the lifespan. Performance on symbolic number comparison tasks differ across age groups; young students who are developing fluency with digits improve on symbolic number comparison, and performance is better in adults than children. However, whether this improvement continues for older students who are fluent with number symbols, and what cognitive factors relate to this improvement, is unknown. This study used a longitudinal sample of U.S. middle school students (n = 394) to examine whether symbolic number comparison performance changes over middle school (i.e., students aged 11-14), whether there are individual differences in students' rate of change, and potential predictors of that change. Students completed measures of single-digit symbolic number comparison, nonsymbolic number comparison, executive function (EF), and mathematics competence in Grade 5 (M = 11.02 years; SD = 0.32), and double-digit symbolic number comparison in Grades 6-8. Results showed that, on average, students' symbolic number comparison performance improved from Grades 6-8. Grade 5 Symbolic number comparison performance predicted Grade 8 symbolic number comparison and rate of change over Grades 6-8. Grade 5 nonsymbolic number comparison, EF, and mathematics competence predicted Grade 8 symbolic number comparison performance. Results suggest that numerical magnitude processing, executive functions, and mathematics competence are related to symbolic number processing well into middle school, and that students continue to refine their ability to process number symbols into adolescence.

The presence of a dog supports self-regulation, interpersonal skills, and readiness to learn in and out of the classroom. Somehow, dogs are able to improve student learning, sometimes through dog-student or dog-teacher interactions, and at other times by simply being present in the room. Most research has focused on the positive effects of having a dog in the classroom. It would be interesting to note what dogs do to affect students positively.

Puerperium may lead to memory and executive/attentional complaints that interfere with women's daily life. This might be prevented by dietary compounds, such as neuroprotective polyphenols. Their bioactivity depends on their effects on lipid metabolism in different tissues, such as the brain, fat, and breast. Thus, a polyphenol-related cognitive improvement may be associated with changes of lipids in human milk, which are key for infant neurodevelopment. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 75 postpartum women from Córdoba (Argentina), involving several neuropsychological tests. Diet was registered to identify polyphenol intake and food pattern adherence, with sociodemographic and other psychological variables (insomnia, stress, subjective cognitive complaints) being also studied. Triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and their oxidative forms were analyzed as milk biomarkers. Multivariate statistical methods were applied. Results confirmed that women who consumed polyphenols presented better executive/attentional performance (i.e., higher correct responses, conceptual level responses, complete categories, verbal fluency; lower attentional interferences, and perseverative errors) and word retention with lower interference. Polyphenols were positively associated with milk lipids, which were higher in women with better cognition. Furthermore, they had lower oxidized triacylglycerols. In conclusion, polyphenolic intake during postpartum may improve executive/attentional functioning, memory, and milk lipid profile.

For decades, the field of workplace selection has been dominated by evidence that cognitive ability is the most important factor in predicting performance. Meta-analyses detailing the contributions of a wide-range of factors to workplace performance show that cognitive ability's contribution is partly mediated by the learning of task-relevant skills and job-specific declarative knowledge. Further, there is evidence to suggest that this relationship is a function of task complexity, and partially mediated by learning performance in workplace induction and training activities. Simultaneously, evidence is mounting that stable individual differences in implicit learning exist, which are at least partially independent of traditional measures of intelligence. In this article we provide an overview of recent advances in our understanding of implicit learning, outline some of the advantages offered by its measurement, and highlight some of the challenges associated with its adoption as a measure of interest.

Studies show that executive functions and motor development are associated with each other and with learning ability. A more technological lifestyle combined with digital culture should be considered a viable alternative to stimulate children's development. Therefore, this study aimed to present a systematic mapping of the literature involving executive functions, motor development, and the use of digital games in intervention programs for elementary school children from 6 to 11 years old. Four databases were researched: PubMed, Scielo, Science Direct, and SCOPUS, including publications between 2012 and March 2021. The initial results indicated 4881 records. After the selection process, 15 manuscripts that presented the central theme of the study were selected. The main results indicated that intervention strategies are rather heterogeneous. Most of the studies demonstrated efficient results after intervention protocols, many of them were conducted in Europe, and 46% occurred in a school environment. No research was identified involving technological solutions using executive functions, motor development, and digital games in an integrated manner. Hence, this constitutes a field of future scientific research.

This article presents the application of the interactive dynamic literacy (IDL) model (Kim, 2020b) toward understanding difficulties in learning to read and write. According to the IDL model, reading and writing are part of communicative acts that draw on largely shared processes and skills as well as unique processes and skills. As such, reading and writing are dissociable but interdependent systems that have hierarchical, interactive, and dynamic relations. These key tenets of the IDL model are applied to the disruption of reading and writing development to explain co-occurrence of reading-writing difficulties using a single framework. The following hypotheses are presented: (a) co-occurrence between word reading and spelling and handwriting difficulties; (b) co-occurrence of dyslexia with written composition difficulties; (c) co-occurrence between reading comprehension and written composition difficulties; (d) co-occurrence of language difficulties with reading difficulties and writing difficulties; (e) co-occurrence of reading, writing, and language difficulties with weak domain-general skills or executive functions such as working memory and attentional control (including attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]); and (f) multiple pathways for reading and writing difficulties. Implications are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED618728.]

The current quantitative study, a naturalistic field experiment, was conducted in a public primary school in Soweto, Johannesburg, with the objective to examine how children's achievement on four assessments at the beginning of Grade R, namely their numeracy, their mathematics-specific vocabulary, their executive functions, and their logical reasoning capabilities, predicted their performance on a numeracy assessment at the beginning of Grade 1. A purposive intact group of 59 participants was assessed at the beginning of their Grade R year and again when they entered Grade 1. The results of the study indicate that, apart from existing or prior numeracy knowledge at the beginning of Grade R, mathematics-specific vocabulary was the strongest predictor for numeracy attainment at the beginning of Grade 1. We suggest that early grade teachers consider young children's number concept development as a cognitive, developmental psychology phenomenon and that they help learners build a lexicon of mathematics-specific qualifiers in their teaching with words that represent concepts of, among others, space, position, comparison, inclusion, sequence and magnitude.

The financial exploitation (FE) of older adults affects not only victims' finances, but also their health. This preliminary study investigated the impacts of a financial coaching program on the financial, neurocognitive, physical, and emotional health of older adult victims of FE. Twenty older adults residing in a large urban area who had experienced FE were compared at baseline and follow-up with a group of 20 older adult of the same area who were making important financial decisions, but had not experienced FE and did not receive the intervention. At baseline, both groups were similar on demographic variables, but participants who had experienced FE had more health problems, poorer memory and executive functioning, less social support, and greater stress than the comparison group. Six months after financial coaching ended, program participants had significantly less anxiety. Overall, older adult victims of FE showed no significant declines and, in fact, showed some improvement.

This study examined adults' frequent, efficient and adaptive use of direct subtraction (DS) and subtraction by addition (SBA) in mental multi-digit subtraction with the choice/no-choice method. Participants were offered subtractions in one choice condition (choice between DS and SBA) and two no-choice conditions (mandatory use of either DS or SBA). SBA was used as frequently as DS in the choice condition. DS was most accurate on subtractions with a large difference (e.g., 502 - 18), while SBA was fastest on subtractions with a small difference (e.g., 903 - 886). In general, participants were adaptive for task characteristics and their personal speed characteristics. We further analyzed task-based adaptivity on an individual level via a Latent Class Analysis. Results showed that two-thirds of the participants were adaptive to task characteristics, and that these adaptive participants were the most proficient in accuracy and speed in the choice condition. We further examined whether executive functions (updating, inhibition, shifting) were related to individual differences in strategy efficiency and task-based adaptivity. In line with our hypothesis, updating was related to strategy efficiency, such that participants with higher updating skills were more accurate. In contrast to our expectations, inhibition and shifting were not related to task-based strategy adaptivity. This study highlights adults' efficient and adaptive use of arithmetic strategies, and its association with their proficiency and executive functions.

Few qualitative studies have focused on the experiences of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) pursuing postsecondary education, and in particular, how their academic difficulties manifest themselves. This study provides a better understanding of how ADHD affects students in their studies. In-depth interviews were conducted with 29 college and university students with ADHD, their relatives (n = 26), and their counselors (n = 9). Participants reported significant academic impairment (e.g., difficulties related to attention, emotional regulation, motivation, time management, inhibition, working memory, organization, and planning) and a complex relationship with the ADHD label. The difficulties experienced by students seem to be closely related to deficits in executive functions. This interrelation complicates the understanding of functional impairment. Implications for practice provide recommendations based on the literature on how to improve the academic success of students with ADHD in postsecondary education.

This study examines differences in English language comprehension, reading fluency, and executive functions among Spanish-English bilinguals with reading difficulties. Reading difficulties examined included general reading difficulties, defined by low word reading and reading comprehension, and specific-reading comprehension difficulties, defined by low reading comprehension yet adequate word reading. Participants (N = 86) were categorized using multiple measures of reading comprehension and word reading in each of 6th, 7th, and 8th grade. Participants were also categorized based on persistent difficulties (i.e. remaining in the same group across multiple grades). On two measures of language comprehension, readers with either difficulty tended to demonstrate significant weaknesses relative to average readers. On passage reading fluency, readers with specific-reading comprehension difficulties performed worse than average readers but better than readers with general reading difficulties. On executive functions, readers with general reading difficulties demonstrated weaknesses relative to average readers, but there was little evidence that readers with specific-reading comprehension difficulties showed these weaknesses. These findings typically held when looking at readers with persistently defined difficulties. Longitudinal analyses indicated that 47% of students with S-RCD and 56% of students with GRD remained in their group across the three years, consistent with prior research. Findings highlight potential weaknesses in executive functions for children with general reading difficulties that should be considered when designing instruction for these students. These findings also support prior research on the importance of developing English language and reading fluency for Spanish-English bilingual children with reading difficulties. [This article was published in "Reading & Writing Quarterly" (EJ1344195).]

Literacy ability is an individual's ability to reason, formulate, solve, and interpret mathematically to solve problems related to daily life. Executive function is a cognitive aspect that has a relation with mathematical literacy. One of some aspects that affects the low mathematical literacy ability is the aspect of executive function. This study aims to investigate the characteristics of mathematical literacy based on the executive function aspects of 15 years old students. A qualitative method with a descriptive approach is employed in this study. The present research applies interview guidelines, questionnaires, and students' mathematical literacy tests as the instruments. Research subjects are junior high school students in grade VIII from two different schools. The result shows that the students' executive function influences mathematical literacy ability. Students' mathematical literacy ability is not fully achieved by fulfilling all the indicators involved. Another aspect found in the research is the low critical thinking ability impacts the achievement of mathematical literacy ability indicators.

This paper discusses the association between bilingualism and creativity considering the contribution of executive functions in this relationship. The studies which investigated the relationship between bilingualism, creativity and executive functions are reported. In the psychology literature, divergent thinking and creativity are synonymous concepts (Guilford, 1967). Previous research findings indicate that bilingual individuals outperform monolingual participants in divergent thinking tasks. Most studies compromise the positive impact of bilingualism on figural creativity, whereas there are some controversial findings in bilingual advantages on verbal creativity. Those studies that control bilingualism (L2 proficiency) found that bilingualism and verbal creativity are positively associated. Bilingualism and executive functions are also positively related. Some studies demonstrate a negative relationship between bilingualism and executive functions which may result from not controlling L2 proficiency over a standardized measure. The previous findings declared a positive relationship between creativity and executive functions. Most of the studies only use the inhibitory control subcomponent of the executive functions. Few studies investigate the relation between working memory and cognitive flexibility, and creativity. Likewise, there needs to be further examination on the relationship between specific subcomponents of executive functions and specific creativity types (like verbal and figural).

This study aims to develop and test the effectiveness of a financial literacy storybook based on augmented reality (AR) as an executive function-building intervention for early-age children. Executive functions are the cognitive abilities underlying such tasks as focusing on long-term goals, delaying gratification and impulse self-control. The method is research and development using the ADDIE (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) model. This learning media produced a positive response among the users. Children perceive the story's attractiveness was good, while the 3D images and activity in the storybook were very good. This study also measures the effectiveness of a storybook based on AR in improving the understanding of financial literacy using a pre and post-test design. The results show that knowledge of honesty, discipline and money management increased significantly. In addition, there is a marginally significant increase in the aspects of delay gratification, saving goals and responsibility.

The linguistic, mathematical, social-emotional, and cognitive precursor competencies are important predictors of learning success already at kindergarten age. A systematic analysis of the state of research on the actual interrelationships of the focused precursor competencies brings together results of a meta-analysis. The literature search yielded 653 hits, which were reduced to 94 hits after applying exclusion criteria. It was possible to perform 271 correlation tests in 39 pathways. Thus, the sample (n = 141,508 [M = 1505, SD = 3930 ]) with an average age of 5.2 years (SD = 0.10 years) is balanced in gender ratio of 48.5 % male and 48.9 % female (2.6 % not specified). The largest correlation between literacy and mathematical precursor skills is r = 0.65. With a correlation between r = 0.17 and r = 0.60, executive functions significantly influence the development of literacy and mathematical skills and learning behaviors. Learning behaviors are most strongly related to social skills, with r = 0.57. Parental influence turns out to be smaller, with correlations ranging from r = 0.19 to 0.55. The effect of individual pathways is also small, and peer group was not included in the search term combination. Successful educational processes in day care centers can be improved with a focus on the promotion of executive functions and learning behaviors.

This paper argues why children with Mathematical Learning Disabilities (MLD) do not form a unitary group. Instead, they should be regarded as individuals with unique profiles of strengths and weaknesses that explain their mathematical difficulties. To build this argument, we shortly recapitulate the research on MLD, which has mainly been focused on characterizing the group of children with MLD--as compared to control groups. However, these general characteristics are not applicable to all children with MLD. Furthermore, attempts to define separate, relevant subgroups merely failed. Based on some recent studies, we show how individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses might help in understanding the specific mathematical difficulties of a child. We propose a new multidimensional framework of MLD, in which both strengths and weaknesses are recognized. We argue that both research and practice are in need of further research that takes individual differences into account.

This study investigated which domain-specific and domain-general skills measured at grade 1 predict mathematical learning difficulties (MLD) status at grade 3. We used different cut-off criteria and measures of mathematics performance for defining the MLD status. Norwegian children's (N = 206) numeracy, cognitive, and language skills were measured at grade 1 and arithmetic fluency and curriculum-based mathematics (CBM) at grade 3. Logistic regression analyses showed that symbolic numerical magnitude processing, verbal counting, and rapid automatized naming predicted MLD25 status (performance [less than or equal to] 25th percentile) based on arithmetic fluency, whereas verbal counting skills and nonverbal reasoning predicted the status based on CBM. The same predictors were found for MLD10 status (performance [less than or equal to] 10th percentile), and in addition, rapid automatized naming also predicted the status based on CBM. Only symbolic numerical magnitude processing and verbal counting predicted LOW status (performance between 11-25th percentile) based on arithmetic fluency, whereas nonverbal reasoning and working memory predicted LOW status based on CBM. Different cut-off scores and mathematics measures used for the definition of MLD status are important to acknowledge, as these seem to lead to relatively significant variation in which students are identified as having MLD and which factors contribute to the MLD status.

An indirect connection between executive functioning and imagination was revealed earlier in the study of pretend play. This study aimed to explore the relationship between imagination and executive functions in children. Two-hundred-six typically developing children aged 6-7 years were assessed with main executive functions (working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility) and nonverbal imagination (imagination flexibility, image detailedness, image creation strategy, and originality coefficient). Three General Linear Models were built to examine the relationship between executive functions and imagination among children, controlling for age and gender. The obtained results indicate a positive correlation between such characteristics of imagination as originality and flexibility with visual-spatial working memory and cognitive flexibility. However, the data also show that the children who creatively approach the production of new images often experience difficulties with inhibition tasks. The results are interpreted in the context of the educational system and cultural specificities.

This study examined auditive and visual working memory and metacognitive knowledge in 92 gifted children (aged between eight and twelve), utilising a pre-test-training-post-test design, known as the cognitive training design. This approach was used to examine the working memory and metacognitive knowledge of gifted children concerning the progression after a cognitive training programme in arithmetical problem solving, taking into account the role of intelligence. Children were allocated to one of two experimental conditions: children received training after the pre-test (cognitive training condition) or were provided with training after the post-test (control condition). The results show that all children made significant improvements in working memory and metacognition. Intelligence significantly predicted verbal and visual working memory. However, we did not find a meaningful relationship between intelligence and metacognitive knowledge. The cognitive training in arithmetical problem solving seems to bring additional measurable changes in metacognitive knowledge, but not in working memory.

Previous studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between attending music classes regularly and the development of executive functions. This paper discusses the results of a pilot study dedicated to determining the difference in the level of development of the components of executive functions (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory), between 5-6-year-old children taking extra music classes, and children who participated only in general music and dance education in kindergarten. A total of 94 senior preschoolers from Moscow kindergartens took part in the study. Children were selected into an "extra music lessons" group and a "general preschool music and dance lessons" group based on the results of a questionnaire on supplementary education, which was filled in by parents prior to the research starting. The respondents from the "extra music and dance lessons" group attended music classes in art schools at least two times a week, both in individual and group formats. The current study revealed that children attending regular extra music classes had a higher level of inhibitory control, audio-verbal working memory, cognitive flexibility, and general coordination of the development of all executive functions. The obtained results support the value of regular extra music classes at preschool age. Moreover, this pilot study allows us to articulate the recommendations for further research in this direction.

Sharpening working memory skills, inhibition, and mental flexibility of children in many studies have proven school readiness and long-term academic success. The aim of this research is to determine the impact of dancing and listening to music on children's executive functions using the interpretive paradigm with a qualitative case study method. The respondents were seven parents of children aged between 7-8 years. This study used online interviews for the data collection. A typological analysis of qualitative data acquired during the COVID-19 pandemic in the dimensions of working memory, inhibition, and mental flexibility was used to categorize how children's executive functioning might develop in parental care. Several typologies were identified, giving rise to three ideal typologies as a result of the analysis of research questions. Firstly, it is important to develop children's working memory through different new strategies (typology 1); secondly, positive reinforcement was the strongest factor in inhibition development (typology 2); and finally, dancing with music as a support for mental development and development of thinking (typology 3). The research outcomes require increasing adults' abilities around children to manage diverse learning stimuli and integrate art in them to build working memory, inhibition, and ideal mental flexibility of children.

This study aims to study the control of interference and self-control in students with different levels of probabilistic thinking style (PTS). The study covered 90 students (average age 20 ± 3.03 years). The sample subjects were formed through the approximate modeling method. The experimental group covered students from the 1st to the 4th year. At the first stage, the features of the probabilistic thinking style were studied. At the second stage, the features of brake control were analyzed. The features of the probabilistic thinking style were studied through such methods as R. Amthauer's Test, New Uncertainty Tolerance Questionnaire (NTQ), S. Epstein's Intuitive Style Questionnaire, and the Prediction Ability Test (L.A. Regush). O.M. Razumnikova studied peculiarities of the interference control using the "Interference" method, the features of self-control using the ReBOS method. The results showed that students with a high level of PTS effectively use probabilistic knowledge and skills to make the right decision. Students demonstrate the ability to identify patterns and essence of probabilistic phenomena effectively using mental operations such as analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison, and classification. It was found that the better the processes of inhibitory control are formed, the more efficiently the process of correlating the conditions of the problem and the information that can be used to solve it is carried out, and the more efficient the subject can identify common signs and properties of objects or concepts, compare them, move from visual-effective forms of comparison with the abstract comparison, that is, the higher the level of development of probabilistic thinking style. The revealed features of inhibitory processes and working memory in students, depending on the level of development of the probabilistic thinking style, make it possible to predict the effectiveness of student decision-making in a situation of uncertainty, and thus to develop effective strategies for finding innovative ways, methods, and means of enhancing the cognitive, including the mental activity of students.

Early childhood interventions can improve self-regulation, but there are few economic evaluations of such interventions. This study analyzed the cost-effectiveness of an early childhood self-regulation intervention ("Red Light Purple Light!"; RLPL), comparing three different models of implementation across stages of intervention development: (Model 1) trained research assistants (RAs; graduate students) directly delivered the RLPL intervention to children; (Model 2) RAs trained trainers (e.g., program coaches), who then trained teachers to implement RLPL with children (e.g., train-the-trainer); and (Model 3) program faculty trained teachers to deliver the RLPL intervention to children. We implemented a cost-effectiveness analysis by calculating the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. We also conducted a series of sensitivity analyses to adjust for parameter uncertainty. Our base-case analysis suggests that Model 2 was the most cost-effective strategy, in that a cost of $23 per child was associated with a one-unit increase of effect size on self-regulation scores. The "train-the-trainer" model remained the optimal strategy across scenarios in our sensitivity analysis. This study fills an important gap in cost-effectiveness analyses on early childhood self-regulation interventions. Our process and results can serve as a model for future cost-effectiveness analyses of early childhood intervention programs and may ultimately inform decisions related to intervention adoption that optimize resource allocation and improve program design.

Executive function (EF) and social function are both critical skills that continue to develop through adolescence and are strongly predictive of many important life outcomes. Longstanding empirical and theoretical work has suggested that EF shapes social function. However, there is little empirical work on this topic in adolescence, despite both EF and social function continuing to mature into early adulthood (e.g., Bauer et al., 2017). Further, adolescence might be a phase of life where social interactions can shape EF. We tested the longitudinal relation between EF and social function across adolescence utilizing a sample of 99 individuals (8-19 years) from the greater Austin area tested annually for 3 consecutive years. Although EF showed significant improvement in that span, the social function was largely consistent over age. Cross-lagged panel models revealed a bidirectional relation, such that Year 1 EF predicted social function in Year 2, and social function at Years 1 and 2 predicted EF in Year 3. When examining different components of social function, social motivation in earlier adolescence seemed to most consistently predict future EF outcomes, relative to other social functions. Our findings advance the field's theoretical understanding of how these two critical skills might develop alongside one another over adolescent development with particular emphasis on the role of social motivation on EF maturation.

Montessori education is the oldest and most widely implemented alternative education in the world and includes a full system of lessons and hands-on materials for children from birth to 18 years, presented individually, and embedded in a philosophical framework regarding children's development and its optimal conditions. The objectives of this review were to examine the effectiveness of Montessori education in improving academic and nonacademic outcomes compared to traditional education, and to determine the degree to which grade level, Montessori setting (public Montessori vs. private Montessori), random assignment, treatment duration, and length of follow-up measurements moderate the magnitude of Montessori effects. Relevant studies were searched in 19 academic databases, in a variety of sources known to publish gray literature, in Montessori-related journals, and in the references of studies retrieved through these searches. This review found that Montessori education had a significant positive impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes. Studies with random assignment, elementary school age level, and private Montessori schools had larger effects.

Background: In several countries, children's math skills have been declining at an alarming rate in recent years and decades, and one of the explanations for this alarming situation is that children have difficulties in establishing the relations between arithmetical operations. Aim: In order to address this question, our goal was to determine the predictive power of previously taught operations on newly taught ones above general cognitive skills and basic numerical skills. Samples: More than one hundred children in each school level from Grades 2 to 5 from various socio-cultural environments (N = 435, 229 girls) were tested. Methods: Children were assessed on their abilities to solve the four basic arithmetic operations. They were also tested on their general cognitive abilities, including working memory, executive functions (i.e., inhibition and flexibility), visual attention and language. Finally, their basic numerical skills were measured through a matching task between symbolic and nonsymbolic numerosity representations. Additions and subtractions were presented to children from Grade 2, multiplications from Grade 3 and divisions from Grade 4. Results and Conclusions: We show that addition predicts subtraction and multiplication performance in all grades. Moreover, multiplication predicts division performance in both Grades 4 and 5. Finally, addition predicts division in Grade 4 but not in Grade 5 and subtraction and division are not related whatever the school grade. These results are examined considering the existing literature, and their implications in terms of instruction are discussed.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate differences in social-emotional skills between active and passive bystanders. Data were collected on a sample of 352 middle school students using self-report of bullying role involvement and social skills and teacher reports of social/emotional competence and executive functioning skills. Using latent profile analysis, four patterns of bystander bully role combinations were identified. Then, the social/emotional competence, executive functioning, and social skills of active bystanders (i.e., defenders) and passive bystanders (i.e., outsiders) were compared. Overall, active bystanders had stronger social-emotional skills than passive bystanders. These results emphasize the association of students' executive functioning and social skills on their bullying role participation and support creating and implementing interventions designed to improve students executive functioning and social skills to increase rates of defending.