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The antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi isolated from Euphorbia milii was evaluated against Gram-positive, Gram-negative bacteria, unicellular yeast, and filamentous fungi. Chaetomium ovatoascomatis NRC was identified morphologically and genetically as the most active strain. The total ethyl acetate extract of C. ovatoascomatis NRC demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative; Escherichia coli, Salmonella enteric, and fungi; Aspergillus niger with MIC of 62.5 ug/ml. Whereas n-hexane fraction demonstrated broader activity against Gram-positive; Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus cereus, Gram-negative; Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteric, fungi; Candida albicans and F. solani. LC-MS/MS analysis of ethyl acetate strain extract and GC-MS analysis of the n-hexane fraction were used to identify the metabolites of the strain extract. LC-MS/MS determined three major metabolites with potential antimicrobial activities including grevilline B, aflatoxin G2 and apigenin. GC-MS analysis of n-hexane fraction tentatively identified 30 compounds, where 9,12-octadecadienoic acid methyl ester was the major compound.

INTRODUCTIONThe subcellular compartmentalization of eukaryotic cells requires selective transport of folded proteins and protein–nucleic acid complexes. Embedded in nuclear envelope pores, which are generated by the circumscribed fusion of the inner and outer nuclear membranes, nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are the sole bidirectional gateways for nucleocytoplasmic transport. The ~110-MDa human NPC is an ~1000-protein assembly that comprises multiple copies of ~34 different proteins, collectively termed nucleoporins. The symmetric core of the NPC is composed of an inner ring encircling the central transport channel and outer rings formed by Y‑shaped coat nucleoporin complexes (CNCs) anchored atop both sides of the nuclear envelope. The outer rings are decorated with compartment‑specific asymmetric nuclear basket and cytoplasmic filament nucleoporins, which establish transport directionality and provide docking sites for transport factors and the small guanosine triphosphatase Ran. The cytoplasmic filament nucleoporins also play an essential role in the irreversible remodeling of messenger ribonucleoprotein particles (mRNPs) as they exit the central transport channel. Unsurprisingly, the NPC’s cytoplasmic face represents a hotspot for disease‑associated mutations and is commonly targeted by viral virulence factors.RATIONALEPrevious studies established a near-atomic composite structure of the human NPC’s symmetric core by combining (i) biochemical reconstitution to elucidate the interaction network between symmetric nucleoporins, (ii) crystal and single-particle cryo–electron microscopy structure determination of nucleoporins and nucleoporin complexes to reveal their three-dimensional shape and the molecular details of their interactions, (iii) quantitative docking in cryo–electron tomography (cryo-ET) maps of the intact human NPC to uncover nucleoporin stoichiometry and positioning, and (iv) cell‑based assays to validate the physiological relevance of the biochemical and structural findings. In this work, we extended our approach to the cytoplasmic filament nucleoporins to reveal the near-atomic architecture of the cytoplasmic face of the human NPC.RESULTSUsing biochemical reconstitution, we elucidated the protein-protein and protein-RNA interaction networks of the human andChaetomium thermophilumcytoplasmic filament nucleoporins, establishing an evolutionarily conserved heterohexameric cytoplasmic filament nucleoporin complex (CFNC) held together by a central heterotrimeric coiled‑coil hub that tethers two separate mRNP‑remodeling complexes. Further biochemical analysis and determination of a series of crystal structures revealed that the metazoan‑specific cytoplasmic filament nucleoporin NUP358 is composed of 16 distinct domains, including an N‑terminal S‑shaped α‑helical solenoid followed by a coiled‑coil oligomerization element, numerous Ran‑interacting domains, an E3 ligase domain, and a C‑terminal prolyl‑isomerase domain. Physiologically validated quantitative docking into cryo-ET maps of the intact human NPC revealed that pentameric NUP358 bundles, conjoined by the oligomerization element, are anchored through their N‑terminal domains to the central stalk regions of the CNC, projecting flexibly attached domains as far as ~600 Å into the cytoplasm. Using cell‑based assays, we demonstrated that NUP358 is dispensable for the architectural integrity of the assembled interphase NPC and RNA export but is required for efficient translation. After NUP358 assignment, the remaining 4-shaped cryo‑ET density matched the dimensions of the CFNC coiled‑coil hub, in close proximity to an outer-ring NUP93. Whereas the N-terminal NUP93 assembly sensor motif anchors the properly assembled related coiled‑coil channel nucleoporin heterotrimer to the inner ring, biochemical reconstitution confirmed that the NUP93 assembly sensor is reused in anchoring the CFNC to the cytoplasmic face of the human NPC. By contrast, twoC. thermophilumCFNCs are anchored by a divergent mechanism that involves assembly sensors located in unstructured portions of two CNC nucleoporins. Whereas unassigned cryo‑ET density occupies the NUP358 and CFNC binding sites on the nuclear face, docking of the nuclear basket component ELYS established that the equivalent position on the cytoplasmic face is unoccupied, suggesting that mechanisms other than steric competition promote asymmetric distribution of nucleoporins.CONCLUSIONWe have substantially advanced the biochemical and structural characterization of the asymmetric nucleoporins’ architecture and attachment at the cytoplasmic and nuclear faces of the NPC. Our near‑atomic composite structure of the human NPC’s cytoplasmic face provides a biochemical and structural framework for elucidating the molecular basis of mRNP remodeling, viral virulence factor interference with NPC function, and the underlying mechanisms of nucleoporin diseases at the cytoplasmic face of the NPC.Cytoplasmic face of the human NPC.Near-atomic composite structure of the NPC generated by docking high-resolution crystal structures into a cryo‑ET reconstruction of an intact human NPC. The symmetric core, embedded in the nuclear envelope, is decorated with NUP358 (red) domains bound to Ran (gray), flexibly projected into the cytoplasm, and CFNCs (pink) overlooking the central transport channel.

The herbicide butachlor has been used in huge quantities worldwide, affecting various environmental systems. Butachlor residues have been detected in soil, water, and organisms, and have been shown to be toxic to these non-target organisms. This paper briefly summarizes the toxic effects of butachlor on aquatic and terrestrial animals, including humans, and proposes the necessity of its removal from the environment. Due to long-term exposure, some animals, plants, and microorganisms have developed resistance toward butachlor, indicating that the toxicity of this herbicide can be reduced. Furthermore, we can consider removing butachlor residues from the environment by using such butachlor-resistant organisms. In particular, microbial degradation methods have attracted much attention, with about 30 kinds of butachlor-degrading microorganisms have been found, such as Fusarium solani, Novosphingobium chloroacetimidivorans, Chaetomium globosum, Pseudomonas putida, Sphingomonas chloroacetimidivorans, and Rhodococcus sp. The metabolites and degradation pathways of butachlor have been investigated. In addition, enzymes associated with butachlor degradation have been identified, including CndC1 (ferredoxin), Red1 (reductase), FdX1 (ferredoxin), FdX2 (ferredoxin), Dbo (debutoxylase), and catechol 1,2 dioxygenase. However, few reviews have focused on the microbial degradation and molecular mechanisms of butachlor. This review explores the biochemical pathways and molecular mechanisms of butachlor biodegradation in depth in order to provide new ideas for repairing butachlor-contaminated environments. KEY POINTS: • Biodegradation is a powerful tool for the removal of butachlor. • Dechlorination plays a key role in the degradation of butachlor. • Possible biochemical pathways of butachlor in the environment are described.

Acta crystallographica / Section D 77(6), 755 - 775 (2021). doi:10.1107/S2059798321003533, The FAD-dependent oxidoreductase from Chaetomium thermophilum (CtFDO) is a novel thermostable glycoprotein from the glucose–methanol–choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily. However, CtFDO shows no activity toward the typical substrates of the family and high-throughput screening with around 1000 compounds did not yield any strongly reacting substrate. Therefore, protein crystallography, including crystallographic fragment screening, with 42 fragments and 37 other compounds was used to describe the ligand-binding sites of CtFDO and to characterize the nature of its substrate. The structure of CtFDO reveals an unusually wide-open solvent-accessible active-site pocket with a unique His–Ser amino-acid pair putatively involved in enzyme catalysis. A series of six crystal structures of CtFDO complexes revealed five different subsites for the binding of aryl moieties inside the active-site pocket and conformational flexibility of the interacting amino acids when adapting to a particular ligand. The protein is capable of binding complex polyaromatic substrates of molecular weight greater than 500 Da., Published by Wiley, Bognor Regis

Fungal endophytes of Plectranthus amboinicus L. were explored for their antifungal activity against phytopathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and plant-growth-enhancing traits. Fungal isolates were genotyped using the ITS-rDNA regions. Chaetomium subglobosum exhibited the highest mycelial growth inhibition of 80% against phytopathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in dual-culture bioassay carried out in czapek dox medium. Of the various plant-growth-enhancing traits evaluated in endophytic isolates, C. subglobosum was found to be positive for HCN, IAA, siderophore and ammonia production. None of the endophytic isolates were able to solubilise phosphate in in vitro conditions. IAA was produced by C. subglobosum, Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum as characterised qualitatively by RP-HPLC. Highest quantity of IAA (97 ng/ml) was secreted by Fusarium oxysporum as detected through spectrophotometric analysis at 530 nm.

Cytochalasins are a group of fungal secondary metabolites with diverse structures and bioactivities, including chaetoglobosin A production. Chaetoglobosin A is produced by Chaetomium globosum and has potential antifungal activity. Bioinformatics analysis of the chaetoglobosin A gene cluster (che) showed it that consists of nine open reading frames, including those encoding polyketide synthases (PKSs), PKS extender units, post-PKS modifications, and proposed regulators. Here, the role of the CgcheR regulator was investigated using gene disruption experiments. The CgcheR disruptant (ΔCgcheR) completely abolished the production of chaetoglobosin A, which was restored by the introduction of a copy of the wild-type CgcheR gene, suggesting that CgcheR is involved in chaetoglobosin A biosynthesis. A transcriptional analysis of the CgcheR disruptant indicated that CgCheR activates the transcription of chaetoglobosin biosynthetic genes in a pathway-specific manner. Furthermore, constitutive overexpression of CgcheR significantly improved the production of chaetoglobosin A from 52 to 260 mg/L. Surprisingly, CgcheR also played a critical role in sporulation; the CgcheR disruptant lost the ability to produce spores, suggesting that the regulator modulates cellular development. Our results not only shed light on the regulation of chaetoglobosin A biosynthesis, but also indicate a relationship between secondary metabolism and fungal morphogenesis.

Endophytic fungi always attract attention due to their generous production of bioactive and chemically novel compounds that have medical, agriculture, industrial applications. This review focused on Chaetomium as a model of endophytic fungi rich in therapeutic agents that have known medicinal and industrial application. Moreover, understanding the importance of this potent fungus encourage further studies to identify novel metabolites, and at the same time employing already known metabolites to evaluate their activity in order to be used in additional applications.

A novel thermostable xylanase gene from Chaetomium sp. CQ31 was cloned and codon–optimized (CsXynBop). The deduced protein sequence of the gene shared the highest similarity of 75% with the glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 10 xylanase from Achaetomium sp. Xz–8. CsXynBop was over–expressed in Pichia pastoris GS115 by high–cell density fermentation, with the highest xylanase yield of 10,017 U/mL. The recombinant xylanase (CsXynBop) was purified to homogeneity and biochemically characterized. CsXynBop was optimally active at pH 6.5 and 85 °C, respectively, and stable over a broad pH range of 5.0–9.5 and up to 60 °C. The enzyme exhibited strict substrate specificity towards oat–spelt xylan (2, 489 U/mg), beechwood xylan (1522 U/mg), birchwood xylan (1067 U/mg), and showed relatively high activity towards arabinoxylan (1208 U/mg), but exhibited no activity on other tested polysaccharides. CsXynBop hydrolyzed different xylans to yield mainly xylooligosaccharides (XOSs) with degree of polymerization (DP) 2–5. The application of CsXynBop (200 U/g malt) in malt mashing substantially decreased the filtration time and viscosity of malt by 42.3% and 8.6%, respectively. These excellent characteristics of CsXynBop may make it a good candidate in beer industry.

Chaetomium species are known as potential biocontrol agents against phytopathogens due to their multiple antagonistic mechanisms. Plant disease is controlled by Chaetomium exhibit complex interactions against plant pathogen under varied conditions. Previously, mycoparasitism and antibiosis have been reported as most effective mechanism exhibited by the C. globosum against Bipolaris sorokiniana . In the present study, the examination of major biosynthetic pathways underlying Chaetomium globosum biocontrol activity was elucidated. It was shown that the pathways related to biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, hydrolytic enzymes and other key regulator genes were involved in production of hydrolytic enzymes and antifungal metabolites. We identified various genes of biological function with significant log2 fold change such as phosphoribosyl aminoimidazole carboxylase (9.693), protease (8.18), cyanate hydratase (Cyanase) (6.7), Fe2OG dioxygenase domain-containing protein (5.9), superoxide dismutase (5.55), glycosidase (5.34), carboxylic ester hydrolase (5.27), alpha-1,2-Mannosidase (4.44), alpha-1,4 glucan phosphorylase (3.99), endochitinase (3.87), P53-like transcription factor (Fragment) (3.55), metalloprotease (3.4), polyketide synthase (3.35), Catalase-peroxidase (CP) (3.14), protein kinase domain-containing protein (3.18) and glutamate decarboxylase (2.1) which are involved in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, polyketide synthase, antibiotic, hydrolytic enzymes and putative fungistatic metabolites. This data provides a good foundation for continued researches into C. globosum Cg2 biocontrol activity for facilitating widespread application under the field conditions.

Genome mining and bioinformatics analyses allowed us to rationally find a candidate biosynthetic gene cluster for a new cyclic depsipeptide of

Aims This study aims at immobilization of fungal mutants on nanosilica (NSi)-carriers for designing efficient biosorbents as a significant new technology for decontamination practices and maximizing their heavy metal (HM) sorption proficiency through the experimental design methodology. Materials and Results Endophytic fungal mutant strains, Chaetomium globosum El26 mutant and Alternaria alternata S5 mutant were heat inactivated and then immobilized, each separately, on NSi carriers to formulate two separated nano-biosorbents. The formulated NSi-Chaetomium globosum El26 mutant (NSi-Chae El26 m) was investigated for Pb+2 uptake while, the formulated NSi-Alternaria alternata S5 mutant (NSi-Alt S5 m) was investigated for Cd+2 uptake, each through a batch equilibrium protocol. Before and after the metal sorption process, the designed nano-biosorbents were characterized via scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared analysis. Sorption pH, contact time, sorbent concentration, and initial HM concentration were statistically optimized using a Box–Behnken design. Results showed that NSi-Chae El26 m was efficient in Pb+2 uptake with maximum biosorption capacities of 199.0, while NSi-Alt S5 m was efficient in Cd+2 uptake with maximum biosorption capacities of 162.0 mg g−1. Moreover, the equilibrium data indicated that the adsorption of Pb+2 and Cd+2 by the tested nano-biosorbents fitted to the Freundlich isotherm. Conclusions The formulated nano-biosorbents resulted in higher HM biosorption of metal ions from aqueous solution than that obtained by the free fungal biomass. The biosorption statistical modelling described the interactions between the tested sorption parameters and predicted the optimum values for maximum HM biosorption capacity by the two designed nano-biosorbents. Significance and Impact of The Study These findings verify that members of the endophytic fungal genera Alternaria and Chaetomium are suitable to produce nano-biosorbents for decontamination practices after treatment by gamma mutagenesis, heat inactivation, and NSi immobilization. Moreover, statistical optimization can assist to evaluate the optimal conditions to produce such bioremediation material.

Chaetomium thermophilum, a eukaryotic thermophile, is an aspiring organism holding great potential for various biochemical and biotechnological applications. Prerequisite for genetic manipulation is a reliable transformation system for target genes combined with selection markers operating at the high growth temperatures of the fungus. Here, we present a detailed protocol for Chaetomium thermophilum protoplast transformation to allow stable chromosomal integration of constructs into its genome, rendering this eukaryotic thermophile a valuable resource for affinity purification of native thermostable protein complexes, like nuclear pore subcomplexes.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have natural antibacterial activities that pathogens find difficult to overcome. As a result of this occurrence, AMPs can act as an important substitute against the microbial resistance. In this study, we used plate confrontation tests to screen out 20 potential endophytes from potato tubers. Among them, endophyte F5 was found to significantly inhibit the growth of five different pathogenic fungi. Following that, phylogenetic analysis revealed that the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences were 99% identical to

Many representatives of soil saprotroph fungi can penetrate into plant tissues forming endophytic associations with a positive effect on both micro- and macroorganisms. The endophytic fungi may positive act on growth processes, immune status, and resistance of plants to stress factors. For some crops, including buckwheat, the ability to form endophytic associations with soil fungi remains unexplored. Thus the main objectives of our study were to establish the features of interaction between Chaetomium cochliodes3250 and buckwheat plants. Conventional biochemical (content of plant growth regulators, activity of succinate dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase, exoglucanase, endoglucanase, β-glucosidase, polygalacturonase) and physicochemical (content of photosynthetic pigments) study methods were used during the work. We established the capability of C. cochliodes 3250 for growth-regulating substances synthesis. The fungus could produce indolyl 3-acetic acid, gibberellic acid, that stimulates growth and development of plants both with mediator molecules, synthesizes 2,4-epibrassinolide, cholesterol and ergosterol playing an important role in plant resistance against pathogens. We found out that C. cochliodes 3250 was capable for active synthesis of cellulase complex enzymes (exoglucanase, endoglucanase, β-glucosidase) and polygalacturonase, necessary for fungus penetration into the root tissues. Pre-sowing treatment of buckwheat seeds by fungus caused the main physiological responses of plants: an increase of total adsorption and active working surface of the roots, the length and weight of plants, the leaf area and the content of chlorophylls a and b. Thus, the ability of C. cochliodes3250 to form an efficient endophytic association with buckwheat plants been improved.

Condensin and cohesin, both members of the structural maintenance of chromosome (SMC) family, contribute to the regulation and structure of chromatin. Recent work has shown both condensin and cohesin extrude DNA loops and most likely work via a conserved mechanism. This review focuses on condensin complexes, highlighting recent in vitro work characterising DNA loop formation and protein structure. We discuss similarities between condensin and cohesin complexes to derive a possible mechanistic model, as well as discuss differences that exist between the different condensin isoforms found in higher eukaryotes.

Several studies isolated fungal and bacterial species from extreme environments, such as Sabkha and hot deserts, as their natural habitat, some of which are of medicinal importance. Current research aimed investigating the microbial (fungi and bacteria) diversity and abundance in Sabkha and desert areas in Saudi Arabia. Soil samples from nine different geographical areas (Al-Aushazia lake, AlQasab, AlKasar, Tabuk, Al-Kharj, Al-Madina, Jubail, Taif and Abqaiq) were collected and cultured for microbial isolation. Isolated fungi and bacteria were identified by molecular techniques (PCR and sequencing). Based on 18S rDNA sequencing, 203 fungal species belonging to 33 genera were identified. The most common fungal genera were Fusarium, Alternaria, Chaetomium, Aspergillus Cochliobolus and Pencillium, while the most common species were Chaetomium globosum and Fusarium oxysporum. By 16S rDNA sequencing 22 bacterial species belonging to only two genera, Bacillus and Lactobacillus, were identified. The most commonly isolated bacterial species were Bacillus subtilis and Lactobacillus murinus. Some fungal species were confined to specific locations, such as Actinomyces elegans, Fusarium proliferatum, Gymnoascus reesii and Myzostoma spp. that were only isolated from Al-Aushazia soil. AlQasab soil had the highest microbial diversity among other areas with abundances of 23.5% and 4.4% of total fungi, and bacteria, respectively. Findings of this study show a higher degree of fungal diversity than that of bacteria in all studied areas. Further studies needed to investigate the connection between some isolated species and their habitat ecology, as well as to identify those of medicinal importance.

Historic photographs are a precious cultural heritage. Despite this, there is a lack of studies on the microorganisms that are responsible for their biodeterioration and the underlying mechanisms. The aims of this study were twofold: (a) assess microorganism diversity on historic photographs using, for the first time, high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform; (b) assess the suitability of new methods for mass spectrometric analysis of metabolites on photographs, namely laser ablation-remote-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (LARESI MSI) in selected reaction monitoring mode (SRM), and surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MS) and mass spectrometry imaging (MSI), on silver nanoparticle enhanced target (109AgNPET MS and MSI). Samples of 19th century Polish silver-gelatin photographs on baryta paper (paper substrate with layer of barium sulphate), obtained by the gelatin developing-out process, were studied. These photographs (after incubation in temperature: 25 ± 2 °C, relative humidity: 80%, time: 60 days) were contaminated with culturable bacteria at concentrations between 3.33 × 101 and 1.60 × 102 CFU/cm2 and fungi at concentrations between 1.57 × 105 and 9.93 × 105 CFU/cm2. Twenty-two phyla of bacteria and one of Archaea were identified on the photographs. Bacteria belonging to Proteobacteria predominated (relative abundance 75.25–84.94%); followed by Firmicutes (1.04–12.61%) and Actinobacteria. Fungi identified belonged mainly to Ascomycota. The dominant bacteria identified included: Mesorhizobium, Burkholderia, Delftia, Enhydrobacter, Paenibacillus, Saccharopolyspora and Olsenella. The dominant fungi belonged to the genera Aspergillus, Alternaria, Penicillium, Chaetomium, Talaromyces, Fusarium. These predominant microorganisms may be responsible for the biodeterioration of the photographs. Direct laser/desorption ionization mass spectrometry could be useful for the reconstruction of heavily damaged photographs. The LARESI MSI method was used to detect metabolites of microbial origin (organic acids and mycotoxins) on the surface of historic photographs, which are compatible with the analysis of fungal biodiversity. The biggest advantage of presented methods is that the tested photographs were not modified in any way before the tests which can be carried out in situ.

Cytoplasmic dynein is a eukaryotic motor protein complex that, along with its regulatory protein dynactin, is essential to the transport of organelles within cells. The interaction of dynein with dynactin is regulated by binding between the intermediate chain (IC) subunit of dynein and the p150Glued subunit of dynactin. Even though in the rat versions of these proteins this interaction primarily involves the single α-helix region at the N-terminus of the IC, in Drosophila and yeast ICs the removal of a nascent helix (H2) downstream of the single α-helix considerably diminishes IC-p150Glued complex stability. We find that for ICs from various species, there is a correlation between disorder in H2 and its contribution to binding affinity, and that sequence variations in H2 that do not change the level of disorder show similar binding behavior. Analysis of the structure and interactions of the IC from Chaetomium thermophilum demonstrates that the H2 region of C. thermophilum IC has a low helical propensity and establishes that H2 binds directly to the coiled-coil 1B (CC1B) domain of p150Glued, thus explaining why H2 is necessary for tight binding. Isothermal titration calorimetry, circular dichroism, and NMR studies of smaller CC1B constructs localize the region of CC1B most essential for a tight interaction with IC. These results suggest that it is the level of disorder in H2 of IC along with its charge, rather than sequence specificity, that underlie its importance in initiating tight IC-p150Glued complex formation. We speculate that the nascent H2 helix may provide conformational flexibility to initiate binding, whereas those species that have a fully folded H2 have co-opted an alternative mechanism for promoting p150Glued binding.

Arcopilus is a genus recently proposed after the taxonomic restructuring of Chaetomium with only seven described species so far. During the characterization of the microbiome of the Amazonian guarana plant (Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis), nine red pigment-producing strains of fungi were isolated. These strains were identified through morphological characterization and phylogenetic analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), 28S large subunit (LSU), partial second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2) and β-tubulin (TUB2) regions. Moreover, chemical profiles were obtained via high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), in which the isolated strains were able to produce significant amounts of the polyketide oosporein. The obtained results indicate the occurrence of a new fungal species, A. amazonicus. Chemical analyses showed that oosporein is overproduced by these strains under laboratory culture conditions.

Aim. To assess the degree of fungal contamination and the species composition of the fungal microbiota of residential apartments in Kazan Methods. A mycological study of 90 air samples and 60 samples from sites of fungal biodeterioration from the residential buildings of Kazan was carried out using cultural and microscopic methods. Results. The presence of micromycetes fungi were detected in 90% of air samples and 100% of samples from sites of biodeterioration. Higher fungal species diversity was noted in the sites, compared with air samples. Fungal concentrations in indoor air varied between 8 and 360 CFU/m3. Fungal community composition analysis of the sites of biodeterioration showed that the surfaces were more frequently contaminated by undemanding and capable of growth at different moisture levels fungal species (Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., Rhizopus stolonifer). The resulting fungal plaque can create conditions favorable for aggressive fungal species that actively damage materials (Chaetomium spp., Acremonium spp., Aureubasidium spp). Allergenic fungi, as well as potentially pathogenic and toxin-forming species, were widespread in the air that can be a health risk factor. A quantitative assessment of air mycobiota indicated the moderate level of fungal contamination. Conclusion. The presence of potentially pathogenic, allergenic and biodegradable fungal species in the sites of biodeterioration has been confirmed, as well as the relationship between airborne fungal contamination and the spread of fungi in indoors, confirming the need to prevent fungal biodeterioration and control indoor air quality.

The essential process of iron-sulfur (Fe/S) cluster assembly (ISC) in mitochondria occurs in three major phases. First, [2Fe-2S] clusters are synthesized on the scaffold protein ISCU2; second, these clusters are transferred to the monothiol glutaredoxin GLRX5 by an Hsp70 system followed by insertion into [2Fe-2S] apoproteins; third, [4Fe-4S] clusters are formed involving the ISC proteins ISCA1–ISCA2–IBA57 followed by target-specific apoprotein insertion. The third phase is poorly characterized biochemically, because previous in vitro assembly reactions involved artificial reductants and lacked at least one of the in vivo-identified ISC components. Here, we reconstituted the maturation of mitochondrial [4Fe-4S] aconitase without artificial reductants and verified the [2Fe-2S]-containing GLRX5 as cluster donor. The process required all components known from in vivo studies (i.e., ISCA1–ISCA2–IBA57), yet surprisingly also depended on mitochondrial ferredoxin FDX2 and its NADPH-coupled reductase FDXR. Electrons from FDX2 catalyze the reductive [2Fe-2S] cluster fusion on ISCA1–ISCA2 in an IBA57-dependent fashion. This previously unidentified electron transfer was occluded during previous in vivo studies due to the earlier FDX2 requirement for [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis on ISCU2. The FDX2 function is specific, because neither FDX1, a mitochondrial ferredoxin involved in steroid production, nor other cellular reducing systems, supported maturation. In contrast to ISC factor-assisted [4Fe-4S] protein assembly, [2Fe-2S] cluster transfer from GLRX5 to [2Fe-2S] apoproteins occurred spontaneously within seconds, clearly distinguishing the mechanisms of [2Fe-2S] and [4Fe-4S] protein maturation. Our study defines the physiologically relevant mechanistic action of late-acting ISC factors in mitochondrial [4Fe-4S] cluster synthesis, trafficking, and apoprotein insertion.

Mold are multicelular -microscopic fungi known as heterotrophic-cosmopolitan organism which exist almost at any place in the environment. Textiles, particularly those composed of natural organic such as jeans are easily colonized by mold. Till time, there is no report ever found regarding fungal of moldy jeans in Indonesia. This study aimed to isolate fungi from moldy jeans, identified, and described it. The result revealed that the isolate studied was Chaetomium globosum, by using several macroscopic and microscopic characters. However, since Chaetomium are known as species complex fungi, further observation is needed using molecular approach. Therefore, author consider that the isolate should be treated as Ch. globosum sensu lato for time being. Interestingly, Ch. globosum was frequently reported as endophytic fungi, which pose the potency to be used as biocontrol and bioinducer in agriculture. Further research is needed to test the isolate potency as plant pathogenic biocontrol and plant growth inducer.

Box C/D RNA protein complexes (RNPs) catalyze site-specific 2′-O-methylation of RNA with specificity determined by guide RNAs. In eukaryotic C/D RNP, the paralogous Nop58 and Nop56 proteins specifically associate with terminal C/D and internal C'/D' motifs of guide RNAs, respectively. We have reconstituted active C/D RNPs with recombinant proteins of the thermophilic yeast Chaetomium thermophilum. Nop58 and Nop56 could not distinguish between the two C/D motifs in the reconstituted enzyme, suggesting that the assembly specificity is imposed by trans-acting factors in vivo. The two C/D motifs are functionally independent and halfmer C/D RNAs can also guide site-specific methylation. Extensive pairing between C/D RNA and substrate is inhibitory to modification for both yeast and archaeal C/D RNPs. N6-methylated adenine at box D/D' interferes with the function of the coupled guide. Our data show that all C/D RNPs share the same functional organization and mechanism of action and provide insight into the assembly specificity of eukaryotic C/D RNPs.

Nine new epipoly(thiodioxopiperazine) (ETP) analogues, chetocochliodins A-I (1–9), along with two known ones, chetoseminudins E and C (10 and 11), were purified from the fungus Chaetomium cochliode...