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This paper presents the findings of a research study which investigated the digital preservation practices among two faculty user groups, archeologists and art historians. This faculty's knowledge of digital preservation practices and their perceptions and emotions concerning the digital images they had created and, or collected to support their professional activities were examined. What was discovered is a worrisome situation where an important part of our cultural record is at serious risk of being lost. (Contains 1 table and 3 images.)

Our landscape has been shaped by humans over millennia. It still contains many clues to how it was used in the past, giving us insights into ancient cultures and their everyday life. Our summer school uses archaeology and astronomy as a focus for effective out-of-classroom learning experiences. It demonstrates how a field trip can be used to its full potential by utilising ancient monuments as outdoor classrooms. This article shows how such a summer school can be embedded into the secondary curriculum. We provide advice, example activities and locations to visit, and outline the impact this work has had. (Contains 10 figures, 1 table, 4 boxes, and 2 online resources.)

This article explores the epistemological innocence of the field of history of education. The author's interrogation of the field's regime of truth and its effects intends to enact what he is conceptualizing as a "self-reflexive historiography," a historiography that attends to the ways in which the field has constituted and turned historians of education into subjects. Here, the author draws on Foucault's doubled use and meaning of the term "subject": "subject to someone else by control and dependence, and tied to his ["sic"] own identity by a conscience or self-knowledge. Both meanings suggest a form of power that subjugates and makes subject to." This article enacts a self-reflexive historiography by examining both the author's process of becoming a historian of education as well as the academic conditions and scholarship that have constituted and shaped his subject formation. The article is divided into three main sections and a conclusion. First, it examines the ways in which Foucault and poststructuralism have been engaged in the discipline of history and in the field of history of education. Second, it telescopes specifically to the field of history of education by investigating the interpretive and methodological techniques of Foucault that have been adopted and extended by education historians. Third, in the author's use of Foucault's theory of history as a junior faculty member, it outlines how Foucault's analytics of archaeology, genealogy, and technique of the self are used in his book project on empire and education. Throughout the article, he highlights the conditions of resistance to and possibility of Foucaultian and poststructuralist theories in history of education to raise questions about the field's regime of truth, its logics, operations, and effects. (Contains 52 footnotes.)

In this article, the author shares his experiences in his undergraduate years and how he was influenced by his professors regarding human history. The author believes that social change very often arose from encounters with strangers who possessed some obviously superior skill or knowledge that locals could borrow and adjust to their own use. His college years contributed lasting assumptions he used when working out all his subsequent notions about human history.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Anglican clergymen in England contributed significantly to the development of archaeology and local history as, first, subjects for polite study, but secondly as academic disciplines at the heart of the university extension and extra-mural movements. Initially working as lone antiquarian scholars, clergymen formed networks amongst themselves and the gentry, dominated the emerging national and county societies, and moved into university work in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the establishment of formal courses for adults. With their broad Oxbridge education and ready-made audiences, clergymen disseminated "safe" secular knowledge via the tutorial class. But this contribution had diminished by the mid-twentieth century, by which time the education of the clergy had become more narrowly focused upon vocation, and as new academic posts facilitated the establishment of mainstream university Departments of Archaeology and Local History. This paper explores the contribution of the Anglican clergy to the education of adults in the period c.1750-1960 and suggests reasons for its initial strength and eventual decline. (Contains 56 footnotes.)

Strategies of "employability" and "activation" are increasingly favoured in the European Union policy context. These strategies are aimed at fostering inclusion by stressing the responsibility of the individual to participate in education and employment. Similar tendencies can be observed in the United Kingdom (UK) over the last decade, among them a debate on raising young people's aspirations. The article reports first findings from a research project on the construction of "aspiration" in and through policy debates in the United Kingdom. Drawing on Michel Foucault's concepts of Archaeology and Genealogy, policy documents were analysed for the discursive strategies they employ. The analysis suggests that the debate on "aspiration" constructs young people from disadvantaged backgrounds as deficient, conflates economic and social equality discourses and individualises structural problems. These discursive strategies mirror tendencies that can be observed in strategies of activation and employability in the United Kingdom and the European Union. Focusing on "aspiration" can be regarded as a way to prepare young people for the responsibility to actively pursue labour market participation at an even earlier stage. (Contains 5 notes.)

This paper deals with aging of a remarkable woman from Florida, Wilma E. Davis. After ministering in the Methodist church for over 30 years as the first ordained Methodist minister in the state of Florida, Davis retired and began a PhD program at Boston University at the age of 63. Davis completed her PhD at the age of 68. The pursuit of her education took her to the Middle East where she studied for a year at the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem and participated in archaeological digs. Davis will forever remain an educational tribute to the vision and leadership she exhibited in everything she nobly undertook over the 102 years of her fruitful, intriguing, and fascinating life.

Peru's prehistory, climate, and terrain are the landscape upon which one of humankind's longest migrations occurred. When the glacial period ended, a geographic and cultural transition began when the meltwaters carved river valleys across the South American continent. Culture-rich communities of fishers, miners, artisans, and morticians populated the Peruvian coastal plain long before the first Inca. Enriching the geography and history curricula with recent pre-Incan archeological finds, this article provides new information from the Ice Age climate's Paleo-Indians to the last millennium before the Inca, combining recent genetic and new archeological and paleo-climatic findings adding to understandings of pre-Incan Peru. While most North Americans are aware of the Incan empire, few realize that its duration lasted less than a century: the century that ended with Spanish conquest and colonization in 1535. (Contains 19 figures and 2 notes.)

Lead poisoning has been a problem since early history and continues into modern times. An appealing characteristic of lead is that many lead salts are sweet. In the absence of cane and beet sugars, early Romans used "sugar of lead" (lead acetate) to sweeten desserts, fruits, and sour wine. People most at risk would have been those who consumed the most wine, the aristocracy, although they appeared unaware of the neurological and reproductive damage to themselves and their children. This article focuses on lead use in the Roman Empire as an example and attempts to address some of the major concerns voiced by opponents of Nriagu's 1983 article, published in "The New England Journal of Medicine," on saturnine gout in the Roman Empire. Despite new theories formulated since 1983, current archeological evidence does not match the claims of widespread use of leaden vessels made by historical accounts. Although historical sources are consistent, more substantive archeological evidence is needed before convincing arguments can be made in favor of the role of lead poisoning in the downfall of the Roman Empire. (Contains 2 notes, 1 table, and 1 figure.)

Background: In the 1990s, Salmon developed a five-stage model for enabling and scaffolding remote groups to work and learn together using asynchronous bulletin boards. The model has informed online learning and development practice across different levels and education for online and blended learning. Purpose: This paper reports our testing of the usefulness and relevance of the model for "Second Life" ("SL"). Programme description and sample: Our case studies included students and tutors from three different disciplines: Archaeology, Digital Photography and Media and Communications. For the first case study, we collaborated with a postgraduate distance learning course in Archaeology at the University of Leicester. The second case study involved a campus-based undergraduate course in Digital Photography at the London South Bank University. The third case study was of a postgraduate campus-based course in Media and Communications. Design and methods: In each study, we developed artefacts and activities ("SL"-tivities) for students and tutors, to enable them to interact in groups. The "SL"-tivities were designed based on the five-stage model to provide scaffolding of learning in a group. Using qualitative methods, we studied students' and tutors' engagement with "SL"-tivities and their learning experiences at each stage of the model. We captured data through semi-structured interviews and from chat logs in "SL", and mapped student dialogue against each stage of the model. We analysed the data using cognitive mapping, created causal understanding of the individuals and the groups and their changing views, feelings and experiences. Results and conclusions: The case studies gave us examples of learning opportunities in "SL" at each stage of the model. Our initial study showed that using a structured model for scaffolding learning in groups has value in a 3D multi-user virtual environment such as "SL", as well as in text-based asynchronous environments. The model helps to inform design and delivery so that learners' and teachers' confidence in each other and in the environment builds up and that they work productively with each other. We continue to build further research using "SL"-tivities and the five-stage model to explore and develop further understanding of its applicability. (Contains 2 figures and 1 note.)

This article examines the educational reconstruction that was undertaken by the Department of Education in Ontario during the first years of the twentieth century. It draws on Foucault's method of archaeology to identify how schooling reforms comprised a discontinuity in pedagogic knowledge. This mutation created the conditions of possibility for the formation of different kinds of subjects and subjectivities. The analysis identifies how Froebelian philosophy and the addition of subjects such as art and nature study to the elementary school curriculum led to new ways of knowing children. It also outlines how these new domains of knowledge were linked to the emergence of a range of new objects, technologies, strategies, and kinds of subjects (people) related to schooling. The conclusion considers the deeper meanings of modernity that were intended by these reforms and the paradoxes that may have resulted. (Contains 139 footnotes.)

James Scheurich argues that practices of policy--normalized over time through repetition--serve three purposes. They structure social problems for which policy is designed to address; construct certain people, implicitly or explicitly, as problem individuals; and shape policy solutions. Following Foucault, he offers what he calls Policy Archaeology Methodology as an approach to policy analysis that emphasizes how particular social problems (but not others) are socially constructed in certain ways within certain political and social contexts. The purpose of policy archaeology as a mode of analysis is "to investigate...the grid of conditions, assumptions, forces which make the emergence of a social problem...possible". Drawing from his method of inquiry, I identify, through examination of policy documents, how the problem of bullying in schools has come to be understood in certain ways (the dominant narrative) and how policy solutions are constrained and limited accordingly, thereby confounding their purpose. I suggest that Scheurich's perspective provides a way of addressing bullying that accounts for complexity in ways that current approaches mostly do not even consider. (Contains 1 note.)

At approximately 9,500 years old, two sets of human remains from La Jolla, California (W-12), known as the University House Burials due to the physical location of their discovery on property owned by the University of California, San Diego, are some of the oldest in the United States. These burials are central to a repatriation controversy between the University of California, San Diego, and the Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee, which represents 12 federally recognized Kumeyaay/Diegueno tribal governments in San Diego County, California. The story of the La Jolla burials is a politically complicated one involving the Kumeyaay Indian Tribe's efforts to claim and repatriate the La Jolla remains, the University of California, San Diego's property issues and scientific interests, the local community's concerns, federal law, and the question of the population origins of the La Jolla remains. This final point has become central to determining who should ultimately have control over the final disposition of the burials, a point that has been, and will be, at the heart of many repatriation disputes. This article focuses on the science of determining the origins of all remains of great antiquity, including the La Jolla burials themselves. (Contains 64 notes.)

Negotiations over archaeological human remains have been complicated interactions spanning centuries of attempts to resolve differences of opinion with regard to the investigation, ownership, and disposition of early American Indian burials. Guilt, fear, power, politics, legitimacy, science, religion, and denial--all of these elements commonly have played a role and are integral to the ongoing debate regarding the repatriation of Native American burials and associated funerary objects. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) became law on 16 November 1990 in response to national concern regarding the handling of Native American archaeological remains. Today, a generation of anthropologists has never operated without NAGPRA and related policies. Yet a generation later, it often seems that neither the tribal nor the scientific communities have taken true advantage of the extensive opportunities available to them through this twenty-year-old piece of legislation. Scientists and Native American communities have had to learn not only how to negotiate the repatriation process but also how to develop a gradual understanding of each other, all the while merely skimming the surface of the supportive relationship that could be developed by means of the NAGPRA constructs. In order to tackle current issues such as the environmental impact on population health and the alarmingly rising rates of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease (CHD) among Native American populations, as well as other disease processes, a greater understanding of what the biological data can provide--and possibly a different perspective--is needed. (Contains 58 notes.)

This paper reports findings of a pilot study that examined the pedagogical potential of "Second Life" (SL), a popular three-dimensional multi-user virtual environment (3-D MUVE) developed by the Linden Lab. The study is part of a 1-year research and development project titled "Modelling of Secondlife Environments" (http://www.le.ac.uk/moose) funded by the UK Joint Information Systems Committee. The research question addressed in this paper is: how can learning activities that facilitate social presence and foster socialisation among distance learners for collaborative learning be developed in SL, a 3-D MUVE? The study was carried out at the University of Leicester (UoL) within an undergraduate module on Archaeological Theory, where two tutors and four students took part in four learning activities designed to take place in SL within the UoL Media Zoo island. The learning activities and training in SL were based on Salmon's five-stage model of online learning. Students' engagement in SL was studied through interviews, observations and records of chat logs. The data analysis offers four key findings in relation to the nature and pattern of in-world "socialisation" and its impact on real-world network building; the pattern of in-world "socialisation" stage in Salmon's 5-stage model; perspectives on students' progress in-world through the first stage of the model--"access and motivation"--and perspectives on their entry into, and progress through, the second stage of the model--"socialisation"--and the role of identity presented through avatars in the process of socialisation. The paper offers implications for research and practice in the light of these findings.

A unique, interdisciplinary collaboration between chemistry and classics has led to the development of an experiment for nonscience majors. This instrumental analysis experiment was designed for use in an archaeology course to quantify the amount of lead in ancient bronze coins. The coins were corroded beyond visual identification, so provenance could be determined only through chemical analysis. Students digested coin subsamples in acid, prepared and diluted the resulting solutions, then utilized flame atomic absorption spectroscopy for the measurements. External calibration with acid-matched lead standards was used. A certified reference material was analyzed with the coins for method validation. Results were compared to published data to obtain a list of possible coin identities. (Contains 3 tables, 1 list, and 1 figure.)

This article describes and explores the key elements of an approach to personalised learning which is rooted in student experience and choice. It is shaped by the learner's interest, driven by her curiosity and purpose, yet is capable of supporting the delivery of the valued outcomes of a publicly accountable curriculum. It is an approach which enables a student to participate purposefully in the processes of learning, developing values, attitudes and dispositions for learning, while at the same time acquiring and managing specialist knowledge, skills and understanding in the service of a personally chosen outcome. The journey begins with a particular, concrete place or object, and moves through a developmental sequence of thinking and learning capabilities to a publicly evaluated outcome. It is a pedagogy which integrally supports citizenship education because it addresses questions of value and worth through the narratives uncovered in the world-as-it-is-experienced by the learner. It is an archaeological pedagogy in the sense that it begins with experience and observation, generates narratives and then reconstructs knowledge/s necessary to satisfy the original personally chosen quest, rather than beginning with pre-packaged conceptual expert knowledge. It creates a context for critical subjectivity and engagement with learning and with the world. It is a pedagogy which takes seriously the selfhood of the learner, and the formation of virtue in learning, while at the same time not abandoning the rigour of specialist knowledge in a particular field. (Contains 1 figure.)

In this article the authors revisit the earlier studies of the role and importance of elders and pursue various lines of evidence--biological, archaeological, and cross-cultural/ethnographic--to build the fundamental argument that elders and the knowledge they have acquired from their ancestors, through social learning, have played a key role in the evolution of social species. They will argue that among humans, who are among the most social of all species, elders have played a crucial role. This was certainly true in American Indian societies, where elders were held to be of particular importance. As definitions are the heart of all scientific endeavors, they begin this article by providing definitions for crucial terms--"culture" and "tradition", "hierarchy" and "influence". Then they review the cross-species, biological, archaeological, and cross-cultural/ethnographic records to support our claim that elders did play an important role and outline the ways that elders were important. This article ends with a discussion of elders, traditions, and the issues that underlie a diminishing of elder importance and influence. (Contains 78 notes.)

Ulrich Rauch, Marvin Cohodas, and Tim Wang describe the Arts Metaverse, a Croquet-based virtual learning environment under development at the University of British Columbia. The Arts Metaverse allows three-dimensional virtual reconstruction of important artifacts and sites of classical, ancient, and indigenous American art, thereby allowing students access to places and works they would not otherwise be able to experience. The Arts Metaverse has been developed on the principle that engaging students in the construction of a virtual teaching and learning environment can facilitate collaboration between teachers and students and create a participative learning experience. In this spirit, the Arts Metaverse Project aims to make students and academics joint researchers creating and sharing knowledge beyond the walls of the university. While projects developed for the Arts Metaverse thus far have focused on art and architecture, the technology and process are entirely appropriate for a wide range of inquiries in the humanities and social sciences.

Each of these outstanding selections defies the traditional image of a child "curling up with a good book." Yes, they can be a source of great personal reading, encouraging students of all ages to stretch their skills and their imagination as they interact with the printed page. But these journeys of the scientific imagination seldom end with the final chapter. They have the capacity to draw the reader out from that cozy seat and into the natural world--to observe, investigate, and continue the process of discovery that has characterized scientists from Aristotle to Hawking. The adventures begin here.

A continuous classroom assessment technique, "Five-minute" essays, was applied during a short course called "Scientific Methods in Archaeology--Applications and Problems", given at the Archaeological Research Laboratory, Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies, Stockholm University, Sweden. There was a strong positive and statistically significant correlation between the grades obtained by the students and time into the course. The results showed no significant difference based on gender but there might be a gender-based difference in approach. The "Five-minute" essay was generally appreciated by the students even though some found it stressful. There was no significant difference in this appreciation based on gender. Several advantages of this assessment procedure in comparison with the more traditional final exam are presented. (Contains 2 figures.)

Academic advising has emerged as a distinct interdisciplinary field and profession, but the description of its role has recently relied on analogies and metaphors. While helpful in clarifying practice, their continual use obscures the uniqueness of academic advising and masks the importance of the scholarship that underlies its practice. We use the development of archaeology as a distinct profession and scholarly field to highlight critical developments in academic advising and draw examples of key aspects in the professionalization of academic advising from The Pennsylvania State University. The scholar-practitioner model must be nurtured for all who engage in academic advising and for a distinct scholarly identity to be established within higher education. Efforts must proceed at national and local levels.

Contemporary curriculum theorists conceptualize curriculum, schooling, and the teacher as sites of discursive production and as dwelling places for theory. Drawing on memory work around childhood report cards, this article uses commonplace artifacts to reassemble autoethnographic memory. In sifting through memories and artifacts, the author combines notions of archaeology and bricolage with writing as inquiry, proposing art[middle dot]I/f/act[middle dot]ology as research method. This approach to autoethnographic research is conceptualized as a way to blend art and reflective practice, generating alternate ways of understanding curriculum as lived. (Contains 4 figures and 2 notes.)

A course linking chemistry and archaeology was designed to introduce scientific principles and applications to students with little or no science background. The course could provide students an opportunity to explore the role of the sciences in archaeology and to discover the relationship between materials and the culture that produce them.

Petroglyphs can help students confront the challenges of cross-cultural interpretation, the "perilous venture" the author and his students will face in their Native American Literature course. Cultural artifacts, carved in rock or printed on paper, are a part of particular discursive systems. In this article, the author wants his students to recognize that Indian texts, even contemporary ones, are grounded in systems of meaning quite different from their own (he and almost all his students are non-Native). Interpreting these works is difficult, but the problem is theirs. They must make the effort but should recognize the limits to their understanding. Boundaries between cultures are only partially permeable. As students confront the challenges of interpreting texts from other cultures, they may come to recognize that their own beliefs and assumptions, their ideologies, are also grounded in socially constructed systems of meaning. The lessons gained from looking at petroglyphs can be reinforced and extended by considering other interpretive challenges: a historical map and a newspaper article about DNA tests of two-thousand-year-old Indian remains. Lessons on interpretation will have relevance not only for reading early Indian texts but also for the twentieth-century Native American literature that will follow. (Contains 6 notes.)

Several artifacts found at the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, or Daughters of Jacob Bridge, archaeological site in Israel provide a picture of ancient human ancestors that is different from the once accepted by most scholars. The discoveries by Israeli archaeologist Naama Goren-Inbar suggest that humans developed language and other key abilities far earlier in their evolution than previously believed.

This article features the museums of Oaxaca, the place where the community museum movement in Mexico got started. Oaxaca has the largest Indigenous population in Mexico, with about 36.6% of the population over five years old, or about 1.027 million people, speaking an Indigenous language. Tourists spend large amounts on group or personalized tours and flock to it to try to get a closer look at the "real" Oaxaca and to experience the richness of Mexico's Indigenous cultures, layered together from the present day back to pre-Columbian times. Community museums have proved to be a way for the towns to construct and transmit their identities through the choice of themes important to the communities, in which archaeology is chosen as one of the themes of their museum. In Oaxaca the museums have been a way for the small communities to assume control of the stewardship of the archaeological treasures found: they stay in the community because they are culturally meaningful for that population, and in addition, their display in museums in the community raises funds for the community, albeit a small amount. Here, the author discusses the creation of community museums in Mexico and the decolonizing mission of these museums, and describes how community museums can have a great impact on the decolonization of a region in a way that is inspiring and instructive. (Contains 1 figure and 34 notes.)

The practice of archaeology includes of a series of events in which a group of objects is transformed from their initial identities as household goods, religious objects, or detritus of everyday life into artifacts, or as the 1906 Antiquities Act describes them, "objects of antiquity." Frequently, artifacts are further re-identified as part of a museum's "collections." Archaeological artifacts are defined primarily through the process of the relationship that an archaeologist enters into with them. In this article, the author states, that any object that was created by a human being may become an artifact, but it is the interaction between an archaeologist and that object that creates it as such. In addition, she states that many Indigenous archaeologists are unable to view objects from Indigenous cultures without recognizing that a multitude of contexts exist. The recognition of multiple identities and contexts for objects in museum collections need not result in conflict as long as the parties involved do not try to deny the existence of the alternate identities. In fact, acknowledging the multiple identities should lead to a richer appreciation for the objects. Furthermore, in this article, the author would like to examine the nature of museum collections of objects that have been defined by archaeologists as artifacts but that to Indigenous people maintain their cultural context. She argues that archaeologists must work to reestablish connections between Indigenous people and Indigenous objects from their past, in part because if they don't, they ignore the full cultural biography of the object and see only a small part of that object's life. (Contains 14 notes.)

As first voiced by activists in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s and then sustained by other Native American leaders throughout the rest of the twentieth century, many Native American communities object to archaeological excavations and the wanton destruction of their traditional cultural places. In this article, the author discusses her views on archaeology in relation to Native American communities. In her research, she describes her interactions between members of Wana Pa Koot Koot and Payos Kuus C'uukwe. She discusses four essential cognitive psychology concepts, whom she considers as hindrances to the building of successful relationships, and these are: (1) naive realism; (2) the fixed pie myth; (3) loss aversion; and (4) status quo bias. (Contains 58 notes.)

The scrutiny of racism as a cultural practice is well established in scholarship and in American public discourse. The underlying problem of race itself is also a common topic in academic writings and is a matter of ever-increasing consensus in anthropology and biology. But the significance of race as an inherently flawed interpretation of human biological diversity has yet to register in many realms of scholarship and in the public mind. In this essay, the authors seek to encourage the expansion of the public discussion of race beyond racism and toward the broader problem of race itself. They explicitly scrutinize how the ideology and practice of racialism affects American archaeology and the people it studies and contend that even though many archaeologists say that they accept the long-held anthropological view that race is biologically unsupportable, they still embrace racialism in their methods and thinking which has the typical result of confounding archaeological analysis related to issues of race. Taken from discussions on race by members of a Yahoo group, the Closet Chickens, that deserve wide public attention, the authors present pieces of the ensuing Closet Chicken discussion on race and American archaeology and examine key terms used in the discussions. (Contains 15 notes.)

This article describes the 2004 summer field program, the Kashaya Pomo Interpretive Trail Project (KPITP), which is an extension of the Fort Ross Archaeological Project (FRAP). Both are collaborative projects involving UC Berkeley, the California Department of Parks and Recreation, and the Kashaya Pomo tribe. The project attempts to integrate the results of the research by FRAP on the multi-ethnic colony of Fort Ross and present this information to the broader public through the creation of a walkable interpretive trail within Fort Ross State Historic Park. The project itself did not self-consciously attempt to decolonize archaeology, but at a vantage point, the Kashaya Pomo Interpretive Trail Project and summer field school contributed to these goals through the operation of the field school, implementation of archaeological methods, and the ongoing process of collaboration with Kashaya Pomo tribal elders and council members. Here, the authors address how each aspect of the project has contributed to a form of scholarship that attempts to blend Kashaya ceremony with the science of archaeology. They also discuss how this project has provided a venue for the training of archaeologists and served as a model for collaborative research. In this dual capacity the project and field school have provided students with a rare chance to learn firsthand the nature of archaeological collaboration and practice decolonizing archaeology. (Contains 4 figures and 48 notes.)

Archaeological methods of analysis, research directions, and theoretical approaches have changed dramatically since the early days of the discipline, and today archaeological research topics relate to various aspects of cultural heritage, representation, and identity that overlap with fields such as ethnic studies, cultural anthropology, art and art history, heritage studies, history, and museums studies. In this article the author offers several examples of where work has been done and where it remains to be done toward decolonizing archaeology and bringing it more closely to its full potential as a socially just tool of knowledge (re)production. The aim has been to put forth a model that might be used as a stepping stone, not something that should be duplicated everywhere, but something that should be contemplated and further developed as archaeologists work in true collaboration with Indigenous, descendant, and local groups worldwide. Part of this effort will involve examination of the ways in which archaeologists and Indigenous peoples might work together to shape a shared future and an exploration of core issues that include the following: (1) Who benefits from archaeological research?; (2) Is the Western, scientific approach to archaeological theory and method necessarily the "best" way of interpreting the past?; (3) What are the practical ramifications of archaeological research for the Indigenous peoples, for whom the "artifacts" of archaeology are a living heritage? The author further argues that if archaeologists and Indigenous people are to be successful stewards of the archaeological record, everyone must begin to explore ways of moving beyond posturings that pit science against religion or polarize interests of Indigenous people against archaeologists, and the author advocates for a collaborative approach that blends the strengths of Western archaeological science with the knowledge and epistemologies of Indigenous peoples to create a set of theories and practices for an ethically informed study of the past, history, and heritage. (Contains 50 notes.)

Many Navajos, or Dines, and Native American people in general, are archaeologists or are becoming archaeologists. The distinction between "Native Americans" and "archaeologists" in academia, or elsewhere, is no longer accurate. This fact should not come as such a surprise. As the epigraph, a quote by Richard Begay, demonstrates, Navajo people, for instance, have been caring for "archaeological sites" for hundreds of years as part of their cultural teachings. Although places of ancient human occupation in North America may be considered just another archaeological site to the majority, to Native Americans, these places may often be sacred, revered as the final resting place of one's ancestors, or feature paramount in family and tribal history or religion. Therefore, the leap to becoming an archaeologist is in keeping with Navajo culture, that is, in keeping with respect and protection of Navajo ancestors, the ancestors of other Native American tribes, and Navajo sacred or traditional cultural places. Seen in this light, the phenomena of Navajos becoming archaeologists is not so outlandish, and a Navajo archaeologist is not an oxymoron. This article explores the author's experiences in working for a Navajo tribal archeology program. (Contains 6 notes.)

In this article the authors discuss recent developments in the decolonization of Australian archaeology. From the viewpoint of Indigenous Australians, much archaeological and anthropological research has been nothing more than a tool of colonial exploitation. For the last twenty years, many have argued for greater control over research and for a shaping of archaeological practice to provide greater benefits for communities. Drawing partly on their research with the Barunga-Wugularr communities of the Northern Territory and the Ngadjuri people of Burra, South Australia, this article highlights trends in Australian archaeology, focusing on contemporary concerns with how language can disempower Indigenous Australians, current measures being taken to implement Indigenous control over Indigenous culture, and the implications of conceptualizing research outcomes as shared intellectual property. (Contains 4 figures and 75 notes.)

In British Columbia, Canada, the practice of archaeology has been strongly influenced by issues of First Nations rights and the ways government and industry have chosen to address them. In turn, this situation has affected academic (i.e., research-based) and consulting (i.e., cultural resource management) archaeology, which have had to respond to changes in the provincial Heritage Conservation Act (HCA) and to the implementation of archaeological overview assessments (AOAS) and traditional-use studies (TUSS). In this article, the author explores the situation of British Columbia, where First Nations' contribution to AOAS, TUSS, and the archaeological permitting process have influenced the development of predictive and explanatory models. There, as elsewhere, the increasing role of descendant communities in participating in or directing landscape-oriented studies--in a sense, decolonizing the archaeological process--clearly will influence how archaeologists need to perceive past cultural landscapes in the future. The author presented this article in three sections. First, he examines the nature of archaeological landscapes and their importance in organizing and interpreting evidence of past human behavior. Second, he examines the historical context of archaeology in British Columbia over the past century and discusses how it has contributed to the colonization of First Nations through heritage legislation, archaeological resource management strategies, and the very limited ways in which traditional perspectives of the cultural landscape have been incorporated. In the final section, he outlines four ways First Nations are seeking to decolonize the archaeological landscape, which include educational initiatives and the development of alternative resource management strategies. (Contains 5 figures and 62 notes.)

This article seeks to present a continuing bibliography of research on Southern California Indians from the past 20 years, and sometimes beyond. The coverage reaches outside the variably defined bounds of Southern California so that it includes peripheral groups such as the Timbisha Shoshone of Death Valley and one or more groups in the Owens Valley. The bibliography is organized in a somewhat arbitrary yet useful form. Subsumed under general headings are subheadings by subject, tribe, or place. The main headings are: (1) General Works: Bibliographies, Collections, Encyclopedias, Indexes, and Symposia; (2) Archaeology and Prehistory; (3) Ethnology and Ethnohistory; (4) Indian/White Historical Relations and Indian Affairs; (5) Land Tenure, Land Claims, Sacred Places, and Land Restoration; (6) Law, Jurisdiction, Planning, Federal Acknowledgment, Gaming, and Self-Determination; (7) Geography, Ecology, and Environmental Management; (8) Biology, Demography, Health, and Physical Anthropology; (9) Indians and Urbanization; (10) Arts, Crafts, Music, and Film; (11) Literature, Languages, Journalism, Oral Tradition, and Poetry; (12) Useful Indian and Indian-Related Web Sites; and (13) Law Cases. (Contains 13 notes.)

This case study examines a group of archaeologists working at a new project that strives to be more environmentally friendly and community inclusive, and positions these archaeologists as adult learners who are simultaneously creating a new vision of archaeology and learning to enact new forms of archaeological practice. Using the framework of critical transformational learning, we explore how the journeys of these individual archaeologists are integrated with social and contextual factors. In this paper we describe the project, present the vision that the archaeologists are currently creating, and describe some of the challenges these archaeologists are facing enacting that vision. We frame the archaeologists' learning process as critical transformational learning, and draw upon Giddens' structuration theory and Wilson and Hayes' explication of technical and practical action to expand the framework of transformational learning to take into account how these archaeologists are moving from critical vision to critical practice. This study illuminates the process of learning to integrate a critically transformed worldview into one's everyday practice of living.

The effect of law on research and scholarship is amply illustrated by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act and other statutes, which, when they impel reburial of archaeological discoveries, result in a very real sacrificing of our past. In this case, the Act seems driven by a misguided notion that anthropology is not the dispassionate pursuit of knowledge, but the persistent urge of powerful white men to oppress Indians. The claim that tampering with prehistoric relics disturbs spirits is much too eagerly embraced by our judges and bureaucrats from the legal briefs of native activists and entrepreneurs, who could have no ancestral or any other ties to the remains. James W. Springer laments the crucial scientific data lost through such folly. (Contains 104 notes.)

Archaeologists have used material artifacts found in a physical space to gain an understanding about the people who occupied that space. Likewise, as users wander through a digital library, they leave behind data-based artifacts of their activity in the virtual space. Digital library archaeologists can gather these artifacts and employ inductive techniques, such as bibliomining, to create generalizations. These generalizations are the basis for hypotheses, which are tested to gain understanding about library services and users. In this article, the development of traditional archaeological methods is presented and used to create a conceptual framework for the artifact-based evaluation in digital libraries.

This paper examines the role of history in power relations which suppress Indigenous knowledges. History is located as being about power and about how the powerful maintain their power. The paper further examines the Bering Strait theory/myth and ways that discourses in history combine with discourses in science to devalue Indigenous knowledges. The "truth" of science is challenged and examples of manipulation of scientific knowledge are provided, including discussions of a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation made for television production "A people's history" and an Internet website provided by the American government. These production activities supported by the Canadian and American governments are considered educational activities engaged in the practice of cultural representation in which dominant discourses about Indigenous peoples are presented. The paper challenges dominant misrepresentations of discourses about Indigenous peoples in a discussion of educational practices emphasizing the need of Indigenous peoples to control education and cultural representations. The paper concludes that it is a responsibility of society to educate all students to understand that any portrayal of history comes from a particular vantage point and to understand that dominant society privileges some representations and disadvantages others. If we teach in a critical way and challenge dominant discourses we can begin to create a society in which all persons in Canada and the USA, including Indigenous peoples, have a role to play.

Facts, or skills? Content, or process? Teachers of history and social studies teachers often lock horns over these questions, trying to define the nature of their field and its role in secondary education. Teachers of history often focus on content, presenting the past as a series of important people and events, an accumulated cultural lore that should be mastered by all students. Teachers of social studies, on the other hand, tend to approach the past more thematically, drawing on students' own experiences in order to promote social awareness, multicultural perspectives, and academic skills. As a fairly traditional teacher, the author had always been solidly in the "history-as-content" camp, until a recent experience teaching archaeology at the secondary level changed his outlook and methods dramatically. Initially, as he planned the course at Germantown Friends School in Philadelphia, he had no idea that archaeology would spark such enthusiasm among students, or be such an ideal pedagogical subject. Real archaeology is a branch of anthropology that uses physical remains to investigate the human past. Archaeology, by nature, is a hands-on discipline, and offers many opportunities for experiential and constructive learning. In this article, the author describes simulated excavation exercises that can easily be replicated in a variety of school settings. He also offers some suggestions for those who would like to replicate the excavation activity. (Contains 6 figures.)

An innovative interdisciplinary project at California State University, Long Beach, was designed to increase the attractiveness of the geosciences (physical geography, geology, and archaeology) to underrepresented groups. The goal was to raise awareness of the geosciences by providing summer research opportunities for underrepresented high school and community college students and their faculty. A survey of a larger sample provided insight into strategies for enhancing geoscience awareness. A qualitative evaluation pointed to its success in meeting project goals. This unprecedented level of collaboration had set the groundwork for an institutional shift for inclusion of minorities in the geosciences and warrants replication.