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The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is the most widely used intelligence test in the world. Now in its fifth edition, the WISC-V has been translated and adapted for use in nearly a dozen countries. Despite its popularity, numerous concerns have been raised about some of the procedures used to develop and validate translated and adapted versions of the test around the world. The purpose of this article is to survey the most salient of those methodological and statistical limitations. In particular, empirical data are presented that call into question the equating procedures used to validate the WISC-V Spanish, suggesting cautious use of that instrument. It is believed that the issues raised in the present article will be instructive for school psychologists engaged in the clinical assessment of intelligence with the WISC-V Spanish and with other translated and adapted versions around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Intelligence testing remains a fixture in school psychology training and practice. Despite their popularity, the use of IQ tests is not without controversy and researchers have long debated how these measures should be interpreted with children and adolescents. A controversial aspect of this debate relates to the utility of cognitive profile analysis, a class of interpretive methods that encourage practitioners to make diagnostic decisions and/or treatment recommendations based on the strengths and weaknesses observed in ability score profiles. Whereas numerous empirical studies and reviews have challenged long-standing assumptions about the utility of these methods, much of this literature is nearly two decades old and new profile analysis methods (e.g., XBA, PSW) have been proffered. To help update the field's understanding of these issues, the present review traces the historical development of cognitive profile analysis and (re)introduces readers to a body of research evidence suggesting new and continued concerns with the use of these methods in school psychology practice. It is believed that this review will serve as a useful resource to practitioners and trainers for understanding and promoting a countering view on these matters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One important aspect of construct validity is structural validity. Structural validity refers to the degree to which scores of a psychological test are a reflection of the dimensionality of the construct being measured. A factor analysis, which assumes that unobserved latent variables are responsible for the covariation among observed test scores, has traditionally been employed to provide structural validity evidence. Factor analytic studies have variously suggested either four or five dimensions for the WISC–V and it is unlikely that any new factor analytic study will resolve this dimensional dilemma. Unlike a factor analysis, an exploratory graph analysis (EGA) does not assume a common latent cause of covariances between test scores. Rather, an EGA identifies dimensions by locating strongly connected sets of scores that form coherent sub-networks within the overall network. Accordingly, the present study employed a bootstrap EGA technique to investigate the structure of the 10 WISC–V primary subtests using a large clinical sample (N = 7149) with a mean age of 10.7 years and a standard deviation of 2.8 years. The resulting structure was composed of four sub-networks that paralleled the first-order factor structure reported in many studies where the fluid reasoning and visual–spatial dimensions merged into a single dimension. These results suggest that discrepant construct and scoring structures exist for the WISC–V that potentially raise serious concerns about the test interpretations of psychologists who employ the test structure preferred by the publisher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the field of school psychology has made progress toward the use of tests and assessment practices with empirical support over the past 20 years, many school psychology practitioners still engage in what can be described as low-value value assessment practices that lack compelling scientific support potentially taking time and resources away from practices that have a demonstrated evidence-base. Why do school psychologists engage in questionable assessment and interpretive practices despite decades of discrediting scientific evidence? This article critically examines several plausible explanations for the perpetuation of low-value practices in school psychology assessment. It also underscores the importance of critical thinking when evaluating assessment and interpretation practices, and discusses practical recommendations to assist in advancing evidence-based assessment in school psychology training and practice as the field progresses well-into the 21st century. Impact Statement Many school psychologists engage in assessment practices that lack compelling scientific support potentially taking time, resources, and energy away from more effective practices. This article critically reviews reasons why these questionable assessment practices persist long after discrediting scientific evidence has been aptly presented. Recommendations are offered to promote the use of evidence-based practices and discourage the use of assessment methods lacking compelling empirical support in training and clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homework is a requirement for most school-age children, but research on the benefits and drawbacks of homework is limited by lack of psychometrically sound measurement of homework performance. This study examined the structural and convergent validity of scores from the newly developed Homework Performance Questionnaire – Teacher Scale (HPQ-T). Participants were 112 teachers of 224 students in six Illinois school districts. Common factor analysis with principal axis extraction and promax rotation was used for data analysis. Results revealed three salient factors: Parent support, student competence and homework completion. Subsequently, convergent validity of HPQ-T subscale scores with subscale scores from the Learning Behaviours Scale was examined. Findings suggest that the HPQ-T may potentially be a useful tool for improving research on homework and identifying strengths and weaknesses in student homework performance. However, modifications are recommended to optimise the utility of the scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: There has been considerable debate regarding the causal precedence of intelligence and academic achievement. Some researchers view intelligence and achievement as identical constructs. Others believe that the relationship between intelligence and achievement is reciprocal. Still others assert that intelligence is causally related to achievement. The present study addressed this debate with a cross-lagged panel analysis of WISC-III and achievement test scores of 289 students assessed for special education eligibility with a test–retest interval of 2.8 years. The optimal IQ–achievement model reflected the causal precedence of IQ on achievement. That is, the paths from IQ scores at time 1 to IQ and achievement scores at time 2 were significant whereas the paths from achievement scores at time 1 to IQ scores at time 2 were not significant. Within the limits imposed by the design and sample, it appears that psychometric IQ is a causal influence on future achievement measures whereas achievement measures do not substantially influence future IQ scores. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM) was used to investigate the latent structure of the Differential Ability Scales—Second Edition core battery using the standardization sample normative data for ages 7–17. Results revealed plausibility of a three‐factor model, consistent with publisher theory, expressed as either a higher‐order (HO) or a bifactor (BF) model. The results also revealed an alternative structure with the best model fit, a two‐factor BF model with Matrices (MA) and Sequential and Quantitative Reasoning (SQ) loading on g only with no respective group factor loading. This was only the second study to use BSEM to investigate the structure of a commercial ability test and the first to use a large normative sample and the specification of both approximate zero cross‐loadings and correlated residual terms. It is believed that the results produced from the current study will advance the field's understanding of not only the factor structure of the DAS‐II core battery but also the potential utility of BSEM in psychometric investigations of intelligence test structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the factor structure of the French Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition with five standardization sample age groups (6-7, 8-9, 10-11, 12-13, 14-16 years) using hierarchical exploratory factor analysis followed by Schmid-Leiman procedure. The primary research questions included (a) how many French Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition factors should be extracted and retained in each age subgroup, (b) how are subtests associated with the latent factors, (c) was there evidence for the publisher's claim of five first-order factors and separate Visual Spatial and Fluid Reasoning factors, (d) what proportion of variance was due to general intelligence versus the first-order group ability factors following a Schmid-Leiman procedure, and (e) do results support the age differentiation hypothesis? Results suggested that four factors might be sufficient for all five age groups and results did not support the distinction between Visual Spatial and Fluid Reasoning factors. While the general factor accounted for the largest portions of variance, the four first-order factors accounted for small unique portions of variance. Results did not support the age differentiation hypothesis because the number of factors remained the same across age groups, and there was no change in the percentage of variance accounted for by the general factor across age groups.

This study investigated the stability of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V) scores for 225 children and adolescents from an outpatient neuropsychological clinic across, on average, a 2.6 year test-retest interval. WISC-V mean scores were relatively constant but subtest stability score coefficients were all below 0.80 ( M  = 0.66) and only the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), Visual Spatial Index (VSI), and omnibus Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) stability coefficients exceeded 0.80. Neither intraindividual subtest difference scores nor intraindividual composite difference scores were stable across time ( M  = 0.26 and 0.36, respectively). Rare and unusual subtest and composite score differences as well as subtest and index scatter at initial testing were unlikely to be repeated at retest (kappa = 0.03 to 0.49). It was concluded that VCI, VSI, and FSIQ scores might be sufficiently stable to support normative comparisons but that none of the intraindividual (i.e. idiographic, ipsative, or person-relative) measures were stable enough for confident clinical decision making.

The Behavior Assessment System for Children-Third Edition (BASC-3) is the most recent edition and the Teacher Rating Scales (TRS) was reported to be the most frequently used test in school psychology practice. Despite its popularity, there is a lack of independent empirical research regarding psychometric properties. The BASC-3 Manual, while quite detailed in many respects, lacks important details in reporting TRS item- and scale-level factor analyses limiting confidence in construct validity based on internal structure. The present study examined the latent factor structure of the BASC-3 TRS Preschool, Child, and Adolescent Clinical and Adaptive scales using best practices in exploratory factor analysis (EFA). EFA was conducted with the Clinical and Adaptive scales jointly, and with the Clinical scales separately, to aid interpretive clarity. Results indicated theoretically consistent alignment of the BASC-3 TRS Clinical scales to their specified factors (Externalizing, Internalizing, and School Problems) and an additional factor (Social Disengagement) was identified, suggesting a possible new latent construct for a composite scale score containing the Withdrawal and Atypicality scales. Variance partitioning applied to second-order EFA and model-based validity statistics, however, indicated that the composite scales (Externalizing, Internalizing, School Problems, and Social Disengagement) appear to lack sufficient unique variance for confident clinical interpretation in isolation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Background: There is inadequate information regarding the factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fifth UK Edition (WISC-V UK ; Wechsler, 2016a, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth UK Edition, Harcourt Assessment, London, UK) to guide interpretation., Aims and Methods: The WISC-V UK was examined using complementary exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for all models proposed by Wechsler (2016b, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth UK Edition: Administration and scoring manual, Harcourt Assessment, London, UK) as well as rival bifactor models., Sample: The WISC-V UK standardization sample (N = 415) correlation matrix was used in analyses due to denial of standardization sample raw data., Results: EFA did not support a theoretically posited fifth factor because only one subtest (Matrix Reasoning) had a salient pattern coefficient on the fifth factor. A model with four group factors and a general intelligence factor resembling the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX, USA) was supported by both EFA and CFA. General intelligence (g) was the dominant source of subtest variance and large omega-hierarchical coefficients supported interpretation of the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) score. In contrast, the four group factors accounted for small portions of subtest variance and low omega-hierarchical subscale coefficients indicated that the four-factor index scores were of questionable interpretive value independent of g. Present results replicated independent assessments of the Canadian, Spanish, French, and US versions of the WISC-V (Canivez, Watkins, & Dombrowski, 2016, Psychological Assessment, 28, 975; 2017, Psychological Assessment, 29, 458; Fennollar-Cortés & Watkins, 2018, International Journal of School & Educational Psychology; Lecerf & Canivez, 2018, Psychological Assessment; Watkins, Dombrowski, & Canivez, 2018, International Journal of School and Educational Psychology)., Conclusion: Primary interpretation of the WISC-V UK should be of the FSIQ as an estimate of general intelligence., (© 2018 The British Psychological Society.)

The Woodcock-Johnson (fourth edition; WJ IV; Schrank, McGrew, & Mather, 2014a) was recently redeveloped and retains its linkage to Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory (CHC). Independent reviews (e.g., Canivez, 2017) and investigations (Dombrowski, McGill, & Canivez, 2017) of the structure of the WJ IV full test battery and WJ IV Cognitive have suggested the need for additional factor analytic exploration. Accordingly, the present study used principal axis factoring (PAF) followed by the Schmid and Leiman (SL; Schmid & Leiman, 1957) procedure with the 2 school-aged correlation matrices from the normative sample to determine the degree to which the WJ IV total battery structure could be replicated. Although 7 factors emerged across the 9 to 19 age range, the pattern of subtests loadings did not fully cohere with the structure presented in the Technical Manual, most notably for the academic fluency subtests. Also, the Fluid Reasoning (Gf) and Quantitative Reasoning (Gq) subtests coalesced to form a combined factor rather than 2 separate factors and the Long Term Retrieval (Gltr) subtests aligned with a variety of different factors. The results of this study indicated that the general intelligence factor variance far exceeded the variance attributed to the lower-order CHC factors. The combination of subtest migration and nominal total/common variance of the CHC lower-order factors suggests caution when interpreting the myriad CHC-related indices when making high stakes decisions. Implications for clinical practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

Background: Irish educational psychologists frequently use the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth UK Edition (WISC-IV UK ; Wechsler, 2004, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth UK Edition, London, UK, Harcourt Assessment) in clinical assessments of children with learning difficulties. Unfortunately, reliability and validity studies of the WISC-IV UK standardization sample have not yet been reported. Watkins et al. (2013, International Journal of School and Educational Psychology, 1, 102) found support for a bifactor structure with a large sample (N = 794) of Irish children who were administered the 10 WISC-IV UK core subtests in clinical assessments of learning difficulties and dominance of general intelligence. Because only 10 subtests were available, Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC; McGrew, 1997, 2005, Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues, New York, NY: Guilford; Schneider & McGrew, 2012, Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues, New York, NY, Guilford Press) models could not be tested and compared., Aim, Sample and Method: The present study utilized confirmatory factor analyses to test the latent factor structure of the WISC-IV UK with a sample of 245 Irish children administered all 15 WISC-IV UK subtests in evaluations assessing learning difficulties in order to examine CHC- and Wechsler-based models. One through five, oblique first-order factor models and higher order versus bifactor models were examined and compared using CFA., Results: Meaningful differences in fit statistics were not observed between the Wechsler and CHC representations of higher-order or bifactor models. In all four structures, general intelligence accounted for the largest portions of explained common variance, whereas group factors accounted for small to miniscule portions of explained common variance. Omega-hierarchical subscale coefficients indicated that unit-weighted composites that would be generated by WISC-IV UK group factors (Wechsler or CHC) would contain little unique variance and thus be of little value., Conclusion: These results were similar to those from other investigations, further demonstrating the replication of the WISC-IV factor structure across cultures and the importance of focusing primary interpretation on the FSIQ., (© 2017 The British Psychological Society.)

Background: Subtest and factor scores have typically provided little incremental predictive validity beyond the omnibus IQ score., Aims: This study examined the incremental validity of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth UK Edition (WISC-IV(UK) ; Wechsler, 2004a, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth UK Edition, Harcourt Assessment, London, UK) and factor index scores in predicting academic achievement on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test - Second UK Edition (WIAT-II(UK) ; Wechsler, 2005a, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second UK Edition, Pearson, London, UK), beyond that predicted by the WISC-IV(UK) FSIQ., Sample: The sample included 1,014 Irish children (ages 6-0 to 16-9) who were referred for evaluation of learning difficulties., Method: Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used with the WISC-IV(UK) FSIQ (Block 1) and factor index scores (Block 2) as predictors and WIAT-II(UK) subtest and composite scores as dependent variables., Results: The WISC-IV(UK) FSIQ accounted for statistically significant and generally large portions of WIAT-II(UK) subtest and composite score variance. WISC-IV(UK) factor index scores combined to provide statistically significant increments in prediction of most WIAT-II(UK) subtest and composite scores over and above the FSIQ; however, the effect sizes were mostly small as previously observed (i.e., Canivez, 2013a, Psychol. Assess., 25, 484; Glutting et al., 2006, J. Spec. Educ., 40, 103; Nelson et al., 2013, Psychol. Assess., 25, 618). Individually, the WISC-IV(UK) factor index scores provided small unique contributions to predicting WIAT-II(UK) scores., Conclusion: This, in combination with studies of apportioned variance from bifactor confirmatory factor analysis (Watkins et al., 2013, Int. J. Sch. Educ. Psychol., 1, 102), indicated that the WISC-IV(UK) FSIQ should retain the greatest weight in WISC-IV(UK) interpretation., (© 2014 The British Psychological Society.)

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) is one of the most frequently used intelligence tests in clinical assessments of children with learning difficulties. Construct validity studies of the WISC-IV have generally supported the higher order structure with four correlated first-order factors and one higher-order general intelligence factor, but recent studies have supported an alternate model in which general intelligence is conceptualized as a breadth factor rather than a superordinate factor (M. W. Watkins, 2010, Structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition among a national sample of referred students, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 22, pp. 782-787; M. W. Watkins, G. L. Canivez, T. James, K. & R. Good, in press, Construct validity of the WISC-IVUK with a large referred Irish sample, International Journal of School and Educational Psychology). WISC-IV core subtest data obtained from evaluations to assess learning difficulties in 345 children (224 boys, 121 girls) were examined. One through four, first order factor models and indirect versus direct hierarchical models were compared using confirmatory factor analyses. The correlated four-factor Wechsler model provided good fit to these data, but the direct hierarchical model showed statistically significant improvement over the indirect hierarchical model and correlated four-factor model. The direct hierarchical model was judged the best explanation of the WISC-IV factor structure, with the general factor accounting for 71.6% of the common variance while the first order factors accounted for 2.4-10.3% of the common variance. Thus, the results with the present sample of referred children were similar to those from other investigations (G. E. Gignac, 2005, Revisiting the factor structure of the WAIS-R: Insights through nested factor modeling, Assessment, Vol. 12, pp. 320-329; G. E. Gignac, 2006, The WAIS-III as a nested factors model: A useful alternative to the more conventional oblique and higher-order models, Journal of Individual Differences, Vol. 27, pp. 73-86; P. Golay, I. Reverte, J. Rossier, N. Favez, & T. Lecerf, 2012, Further insights on the French WISC-IV factor structure through Bayesian structural equation modeling. Psychological Assessment, advance online publication; M. W. Watkins, 2010, Structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition among a national sample of referred students, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 22, pp. 782-787; M. W. Watkins, G. L. Canivez, T. James, K. & R. Good, in press, Construct validity of the WISC-IV(UK) with a large referred Irish sample, International Journal of School and Educational Psychology) supporting primary interpretation of the Full Scale IQ rather than the factor index scores., (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved.)

Whereas sexual objectification has most commonly been studied among women, recent calls by counseling psychologists have urged for an extension of objectification research to more fully include men (e.g., Heimerdinger-Edwards, Vogel, & Hammer, 2011). The present study examined the factor structure of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale (ISOS; Kozee, Tylka, Augustus-Horvath, & Denchik, 2007) with men. Specifically, analyses included exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a sample of 287 college men and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with an independent sample of 221 college men. A correlated 3-factor structure was suggested by multiple criteria in EFA and was further confirmed by CFA with a bifactor model illustrating the most item variance associated with a general interpersonal sexual objectification dimension for men.

Youth violence represents a serious problem affecting individuals, communities, and the larger society. Greater efforts aimed at the eradication of youth violence are necessary, and work in this field could be enhanced by psychometrically strong measures. The present study examined the factor structure of the Attitudes Toward Violence Scale (ATV) using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a sample of 359 high school students. A three-factor structure was identified. The three factors were invariant across sex, however, males obtained significantly higher scores on the three ATV factors and on the ATV total score showing generally moderate effect sizes. Directions for future research with the ATV are discussed.

Empirical examination of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus, 2003a) has produced mixed results regarding its internal structure and convergent validity. Various aspects of validity of RIAS scores with a sample (N = 521) of adolescents and adults seeking psychological evaluations at a university-based clinic were examined. Results from exploratory factor analysis indicated only 1 factor, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that the 1-factor model was a good fit and a better fit than the 2-factor model. Hierarchical factor analysis indicated the higher order, general intelligence factor accounted for the largest amount of variance. Correlations with other measures of verbal/crystallized and nonverbal/fluid intelligence were supportive of the convergent validity of the Verbal Intelligence Index but not the Nonverbal Intelligence Index. Joint CFA with these additional measures resulted in a superior fit of the 2-factor model compared with the 1-factor model, although the Odd-Item-Out subtest was found to be a poor measure of nonverbal/fluid intelligence. Incremental validity analyses indicated that the Composite Intelligence Index explained a medium to large portion of academic achievement variance; the NIX and VIX explained a small amount of remaining variance. Implications regarding interpretation of the RIAS when assessing similar individuals are discussed.

The present study examined the factor structure of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; D. Wechsler, 2008a) standardization sample using exploratory factor analysis, multiple factor extraction criteria, and higher order exploratory factor analysis (J. Schmid & J. M. Leiman, 1957) not included in the WAIS-IV Technical and Interpretation Manual (D. Wechsler, 2008b). Results indicated that the WAIS-IV subtests were properly associated with the theoretically proposed first-order factors, but all but one factor-extraction criterion recommended extraction of one or two factors. Hierarchical exploratory analyses with the Schmid and Leiman procedure found that the second-order g factor accounted for large portions of total and common variance, whereas the four first-order factors accounted for small portions of total and common variance. It was concluded that the WAIS-IV provides strong measurement of general intelligence, and clinical interpretation should be primarily at that level.