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Ecosystem engineers are organisms that influence their environment, which includes alterations leading to habitat provisioning for other species. Perhaps the most well‐examined guild of species provisioning habitat for other species is tree cavity excavators or woodpeckers (Picidae). Many studies have examined the suite of secondary cavity users that rely on woodpeckers, and how the ecological network of secondary users, collectively referred to as the nest web, changes across communities. Despite similar habitat provisioning processes, fewer studies have assessed the suite of species associated with burrowers providing access to subterranean habitat. Here, we begin to characterize the burrow web provisioned by American badgers (Taxidea taxus) and evaluate the diversity and frequency of species interactions we detected at abandoned badger burrows in Wyoming, USA. We deployed camera traps at 23 badger burrows and identified interactions with the burrow by birds, mammals, and reptiles. Overall, we discovered 31 other species utilizing badger burrows, consisting of 12 mammals, 18 birds, and 1 reptile. Mammals, other than American badgers themselves and other fossorial species such as ground squirrels (Urocitellus sp.), frequently using burrows included mice (Peromyscus sp.), long‐tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis), and desert cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii). Of the 18 bird species detected, most accounted for, Little work has assessed the suite of species associated with burrowing animals that provide access to subterranean habitat. Here, we characterize the burrow web provisioned by American badgers (Taxidea taxus), where we detected many birds and mammals interacting with abandoned burrows. Building on these initial observations will aid understandings about burrow webs across the diversity of burrowing species and the communities in which they occur.

Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Badgers (Meles meles), otherwise known as heavy metals, are unique amongst environmental pollutants occurring, both naturally and anthropogenically. PTEs have a broad range of negative health and environmental effects, therefore identifying their sources and pathways through the environment is imperative for public health policy. This is difficult in terrestrial systems due to the compositional nature of soil geochemistry. In this study, a compositional statistical approach was used to identify how PTEs accumulate in a terrestrial carnivorous mammal, Eurasian Badgers (Meles meles). Compositional principal component analysis (PCA) was used on geochemical data from the Tellus survey, the soil baseline and badger tissue data to map geo-spatial patterns of PTEs and show accumulative trends measured in time. Mapping PCs identified distinct regions of PTE presence in soil and PTE accumulation in badger tissues in Northern Ireland. PTEs were most elevated in liver, kidney and then muscle tissues. Liver and kidney showed the most distinct geo-spatial patterns of accumulation and muscle was the most depleted. PC1 and 2 for each type were modelled using generalised additive mixed models (GAMM) to identify trends through time. PC1 for the liver and muscle were associated with rainfall and ∂N15 in the liver, showing a link to diet and a bioaccumulation pathway, whilst PC2 for both tissues was associated with mean temperature, showing a link to seasonal activity and a bioaccessibility pathway. However, in kidney tissue these trends are reversed and PC1 was associated with bioaccessibility and PC2 with bioaccumulation. Combined these techniques can elucidate both geo-spatial trends in PTEs and the mechanisms by which they move in environment and in future may be an effective tool for assessing PTE bioavailability in environmental health surveys.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a costly, epidemiologically complex, multi-host, endemic disease. Lack of understanding of transmission dynamics may undermine eradication efforts. Pathogen whole-genome sequencing improves epidemiological inferences, providing a means to determine the relative importance of inter- and intra-species host transmission for disease persistence. We sequenced an exceptional data set of 619 Mycobacterium bovis isolates from badgers and cattle in a 100 km2 bTB 'hotspot' in Northern Ireland. Historical molecular subtyping data permitted the targeting of an endemic pathogen lineage, whose long-term persistence provided a unique opportunity to study disease transmission dynamics in unparalleled detail. Additionally, to assess whether badger population genetic structure was associated with the spatial distribution of pathogen genetic diversity, we microsatellite genotyped hair samples from 769 badgers trapped in this area. Birth death models and TransPhylo analyses indicated that cattle were likely driving the local epidemic, with transmission from cattle to badgers being more common than badger to cattle. Furthermore, the presence of significant badger population genetic structure in the landscape was not associated with the spatial distribution of M. bovis genetic diversity, suggesting that badger-to-badger transmission is not playing a major role in transmission dynamics. Our data were consistent with badgers playing a smaller role in transmission of M. bovis infection in this study site, compared to cattle. We hypothesize, however, that this minor role may still be important for persistence. Comparison to other areas suggests that M. bovis transmission dynamics are likely to be context dependent, with the role of wildlife being difficult to generalize., Microbial Genomics, 9 (5), ISSN:2057-5858

There are several different infiltration, overland flow routing, and channel routing schemes that can be used in conjunction with recommended hydrodynamic and infiltration parameter values, which are found within the literature, to provide critical flooding assessments for stakeholders and decision makers. We focus on post wildfire debris flow and flood analysis in two tributaries of the Snake River in Idaho, Trapper Creek and Rock Creek. The Badger Fire started on September 12, 2020 in the Sawtooth National Forest in Idaho, USA, and burned sub-alpine fir, lodgepole pine, juniper, mountain brush and grass communities, in the upper part of both the Trapper Creek and Rock Creek watersheds. Trapper Creek has a U.S. Geological Gaging station, and there are two snow gaging sites available. The biggest concern for flooding and debris flow is the result of a wintertime rain-on-snow event, which resulted in the largest storm in the gaging record period. To estimate runoff in ungaged stream locations, existing process-based hydrodynamic models can be applied in a distributed form to solve the governing equations for mass, momentum and energy in a spatially explicit way. The purpose of this study is to predict potentially inundated land areas as a result of a rain-on-snow event, using the data in the gages basin to provide flood analysis information for both the gaged (Trapper Creek) and ungaged watershed (Rock Creek). Rain-on-snow events are rainfall events that occur on the snowpack and frozen ground, resulting in a larger magnitude and volume of streamflow. To predict these flows, Gridded Surface Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis (GSSHA) watershed models are prepared and calibrated to simulate rain-on-snow events in both watersheds. The runoff generated from a two dimensional overland flow grid is transferred over land with a finite volume numerical method into a one dimensional channel network. The channel network also uses a finite volume method. The consistency in the identified range of the parametric values and their physical applicability make GSSHA an ideal candidate for this study, as the model equations provide a methods to evaluate a rain-on-snow event.

Members of the genus Sarcocystis are worldwide distributed protozoan parasites. Sarcocystis infections cause great losses in economically important animals. There is a lack of studies on Sarcocystis in naturally infected wild predators, especially of the family Mustelidae which represent a presumably important group of definitive hosts of these parasites. The objective of the present study was to examine the small intestine samples of various mustelid species from Lithuania serving as a possible source of Sarcocystis spp. using cattle as intermediate hosts. Overall, 84 samples collected from five mustelid species were analyzed. Oocysts/sporocysts of Sarcocystis spp. were detected in 75 animals (89.3%). Using molecular methods four Sarcocystis spp., S. bovifelis, S. cruzi, S. hirsuta and S. hominis were identified, with the first two being the most prevalent. These results indicate that mustelids are involved in the transmission of Sarcocystis spp. using cattle as intermediate hosts. The determined high prevalence of Sarcocystis spp. rates cause concerns about food safety issues. To control the spread of infection, further studies on the way carcasses of cattle or beef waste become accessible to mustelids are needed. There is a lack of research on the role of mustelids in the transmission of various Sarcocystis spp. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that widespread mustelids in Lithuania could be involved in the transmission of Sarcocystis spp. using cattle as intermediate hosts. In 2016-2020, intestinal samples of 84 mustelids were examined. Sarcocystis spp. were identified by species-specific PCR targeting the cox1 gene and subsequent sequencing. Under a light microscope, oocysts/sporocysts of Sarcocystis spp. were observed in 40 samples (47.6%), while using molecular methods, they were detected in 75 animals (89.3%). Four Sarcocystis spp. were identified in the intestinal samples of American mink (Neovison vison), Beech marten (Martes foina), European pine marten (Martes martes), European badger (Meles meles) and European polecat (Mustela putorius). The prevalence of predominant Sarcocystis spp., S. bovifelis (89.3%) and S. cruzi (73.8%) was significantly higher than that of S. hirsuta (3.6%) and S. hominis (1.2%). In an individual sample, most frequently two Sarcocystis spp. were identified (69.0%), then a single species (15.5%) and three species (4.8%). The present study provides strong evidence that mustelids serve as definitive hosts for Sarcocystis spp. using cattle as intermediate hosts.

Industry-led culling of badgers has occurred in England to reduce the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle for a number of years. Badger vaccination is also possible, and a move away from culling was “highly desirable” in a recent report to the UK government. Here we used an established simulation model to examine badger control option in a post-cull environment in England. These options included no control, various intermittent culling, badger vaccination and use of a vaccine combined with fertility control. The initial simulated cull led to a dramatic reduction in the number of infected badgers present, which increased slowly if there was no further badger management. All three approaches led to a further reduction in the number of infected badgers, with little to choose between the strategies. We do note that of the management strategies only vaccination on its own leads to a recovery of the badger population, but also an increase in the number of badgers that need to be vaccinated. We conclude that vaccination post-cull, appears to be particularly effective, compared to vaccination when the host population is at carrying capacity.

As part of a bovine tuberculosis (bTB) control related Test and Vaccinate or Remove (TVR) badger research study in Northern Ireland, a project was launched evaluating whether badgers cross major roads (in this case the A1 dual carriageway linking Belfast/Newry/Dublin). This road formed the western boundary of the TVR study area and it was chosen to discourage badger movements in and out of the area. This was important in order to ensure that the badger study population was as stable as possible and also to get a better understanding of the risk of any spill over of bTB infection from the study area to the buffer area. Five badgers trapped close to the A1 were fitted with a Global Positioning System (GPS) collar in October 2017, which were set to record the badger location every 20 min between 19.20 and 03.00 h during a maximum of 84 days. Based on 4313 location points recorded, only 2 (0.05%) location points were located on the western side of the A1. Although this was a small sample, it can be concluded that generally badgers avoid crossing dual carriageways which is supported by evidence from other studies. This finding is important for informing on development of future badger intervention areas where major roads could be considered as strong borders. Furthermore, it adds to the body of knowledge in trying to understand drivers and barriers for badger dispersal behaviour.

The genus Pearsonema, in the nematode family Capillariidae, includes several species that parasitize the urinary bladders of wild and domestic carnivores. The infection has been reported worldwide from several wildlife species, including canids, mustelids, and felids, but the pathological aspects have seldom been investigated. In order to assess the presence and severity of the lesions in Pearsonema-infected wildlife, we performed a parasitological and pathological examination of urinary bladders from 72 animals, belonging to the families Canidae (red fox Vulpes vulpes, n = 28, and wolf Canis lupus, n = 29) and Mustelidae (beech marten Martes foina, n = 3, pine marten Martes martes, n = 2, and European badger Meles meles, n = 10). A greater prevalence of infection for canids (64.91%, 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 52.52–77.30%) than for mustelids (13.33%) (p &lt, 0.001) was recorded. The prevalence of infection in red foxes was 75.0% (95% CI, 58.96–91.04%), in accordance with other reports from European countries, supporting the role of this species as a reservoir for infection. Eosinophilic cystitis was observed in 34 out of the 72 examined animals (47.22%). The influence of Pearsonema sp. infection on the occurrence of eosinophilic cystitis was statistically significant in wolves (p &lt, 0.01), which were also affected by more severe histological lesions compared to foxes.

Antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria can be shared between humans and animals, through food, water, and the environment. Wild animals are not only potential reservoirs of AMR, but are also sentinels mirroring the presence of AMR zoonotic bacteria in the environment. In Northern Ireland, little is known about levels of AMR in bacteria in wildlife, thus the current study aimed to estimate the prevalence of AMR bacteria in wildlife using wildlife species from two ongoing surveys as a proxy. Nasopharyngeal swabs and faecal samples from European badgers (Meles meles) (146 faecal samples; 118 nasal samples) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (321 faecal samples; 279 nasal samples) were collected throughout Northern Ireland and were used to survey for the presence of extended spectrum beta lactamase resistant and AmpC-type beta lactamases Escherichia coli (ESBL/AmpC), Salmonella spp. (only in badgers) and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). ESBLs were detected in 13 out of 146 badger faecal samples (8.90%) and 37 out of 321 of fox faecal samples (11.53%), all of them presenting multi-drug resistance (MDR). Fourteen out of 146 (9.59%) badger faecal samples carried Salmonella spp. [S. Agama (n = 9), S. Newport (n = 4) and S. enterica subsp. arizonae (n = 1)]. Overall, AMR was found only in the S. enterica subsp. arizonae isolate (1/14, 7.14%). No MRSA were detected in nasopharyngeal swabs from badgers (n = 118) and foxes (n = 279). This is the first attempt to explore the prevalence of AMR in the two common wildlife species in Northern Ireland. These findings are important as they can be used as a base line for further research exploring the origin of the found resistance. These results should encourage similar surveys where environmental samples are included to bring better understanding of AMR dynamics, and the impact on wildlife, domestic livestock and humans.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions are a major cause of mortality in animal populations and can cause significant population-level effects. Urban areas are typically associated with higher road densities and unique wildlife communities in comparison to rural areas, and therefore have the potential to be associated with high numbers of collisions, and roadkill risk. Here, we use a citizen science database of wildlife roadkill and species distribution models to assess how roadkill risk (probability of roadkill observation per km2) varied along an urban–rural gradient for British wildlife. Roadkill risk was positively associated with road density, until around 5000 m/km2, a value representing villages or the outskirts of towns and cities. Beyond 5000 m/km2, risk remained high for some species (hedgehog, fox, pigeons and gulls) but reduced for other species (badger, rabbit, pheasant). Roadkill risk was a function of live species distribution for badger, hedgehog and rabbit, with significant overlap between spatial patterns of roadkill risk and the species’ live distribution. This was not the case for fox, pheasant, pigeons and gulls. Fox roadkill risk was underrepresented in rural areas, possibly due to low road density, while pheasant risk was overrepresented. For pigeons and gulls—well-known urban exploiters—roadkill risk was overrepresented in urban areas given their live distributions, possibly due to risks associated with foraging, particularly roadkill scavenging by gulls. Our results highlight the dangers of the UK’s dense road networks to wildlife, even to species considered adapted to urban environments and human disturbance.

The methods used to assess the significance of land cover in the vicinity of a road for the mortality of mesopredators are diverse. In assessing the effect of land cover along the road on road causalities, scientists use various buffer sizes, or even no buffer along the road. The aim of this study was to verify how results of land cover effects on the mortality of mesopredators on roads may differ when analyzing various buffer sizes from the road. We assessed road causalities in the Warmian-Masurian voivodeship (Poland) from 3 consecutive years: 2015, 2016, and 2017. The roads were divided into equal sections of 2000 m each with buffer size of radius: 10, 250, 500, and 1000 m. We analyzed the number of road kills of red fox and European badger separately in a generalized linear model, whereas explanatory variables we used land cover types (based on the Corine Land Cover inventory) and traffic volume. Mean annual mortality from road collisions amounts to 2.36% of the red fox population and 3.82% of the European badger population. We found that the buffer size determines the results of the impact of land cover on mesocarnivore mortality on roads. The red fox differed from the European badger in response to land cover depending on the buffer size. The differences we have shown relate in particular to built-up areas. Our results indicate a 500-m buffer as best reflecting the land cover effects in road kills of both species. This was confirmed by model evaluation and a tendency to use or avoid the vicinity of human settlements of the analyzed species. We concluded that buffer size will probably affect mostly the significance of cover types that are spatially correlated with roads, positively or negatively. We suggest that the home range size of given species in local conditions should be assessed before determining the size of the buffer for analysis.

The habitat selection of wild animals residing in suburban area reflects their behavioral adaptation strategies to urbanization and socio-economic development, affecting individual’s fitness and population development. Despite declining population of Asian badgers (Meles leucurus) in China, there are increasing cases in human badger conflict with only few studies examining their potential causes and impacts. In this study we compared and analyzed 19 ecological parameters from 212 blank available plots and 45 active plots conducted through transect survey in the surrounding mountainous area of Beijing. Additionally, we assessed summer habitat selection and use patterns of Asian badgers and the interactions with human activities. In summer, active plots of badgers were in higher elevation (867.86 ± 49.49 m a.s.l.) compared with the available plots, and lower ground-plants coverage (42.00 ± 5.00%). To ensure the high food availability in hot summer, badgers preferred gentle upper slope with moist soil and good lee condition (p 1500 m) from the community and road avoiding the anthropogenic disturbances. Further, our study showed that they tended to select habitats close to cropland (< 500 m; p = 0.053) in the higher elevation of the mountainous area. The habitat selection of badgers around Beijing is a comprehensive tradeoff of their ecological needs in summer, including food availability, security, hydrothermal suitability. Therefore, changing the interference and type of human activities in low-altitude and protecting forest edges in high-altitude are conducive to mitigate human badger conflicts and thus maintain the biodiversity conservation.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an important animal health and economic problem for the cattle industry and a potential zoonotic threat. Wild badgers (Meles meles) play a role on its epidemiology in some areas of high prevalence in cattle, particularly in the UK and Republic of Ireland and increasingly in parts of mainland Europe. However, little is known about the involvement of badgers in areas on the spatial edge of the cattle epidemic, where increasing prevalence in cattle is seen. Here we report the findings of a study of found-dead (mainly road-killed) badgers in six counties on the edge of the English epidemic of bTB in cattle. The overall prevalence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) infection detected in the study area was 51/610 (8.3%, 95% CI 6.4–11%) with the county-level prevalence ranging from 15 to 4–5%. The MTC spoligotypes of recovered from badgers and cattle varied: in the northern part of the study area spoligotype SB0129 predominated in both cattle and badgers, but elsewhere there was a much wider range of spoligotypes found in badgers than in cattle, in which infection was mostly with the regional cattle spoligotype. The low prevalence of MTC in badgers in much of the study area, and, relative to in cattle, the lower density of sampling, make firm conclusions difficult to draw. However, with the exception of Cheshire (north-west of the study area), little evidence was found to link the expansion of the bTB epidemic in cattle in England to widespread badger infection.

The European Badger (Meles meles) is typically described as a nocturnal animal, which only comes out from the sett after dusk. Emergence prior to sunset maynonetheless occur during the period when the nights are shorter. During this period, thetime of emergence is often said to be correlated with the sunset.As a result of personal observations, which contradicted this description, I stu-died the time of sett emergence of badgers in the French region of Lorraine. Five diffe-rent badger clans were selected for monitoring using wildlife camera traps.This study shows that the time of emergence from the sett remained basicallystable throughout the year, even if there may be slight variations between the differentclans. No correlation with the sunset was found. Moreover, in spring and summer, settemergence before sunset was very frequent. Between the start of May and the end ofJuly, more than 80% of emergences occurred before dusk, becoming virtually always thecase in June. During this time, in over half of the cases recorded, sett emergence occur-red more than 30 minutes before sunset. In some clans, sett emergence was regularlyobserved to occur more than one hour before sunset.These results differ from those of most other studies on the subject; studieswhich are few in number and are not recent. This difference in results could be partlyexplained as being due to the non-invasive study method used, which involved an absen-ce of stress for the badgers when compared with other studies which involved the captu-ring of badgers in order to fit tracking collars, or the keeping of badgers in captivity.Above all, the results could be due to the absence of human persecution for at least 10-15years over a large part of the Lorraine region. The badgers are therefore less « fearful »and no longer wait for the « security » of darkness in order to come out from their setts., Les Blaireaux européens (Meles meles) sont généralement décrits comme desanimaux nocturnes qui ne sortent de leurs terriers qu’à la nuit tombée ; des sorties avantle coucher du soleil pouvant éventuellement avoir lieu en été lorsque les nuits sont cour-tes. À cette période, l’heure d’émergence est alors souvent décrite comme corrélée aucoucher du soleil.Partant de constatations personnelles contradictoires avec cette description, j’aiétudié l’heure d’émergence des blaireaux en Lorraine en réalisant un suivi de 5 clans deblaireaux par « caméra-pièges ». Cette étude montre que l’heure d’émergence du terrier est globalement stableau cours de l’année, même si elle peut être différente entre les clans. Aucune corrélationavec le coucher du soleil n’est trouvée. De plus, au printemps et en été, une émergencedes blaireaux avant le coucher du soleil est très fréquente. De début mai à fin juillet, plusde 80 % des sorties se font avant le crépuscule, et le sont quasiment toujours en juin.Àcette période, celle-ci intervient plus de 30 minutes avant le coucher du soleil dansplus de la moitié des cas. Dans certains clans, l’heure d’émergence a même lieu réguliè-rement plus d’une heure avant le coucher du soleil.Ces résultats diffèrent donc de la plupart des études, somme toute assez peunombreuses et assez anciennes, ayant traité le sujet. J’explique cela en partie par laméthode d’étude non-invasive qui n’entraîne pas de stress chez les blaireaux par rapportà des blaireaux capturés pour être équipés de colliers-émetteurs ou maintenus en capti-vité, mais surtout par l’absence de persécutions d’origine humaine depuis au moins 10-15 ans sur notre zone d’étude. Les blaireaux sont alors moins « craintifs » et n’attendentdonc plus la « sécurité » de la nuit pour sortir de leurs terriers.

Game animals are wildlife species often traded and consumed as exotic food, and are potential reservoirs for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. We performed a meta-transcriptomic analysis of 1725 game animals, representing 16 species and five mammalian orders, sampled across China. From this we identified 71 mammalian viruses, with 45 described for the first time. Eighteen viruses were considered as potentially high risk to humans and domestic animals. Civets (Paguma larvata) carried the highest number of potentially high risk viruses. We identified the transmission of Bat coronavirus HKU8 from a bat to a civet, as well as cross-species jumps of coronaviruses from bats to hedgehogs and from birds to porcupines. We similarly identified avian Influenza A virus H9N2 in civets and Asian badgers, with the latter displaying respiratory symptoms, as well as cases of likely human-to-wildlife virus transmission. These data highlight the importance of game animals as potential drivers of disease emergence.Highlights1725 game animals from five mammalian orders were surveyed for viruses71 mammalian viruses were discovered, 18 with a potential risk to humansCivets harbored the highest number of potential ‘high risk’ virusesA species jump of an alphacoronavirus from bats to a civet was identifiedH9N2 influenza virus was detected in a civet and an Asian badgerHumans viruses were also identified in game animals

The role of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) as a wildlife host has complicated the management of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle. Badger ranging behaviour has previously been found to be altered by culling of badgers and has been suggested to increase the transmission of bTB either among badgers or between badgers and cattle. In 2014, a five-year bTB intervention research project in a 100 km2area in Northern Ireland was initiated involving selective removal of dual path platform (DPP) VetTB (immunoassay) test positive badgers and vaccination followed by release of DPP test negative badgers (‘Test and Vaccinate or Remove’). Home range sizes, based on position data obtained from global positioning system collared badgers, were compared between the first year of the project, where no DPP test positive badgers were removed, and follow-up years 2–4 when DPP test positive badgers were removed. A total of 105 individual badgers were followed over 21 200 collar tracking nights. Using multivariable analyses, neither annual nor monthly home ranges differed significantly in size between years, suggesting they were not significantly altered by the bTB intervention that was applied in the study area.

Capsule: Analyses of survey data reveal no clear effects of the removal of European Badger Meles meles, a top predator in Great Britain, on bird populations.\ud \ud Aims: To investigate the effects of licensed Badger culling on bird populations in southwest England using ongoing monitoring data.\ud \ud Methods: Breeding Bird Survey data were used to compare population growth rates inside and outside Badger cull areas in southwest England over a five-year cull period (2013–2017), following a five-year baseline period (2008–2012). Comparative analyses of population growth rates of ground-nesters and of other species were tested for potential influences of Badger predation. We also compared species richness and diversity before and during culling, in treatment and control areas.\ud \ud Results: Most results were non-significant (48 of 58 species) but, where population growth rates were different (P

We surveyed occurrence and activity of large and medium-sized mammals on three experimental short-rotation coppice (SRC) and three afforestations by camera trapping. Both habitat types were surveyed simultaneously in spring. Additional wintertime surveys were performed on the SRC to consider seasonal aspects of habitat utilisation. In spring, SRC and afforestations were predominantly used by the same species. European hare (Lepus europaeus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) were the most active species across all sites. Additionally, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) showed intense activity on one SRC site. Activity of carnivorous and omnivorous species was comparatively low in both habitat types, but even lower on the SRC. The only forest-associated species (European badgerMeles meles), detected on all afforestations, was absent from the SRC. In winter, the surveyed SRC were used by the same species as in spring. Most species showed similar activity on the SRC in both seasons. We conclude that small-scale and structurally diverse SRC provide suitable habitat, in different seasons, especially for herbivorous mammals associated with farmland and forest-ecotones rather than forest species. The extent to which our results can be generalised to large-scale commercial SRC is unclear. However, the results indicate that SRC can be managed in a manner compatible with wildlife and may then have a habitat function for mammals comparable to that of young afforestations. Creation of within-plantation heterogeneity can be a suitable measure to improve habitat quality and should, therefore, be considered in the design and management of SRC.

Coat coloration plays an important role in communication, camouflage, and sexual selection in animals. Genetic mutations can lead to anomalous colorations such as melanism and leucism, where animals appear, respectively, darker or lighter than normal. Reporting abnormal coloration in wild animals is an important first step to understand the distribution, prevalence, and potential fitness consequences of these rare events. Here, we report several records of suspected leucism in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) in a population in central Norway. Several camera traps recorded at least two leucistic individuals between 2017 and 2020. It took considerable effort, almost 400,000 camera trap nights over a period of 10 years all over Norway, to obtain a total of eleven records of leucistic badgers, indicating the rarity of this phenotype. It is unclear what has caused the presence of multiple leucistic badgers in a single population, but recent colonization and lack of predators might have played a role. Due to our observations, future studies can now be developed to study the underlying mechanisms and potential consequences of leucism in this badger population. The increasing use of networks of camera traps in wildlife research will provide new opportunities to record rare coloration in wild animals.

Animals living at high population densities commonly experience greater exposure to disease, leading to increased parasite burdens. However, social animals can benefit immunologically and hygienically from cooperation, and individuals may alter their socio-spatial behaviour in response to infection, both of which could counteract density-related increases in exposure. Consequently, the costs and benefits of sociality for disease are often uncertain. Here, we use a long-term study of a wild European badger population ( Meles meles ) to investigate how within-population variation in host density determines infection with multiple parasites. Four out of five parasite taxa exhibited consistent spatial hotspots of infection, which peaked among badgers living in areas of low local population density. Combined movement, survival, spatial and social network analyses revealed that parasite avoidance was the likely cause of this negative density dependence, with possible roles for localized mortality, encounter-dilution effects, and micronutrient-enhanced immunity. These findings demonstrate that animals can organize their societies in space to minimize parasite infection, with important implications for badger behavioural ecology and for the control of badger-associated diseases.

Babesia species (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmorida) are tick-borne protozoan hemoparasites, which pose a significant threat to domestic animals, wildlife and humans. This study aimed to determine and characterize Babesia species in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), Asian badgers (Meles leucurus) and their ticks. Blood, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, large intestine and small intestine were collected from 19 wild carnivores (12 red foxes and 7 Asian badgers). All ticks were removed from these animals and identified according to morphological and molecular characteristics. The samples were tested for the presence of Babesia species using the 18S rRNA gene. Molecular analyses showed that the DNA of Babesia vogeli and Babesia vulpes was present in red fox organs/tissues and blood samples. A total of 54 hard ticks (38 Ixodes canisuga, 6 Haemaphysalis erinacei, 9 Ixodes kaiseri and 1 Dermacentor marginatus) were collected from red foxes and 12 (I. kaiseri) from Asian badgers. All ticks were adults. Among them, one I. kaiseri parasiting a red fox contained the DNA of B. vulpes while one I. canisuga was positive for Babesia sp. belonging to the clade "Babesia sensu stricto". Molecular and phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of a novel genotype, Babesia sp. "badger China". Babesia sp. badger type A and type B from Asian badgers were different from those in European badgers. Co-infection with three Babesia genotypes was found in one Asian badger. This study provides the first data on Babesia infection in red foxes, Asian badgers and their ticks in China. Babesia vogeli was detected for the first time in red foxes in Asia. Co-infection and genetic diversity of Babesia genotypes in Asian badgers were also demonstrated.

Due to their unique reproductive physiology and behaviour, European badgers (Meles meles) are often used as a model to study mammalian reproduction. For reproductive endocrinology, circulating hormone levels are conventionally measured directly from blood samples. However, routine blood sampling is often not practical for wild animals and may induce stress affecting measurement accuracy. Non-invasive alternatives are thus of interest. Circulating hormones are metabolized through different routes, either by the kidneys, to be excreted through urine, or by the liver, to be excreted through faeces. These metabolites can thus be used as a proxy of hormone measurements, provided the species-specific metabolic characteristics are known. Here we tested the suitability of measuring urinary metabolites of circulating plasma sex-steroid hormones (testosterone in males and oestrogen in females) with enzyme immunoassays to assess the reproductive status of the European badger (Meles meles). Biological validation evidenced that urinary testosterone metabolite (UTM) and urinary total oestrogen metabolite (UEM) excretion patterns both corresponded with seasonal badger reproductive patterns on a population level, signaling correlation over a broad time frame. On an individual level, concurrent sampling of urine and plasma showed that male plasma testosterone and UTM levels correlated significantly across seasons, but no short term correlation was evident for total oestrogen and UEM in females. Thus, in badgers, urinary sex-steroid metabolites can be used reliably in the short term to assess male reproductive status at the individual level, but only at the broader population level for females.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an economically important disease affecting the cattle industry in England and Wales. bTB, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, also causes disease in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles), a secondary maintenance host. Disease transmission between these two species is bidirectional. Infected badgers shed M. bovis in their feces. The Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) of the United Kingdom organized a comparative trial to determine the performance of tests in detecting M. bovis in badger feces for the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)., Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an economically important disease affecting the cattle industry in England and Wales. bTB, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, also causes disease in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles), a secondary maintenance host. Disease transmission between these two species is bidirectional. Infected badgers shed M. bovis in their feces. The Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) of the United Kingdom organized a comparative trial to determine the performance of tests in detecting M. bovis in badger feces for the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Here, we assessed the performance of the existing Warwick Fast24-qPCR test and its modified version based on a high-throughput DNA extraction method (Fast96-qPCR). We found Fast24-qPCR to have a sensitivity of 96.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 94.5 to 99%; n = 244) and a specificity of 99% (95% CI, 97.8 to 100%; n = 292). Fast96-qPCR requires further optimization. Determining the disease status of badger social groups requires multiple tests per group. Therefore, to increase specificity further, we independently repeated the Fast24-qPCR test on positive samples, increasing stringency by requiring a second positive result. Fast24-qPCR with repeat testing had a sensitivity of 87.3% (95% CI, 83.1 to 91.5%; n = 244), and a specificity of 100% (95% CI, 100 to 100; n = 201) on an individual-sample level. At the social-group level, this repeat testing gives Fast24-qPCR high herd specificity, while testing multiple samples per group provides high herd sensitivity. With Fast24-qPCR, we provide a social-group-level test with sufficient specificity and sensitivity to monitor shedding in badgers via latrine sampling, delivering a potentially valuable tool to measure the impacts of bTB control measures.

Despite advances in herd management, tuberculosis (TB) continues to affect ~0. 5% of Ireland's national cattle herd annually. It is clear that any “final” eradication of TB in cattle will need to address all TB maintenance hosts in the same environment. In Ireland and the UK, European Badgers (Meles meles) are a known TB maintenance host, while deer are recognised as spillover hosts. However, deer have been identified as maintenance hosts in other countries and Sika deer, specifically, have been identified with TB in Ireland. We examined the power of cattle, badger and Sika deer densities (at the county level) to predict cattle TB-breakdowns in Ireland, at both the herd and the individual level, using data collected between 2000 and 2018. Our hypothesis was that any positive correlations between deer density and cattle TB-breakdowns would implicate deer as TB maintenance hosts. Using linear multiple regressions, we found positive correlations between deer density and cattle TB-breakdowns at both the herd and individual levels. Since Sika deer in County Wicklow are known to have TB, we ran further regressions against subsets of data which excluded individual Irish counties. Analyses excluding Wicklow data showed much weaker correlations between Sika deer density and cattle TB-breakdowns at both the herd and individual levels, suggesting that these correlations are strongest in County Wicklow. A similar effect for badger density was seen in County Leitrim. While locally high densities of Sika deer persist in Irish counties, we believe they should be considered an integral part of any TB-control programme for those areas.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a widespread disease that crosses the human and animal health boundaries, with infection being reported in wildlife, from temperate and subtropical to arctic regions. Often, TB in wild species is closely associated with disease occurrence in livestock but the TB burden in wildlife remains poorly quantified on a global level. Through meta-regression and systematic review, this study aimed to summarize global information on TB prevalence in commonly infected wildlife species and to draw a global picture of the scientific knowledge accumulated in wildlife TB. For these purposes, a literature search was conducted through the Web of Science and Google Scholar. The 223 articles retrieved, concerning a 39-year period, were submitted to bibliometric analysis and 54 publications regarding three wildlife hosts fulfilled the criteria for meta-regression. Using a random-effects model, the worldwide pooled TB prevalence in wild boar is higher than for any other species and estimated as 21.98%, peaking in Spain (31.68%), Italy (23.84%) and Hungary (18.12%). The pooled prevalence of TB in red deer is estimated at 13.71%, with Austria (31.58%), Portugal (27.75%), New Zealand (19.26%) and Spain (12.08%) positioning on the top, while for European badger it was computed 11.75%, peaking in the UK (16.43%) and Ireland (22.87%). Despite these hard numbers, a declining trend in wildlife TB prevalence is apparent over the last decades. The overall heterogeneity calculated by multivariable regression ranged from 28.61% (wild boar) to 60.92% (red deer), indicating that other unexplored moderators could explain disease burden. The systematic review shows that the most prolific countries contributing to knowledge related with wildlife TB are settled in Europe and Mycobacterium bovis is the most reported pathogen (89.5%). This study provides insight into the global epidemiology of wildlife TB, ascertaining research gaps that need to be explored and informing how should surveillance be refined.

Population viability and metapopulation dynamics are strongly affected by gene flow. Identifying ecological correlates of genetic structure and gene flow in wild populations is therefore a major issue both in evolutionary ecology and species management. Studying the genetic structure of populations also enables identification of the spatial scale at which most gene flow occurs, hence the scale of the functional connectivity, which is of paramount importance for species ecology. In this study, we examined the genetic structure of a social, continuously distributed mammal, the European badger (Meles meles), both at large spatial scales (among populations) and fine (within populations) spatial scales. The study was carried out in 11 sites across France utilizing a noninvasive hair trapping protocol at 206 monitored setts. We identified 264 badgers genotyped at 24 microsatellite DNA loci. At the large scale, we observed high and significant genetic differentiation among populations (global Fst = 0.139; range of pairwise Fst [0.046–0.231]) that was not related to the geographic distance among sites, suggesting few large-scale dispersal events. Within populations, we detected a threshold value below which badgers were genetically close (< 400 m), highlighting that sociality is the major structuring process within badger populations at the fine scale.

Evropski jazbec (Meles meles) je predstavnik družine kun, njegova značilnost pa je kopanje podzemnih rovov, imenovanih jazbine, ki jih uporablja za dnevni počitek, parjenje in zavetje. V raziskavi smo od februarja do julija leta 2017 z avtomatskimi kamerami spremljali pet aktivnih jazbin v lovišču Jošt - Kranj. Za analize smo uporabili tudi že obstoječe podatke, pridobljene z avtomatskimi kamerami v lovišču s posebnim namenom Ljubljanski vrh. Poleg tega smo z avtomatskimi merilniki temperature na petih neaktivnih jazbinah v lovišču Jošt - Kranj pridobivali podatke o temperaturah v zimskem in poletnem obdobju leta 2017. Analizirali smo jazbečevo uporabo jazbin, parjenje, cirkadiano aktivnost in markiranje. Ugotavljali smo tudi, katere druge živalske vrste še uporabljajo jazbine. Poleg tega smo ugotavljali, kako spreminjanje zunanje temperature vpliva na temperaturo v jazbini in vpliv velikosti vhoda jazbine na temperaturo v jazbini. Skupaj smo v vseh mesecih spremljanja zabeležili 1473 dogodkov obiska jazbecev. Ugotovili smo, da so jazbeci največ markirali januarja in februarja, kar sovpada z obdobjem parjenja. Največjo aktivnost jazbecev smo zaznali v prvi polovici noči, jazbine pa so jazbeci vsakodnevno uporabljali predvsem za dnevni počitek. Temperatura je bila v jazbinah bistveno konstantnejša kot zunanja. Velikost vhoda jazbine je pomembno vplivala na nihanje temperatur v jazbini na 0,5 metra globine, na 1,5 metra globine pa je bil vpliv velikosti vhoda manjši. Ugotovili smo, da so jazbine poleg jazbeca uporabljale tudi druge živalske vrste. Jazbeci so ekološki inženirji, ki spreminjajo naravno okolje s kopanjem jazbin ter s tem ustvarjajo pogoje za življenje mnogih rastlinskih in živalskih vrst. Veliko ekoloških značilnosti jazbeca in njegovega pomena kot ekološkega inženirja ostaja še neraziskanega. The European badger (Meles meles) is a representative of the mustelid family. Its characteristic is the digging of underground tunnels called setts, which are used for daily rest, mating and shelter. In our research, conducted from February to July, 2017, we monitored five active badger's setts with automatic cameras in the area of Jošt - Kranj hunting ground. For the analyzes, we also used already existing data obtained with automatic cameras in the Special purpose hunting ground Ljubljanski vrh. In addition, we measured temperatures in the winter and summer periods of 2017 with automatic temperature loggers on five inactive badger setts in Jošt - Kranj hunting ground. We analyzed the use of setts by badgers, their mating behavior, circadian activity, and marking behavior. We also recorded the use of setts by other species. Furthermore, we determined how changes in outdoor temperatures affect the temperatures inside the setts, and the influence of the size of the sett entrances on these temperatures. In total, we recorded 1473 badger visits. Marking behavior was most frequent in January and February, coinciding with the mating season. The highest activity of badgers was detected in the first half of the night, and the setts were used every day, mainly for daily rest. The temperatures in the setts were significantly more constant than the outside temperatures, and the size of the sett entrances had a significant effect on the temperature fluctuations in the sett at a depth of 0.5 meters, but less at a depth of 1.5 meters. We found that the setts were also used by other species in addition to the badger. Badgers are ecological engineers who change the natural environment by digging burrows. This creates better and more constant living conditions for many plant and animal species. Many of the ecological characteristics of the badger and its importance as an ecological engineer still remain unexplored.

Reactivation of latent Gammaherpesvirus in the genital tract can lead to reproductive failure in domestic animals. Nevertheless, this pathophysiology has not received formal study in wild mammals. High prevalence of Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) DNA detected in the genital tracts of European badgers (Meles meles) implies that this common pathogen may be a sexual transmitted infection. Here we used PCR to test MusGHV-1 DNA prevalence in genital swabs collected from 144 wild badgers in Ireland (71 males, 73 females) to investigate impacts on male fertility indicators (sperm abundance and testes weight) and female fecundity (current reproductive output). MusGHV-1 reactivation had a negative effect on female reproduction, but not on male fertility; however males had a higher risk of MusGHV-1 reactivation than females, especially during the late-winter mating season, and genital MusGHV-1 reactivation differed between age classes, where 3–5 year old adults had significantly lower reactivation rates than younger or older ones. Negative results in foetal tissues from MusGHV-1 positive mothers indicated that cross-placental transmission was unlikely. This study has broader implications for how wide-spread gammaherpesvirus infections could affect reproductive performance in wild Carnivora species.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions are one of the main causes of mortality for wild mammals and birds in the UK. Here, using a dataset of 54,000+ records collated by a citizen science roadkill recording scheme between 2014–2019, we analyse and present temporal patterns of wildlife roadkill of the 19 most commonly reported taxa in the UK (84% of all reported roadkill). Most taxa (13 out of 19) showed significant and consistent seasonal variations in road mortality and fitted one of two seasonal patterns; bimodal or unimodal: only three species (red foxVulpes vulpes, European polecatMustela putoriusand Reeves’ muntjac deerMuntiacus reevesi) showed no significant seasonality. Species that increase movement in spring and autumn potentially have bimodal patterns in roadkill due to the increase in mate-searching and juvenile dispersal during these respective time periods (e.g. European badgerMeles meles). Unimodal patterns likely represent increased mortality due to a single short pulse in activity associated with breeding (e.g. birds) or foraging (e.g. grey squirrelsSciurus carolinensisin autumn). Importantly, these patterns also indicate periods of increased risk for drivers, potentially posing a greater threat to human welfare. In addition to behaviour-driven annual patterns, abiotic factors (temperature and rainfall) explained some variance in roadkill. Notably, high rainfall was associated with decreased observations of two bird taxa (gulls and Eurasian magpiesPica pica) and European rabbitOryctolagus cuniculus. By quantifying seasonal patterns in roadkill, we highlight a significant anthropogenic impact on wild species, which is important in relation to conservation, animal welfare, and human safety.

We write to you today concerning your upcoming decision of whether or not to issue new licences for the killing of badgers in 2020. We note that your government responded to the Godfray review in March 2020 by stating that it would ‘phase out’ intensive culling of badgers and instead move to badger vaccination. However, in spite of these promises, on 15th May 2020 the government published supplementary badger control licences for all seven cull zones which had completed four years of culling under their original licences in 2019 (areas 4–10 inclusive). Indications suggest that your government intends to initiate a huge expansion of killing by issuing as many as 11 new licences this Autumn. For 2020 this would bring the total number of cull zones to 54, covering an area of approximately 28,000 km2, with in excess of 65,000 badgers being targeted. There are a number of factors which call the current strategy into question: 1. Badger killing is ineffective. Downs and others1 used mathematical modelling to claim that, up until September 2017, the bovine tuberculosis (bTB) situation in cattle in their studied areas of the Gloucestershire pilot cull zone had improved after four years of culling – and this was much trumpeted as a success story by ministers. However, analysis of subsequent data released by …