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Anna Freud's genius encompassed the study and understanding of children and adults, spanning the gap between theory and practice. She pioneered the method and theory of child psychoanalysis, and demonstrated that the applications of psychoanalytic theory could make a crucial difference to children at high risk of having their physical, emotional and intellectual well-being blighted by poverty, war, biological handicaps, and family breakdown.

The work and legacy of Erik Erikson are described in this brief outline of his career, his theories, and his impact on psychoanalysis, psychology, history, and the broader culture. His conception of the adolescent task-weaving internal tastes, talents, and values together with elements of one's life history and the demands of one's culture into a coherent identity-has had profound effects on developmental psychology and the way in which sophisticated youth construct and describe their lives. His extension of development through adulthood and old age established the field of life course development. His emphasis on the impact of history and culture on development was a critical element in the developing field of ego psychology. Many of his major contributions can be fruitfully understood in the context of his personal history and individual qualities.

Winnicott described in his book 'Therapeutic Consultations' (1971) how a diagnostic assessment of a referred child developed into a fruitful therapeutic intervention when he was able to discover the unconscious fantasy that underlay the child's symptoms. Because these were children who were, essentially, developing normally, he used the word 'knot' to depict the obstacle the child had met. Any conflicts the parents might have were not explored in that context. This work present cases in which child and parents are seen together for the diagnostic assessment. The child's feelings about his world and his difficulties are explored through a variety of techniques including drawings. In the same interview, an analytic enquiry into the parents' history and also their views of the child reveals how the child's fantasies and the parents' past experiences interact and create a mutually reinforcing vicious circle. In other words, the 'knot' involves all of them. If the child's unconscious fantasy can be verbalised and if the parents are able to approach the child in a manner that acknowledges the child's real needs, the 'knot' disappears and normal development can be resumed.

This article describes the interplay of various interests in centre-based child care from the 1930s to the late 1960s, through an examination of the development of a treatment centre for children with autism at the West End Creche in Toronto. The impact of the attention to child care during World War II in North America is described in relation to the postwar trend to reorient child care away from a service for wage-earning mothers and towards an educational-therapeutic service for children and families. The role of local and international welfare associations, as well as the influence of the interrelated professions of child psychiatry, social work, and nursery education, is reviewed. Finally, implications for current developments in the field of early childhood education are discussed.

An examination of the early history of child analysis in the writings of Melanie Klein and Anna Freud reveals how two different and opposing approaches to child analysis arose at the same time. The two methods of child analysis are rooted in a differential emphasis on psychoanalytic theory and practice. The Kleinian method derives from the application of technique while the Anna Freudian method is driven by theory. Furthermore, by holding to the Freudian theory of child development Anna Freud was forced to limit the scope of child analysis, while Klein's application of Freudian practice has led to new discoveries about the development of the infant psyche.

When reviewed in its entirety, Anna Freud's legacy represents her efforts to address the deepest of metapsychological dilemmas: What moves development along, and is it inherently progressive and linear? She created a developmental psychoanalytic psychology that is remarkably current and draws upon principles of neurobiology, genetics, pediatrics, and social psychology. Her general developmental psychology builds upon three fundamental notions: (1) development proceeds not predominantly stage-based but more continuous and cumulative, with progressions and regressions; (2) progression along developmental lines involves the maturational push of innate or biologic givens as well as the interaction between biology and environmental conditions; and (3) understanding the complexities of normal development is a means of understanding the presence or absence of psychopathology in any given symptomatic presentation. These contributions and the notion of a developmental psychoanalytic psychology are reviewed through the contemporary lens of the field of developmental psychopathology. The enduring contributions of Anna Freud's developmental psychoanalytic psychology to child psychiatry and child development are in asking how mind and body are brought together, and in asserting that the interaction between the biologic and the mental remains the common ground of all disciplines concerned with children.

Rudolf Eksteins scientific career is closely linked to his personal history, with his Jewish heritage, his political involvement and his social work with young people, which guided him towards psychoanalytic educational theory. Following his forced emigration to the USA in 1938 he became a world-famous child therapist, psychoanalyst, scientist and professor of medical psychology at the Department of Psychiatry, UCLA. The most significant areas of Eksteins extensive scientific output are described in an attempt to do justice to his contributions to psychotherapy and child psychiatry. Eksteins introduction of a special technique for treating psychotic children with psychoanalytic psychotherapy was of major importance. His underlying concept of schizophrenic psychosis and borderline personality disorders in children is outlined. Further, we have tried to show in what way his contributions to psychoanalytic theory and techniques were influenced by his profound knowledge of philosophy and linguistics. Finally Eksteins dedications to the teaching and learning of psychotherapy is stressed, from which a whole generation of Austrian psychiatrists, psychologists and pedagogues have profited enormously, as a result of his long-standing teaching commitments as guest professor at Vienna University.

This paper traces historically the development of Anna Freud's thinking about the theory and technique of child psychoanalysis. Representing more than fifty years of work, her ideas were refined and many were altered, influenced by naturalistic and clinical observations and her developmental viewpoint. The paper begins with her 1926 Introductory Lectures, which contain both her early views about the technique used with children as compared to adults and the origins of many of her later ideas. It follows her theories up through her final papers, published in the late 1970s.

This article explores a series of papers Anna Freud wrote in the 1970s, which constitute her history of child psychoanalysis. It notes her purposes-theoretical, clinical, and institutional-for reviewing this history and then focuses on three themes that she stressed. First, she emphasized that the "widening scope of psychoanalysis" had been both tremendously fruitful and perplexing as it revealed areas-such as the developmental pathologies-for which theory and technique lag. Second, she underscored the way child analysis had been extended from pathology to the theory of normal development, particularly by adding child observation to its research methods. Third, she noted how child analysis has often been hampered by reductionist thinking, and she made a plea for complexity: for considering all metapsychological frameworks and all developmental lines, and for articulating a complexly grounded diagnostic.

This paper presents some aspects of Anna Freud's work in a way that is rather different from the conventional accounts of her contributions. It focuses on some of the factors that I believe have led to her particular contribution to psychoanalytic theory and practice-inevitably, with special emphasis on her work with children. In looking back at Anna Freud's work from today's vantage point, it is clear that she was, as Robert Wallerstein put it (1984), a radical innovator as well as a staunch conservative.

The destinies of the 11 children first reported in 1943 as suffering from autistic disturbances of affective contact are brought up to date. Their life histories are summarized succinctly in terms of developmental data, family constellations, clinical observations in the course of the years, the varieties of professional planning, and present status. Attention is called to the subsequent scientific studies of early infantile autism with ever-increasing facilities for research in nosology, biochemical and general systemic implication, and therapeutic amelioration. The need for continued follow-up studies of autistic children is emphasized.

The historical development of the relationship between paediatrics and child psychiatry is outlined and the closer working relationships between the two disciplines over the past 30 years are noted. Various ways in which child psychiatrists can contribute to paediatric practice are described, as well as the degree to which paediatricians can contribute to an understanding of child psychiatric disorders. It is suggested that new developments in paediatric practice and an increase in interest in genetic and brain mechanisms in child psychiatric disorders, will increase the need for collaboration between the two specialties.

This thesis describes the beginnings of the first clinic for children's psychiatry in Zurich which was at the same time the first one in Switzerland. A historical part shows how (mostly) doctors influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment started developing specialized theories about mentally handicapped children. At the beginning of the 19th century these theories led to the new professions known as therapeutic pedagogy (Heilpädagogik), child and developmental psychology, pediatry as well as to the psychiatry that demanded the treatment of children to be different from the one of adults. Due to socially motivated thinking, the development of the welfare system was highly influenced by the industrialization. Changing the national law (Schweizer Zivilgesetzbuch) in 1907 was one consequence, more public welfare another. This very complex evolution led to a widely held discussion about the need of specialized institutions to observe and treat children psychiatrically. People engaged in the field of psychiatry as well as welfare supported these ideas. In 1921 such an institution was founded as an outstation of the psychiatric clinic of the university of Zurich ("Burghölzli"), the "Kinderhaus Stephansburg", a house for 25 children up to the age of 14. A teacher was emploied being responsible for the special education during the children's hospitalization.

The practical and theoretical repercussions of Selma Fraiberg's work are considerable. However, her work remains unrecognized in France. Combining scientific research with clinical work, Fraiberg demonstrated the need for early guidance of blind infants. Furthermore, she pointed out developmental weak points which must be given priority in specialized care. Her findings contributed to a better understanding of blind children as well as sighted children. In this paper, we present some of the most important distinctive features of the development of blind children as pointed out by Fraiberg, and we also present, in an appendix, a bibliography of her work.

This article depicts the theory of Melanie Klein in both its conflict and process dimensions. In addition, it outlines Klein's strategic place in psychoanalytic history and in psychoanalytic theory formation. Her major contributions are seen in light of their clinical imperatives, and aspects of her metapsychology that seem negligible are differentiated from these clinical imperatives. Klein's role as a dialectical fulcrum between drive and object relations theories is explicated. Within the conflict theory, drive derivatives of sex and aggression are reformulated as object-related passions of love and hate. The process dimensions of Klein's theory are outlined in terms of dialectical increments of depressive position process as it alternates with regressive paranoid-schizoid-position mental phenomenology. The mourning process as a developmental process is particularly high-lighted in terms of self-integrative progression within the working through of the depressive position.

Child psychiatry is a relatively new medical profession in Israel. For many years adult psychiatrists treated children and adolescents without official recognition of the profession. The development of child psychiatry in the medical world, the determination of colleagues and support of outstanding child psychiatrists from abroad (Professors Solnit and Noshpitz) led to the acknowledgment and official recognition of child psychiatry by the Scientific Council of the Israel Medical Association in 1981. Almost all graduates in child and adolescent psychiatry in Israel fill responsible positions and prove the necessity for more child psychiatrists and child psychiatry in the medical and psychiatric system both in hospitals and in the community.

The notions hitherto existing of the beginnings of child analysis have to be rectified. The meaning of childhood neuroses within the scope of scientific theory, i.e. the sexual genesis of the neuroses can no longer be maintained. The approach of distinguishing between the latent period and the Oedipus complex as the two phases of sexual development can nowadays be considered to be refuted. The personality of the first children's analyst--Hermine Hug-Hellmuth--needs to be redescribed. She fell victim to her father-transference and deceased murdered by her nephew with the help of whom she had satisfied her own scientific ambitions.

Modern comprehensive multidisciplinary mental-health services for children and adolescents have four origins: psychology from 1890, psychoanalysis from 1906, the child-guidance movement from 1920, and the children's departments of psychiatric teaching hospitals from 1930. Post-war changes in society and reform, especially the NHS Act 1946, contributed to rapid development of services and an increasingly wide range of sophisticated therapeutic interventions; professional and interdisciplinary associations and trans-Atlantic exchange were also influential. In the last three decades a succession of official inquiries, reports, legislation and reorganisations have had a damaging effect. Children and their services have been prey to causes célèbres, fashion and the exaggerated fads and foibles of the media and politicians; they have thrived best when society and their carers were tolerant, and loving, sought good qualities to augment, not evil to exorcise, and succeeded in balancing structure and control with flexibility and freedom to grow. Planners should review the past before acting.

This paper is a revision of the present situation of child psychiatry showing its confluence with general psychiatry through the epistemological unification as a biopsycho-social model. The psychopathological limitations of this process as empiricism are taken into account as well as its identity, which did not really exist till now. At the same time this identity supposes an orientation for the clinical, teaching and research action.

Edith Jackson, recipient of one of Sigmund Freud's coveted rings, served him well as an ambassador for psychoanalysis. As a child psychiatrist for 25 years at the Yale School of Medicine, she developed the rooming-in plan which allowed parents and newborns to be together from birth. With Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham, she opened the Jackson Nursery, a precursor of American daycare centers. Among the most important people in developing the field of child psychology, Edith was one of the early psychologists who recognized the importance of satisfying the emotional as well as the physical needs of the newborn.

Both children's use of drawings and their interpretation in psychopathology have a history and even a pre-history. The author comments on the few drawn documents he could gather concerning the latter. He examines the birth of children drawings in psychology, psychiatry and education at the end of the XIXth century and the turn of the XXth. He finally recalls the first traces of its use by psychoanalysis, mainly in France. Some excursi are joined relative to the conditions of discovery of pre-historic art, to the relationship between modern art and child "primitivism", and to the themes of child drawings within cartoons.

Child and juvenile psychiatry first came to be regarded as an independent clinical field after the second world war. Up to that time, research had been concerned with confirming the findings of adult psychiatry among children and juveniles. From the time of Kraepelin, adult psychiatry had made an effort to establish an immediate relationship between pathological anatomical findings and psychopathology based on close observation of the individual. In contrast to this were efforts to overcome subjectivity by using statistics or by defining "types" (Kretschmer), which led to the concept of syndromes. In the field of child and juvenile psychiatry, this doctrine brought to the fore the study of the consequences of low-level brain damage during early childhood in the 1950's. In research in both adult and child and juveniles psychiatry there is a constant alternation between a more organic and a more psychically oriented approach to observation. But there is a fundamental limit to any effort to objectify psychic phenomena, one that is mirrored in microphysics and related borderline areas. Individual case study and statistical, mathematical methods must be used to supplement one another. One main area for future research in child and juvenile psychiatry relates to the application of the insights of developmental psychology to general psychopathology and how to integrate related fields from the social sciences. Child and juvenile psychiatry cannot be limited to "psychiatry" in the narrower sense of the term, either in clinical practice or in research.

Leo Kanner headed the first child psychiatry division within a pediatric hospital at Johns Hopkins University. In 1935 he wrote the first book in English of child psychiatry which is still in print. His writings include both organic and environmental etiologies. He was an idealist, and he fought for liberal causes and emphasized an humanitarian approach in dealing with autistic children.