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3D printing is a widely used method. In terms of developing components for electronic devices, it is important to provide good physical properties of the used dielectric. The main parameters are the optional and stable value of the relative permittivity and the minimum dielectric losses of the material. The paper focuses on testing the loss factor and relative permittivity of the following materials: polylactic acid (PLA, in two dye modifications), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PET-G) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) in the frequency range of 1–100 MHz. It was proven that the values of permittivity of the tested materials were 2.9–4.2 and the loss factor was 0.8–4%. Concerning the relative permittivity, the tendency to show a mild linear drop was observed by increasing the frequency, especially expressed in the PLA materials. With the loss factor, the PLA materials displayed increasing values with an increasing frequency, whereas a declining curve was observed in the PET-G materials. The absolute value of the ABS loss factor varied between 0.9–1.5%. The reasonable influence of added dyes was elucidated upon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cu coatings were deposited on acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS) substrates by DC magnetron sputtering with Cu target. Cr ions generated by arc evaporation were used to bombard the ABS substrates before the Cu coating process. The influences of the Cr ion bombardment on the surface topography and chemical bonds of the ABS substrates and the adhesion of the Cu coatings on the ABS substrate were studied using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and micro-Scratch Tester as a function of bias voltage and treatment duration. The results show that the Cr ion bombardment causes Cr particles to embed in the surface. The Cr particles can interlock with the Cu coatings and ABS substrate and significantly improve the coating adhesion. In addition, the Cr particles can act as the nucleation sites of the Cu coatings and facilitate the growth of columnar crystals. Increasing the duration of Cr ion bombardment increases the number of Cr particles and, thus, enhances the adhesion. However, the continuous bombardment results in the degeneration of the ABS surface, causing the formation of the coarse columnar structure of the Cu coatings. Increasing the bias voltage can increase the energy of the Cr particles without causing degeneration of the ABS. The Cu coating deposited on the ABS substrate treated by Cr ion with high-bias voltage and short duration shows a dense and smooth growth structure. In contrast, the bombardment of the Cr ions carried out at high-bias voltage induces the formation of an interfacial layer (amorphous carbon-rich phase) in the ABS surface, which decreases the coating adhesion. It is believed that Cu coatings with strong adhesion and dense structures could be acquired on ABS substrates by optimizing the bias voltage and duration of the Cr ion bombardment pre-treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the widely used plastics for chemical metallisation is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). It is a strong and flexible plastic, which makes it suitable for the preparation of details with a complex shape and leads to optimum design qualities. Metallised plastics combine the properties of dielectrics and metals, thanks to which they find application in many branches of industry. Before the chemical metallisation of samples, they are subjected to pretreatment, which includes a number of operations. Among them the most important are: etching (surface micro-roughening of the surface) and activation (adsorption of catalytically active metal centres on the surface). Prior to performing the etching operation, the surface of the polymer samples is relatively smooth. In order to increase the roughness of the surface and to facilitate the subsequent operations, an additional operation of "swelling" is included, preceding the etching operation. The influence of the swelling operation on the quality of the final electroless Cu and Ni-P coatings has been studied in the present work. The experimental results show that metal coatings with uniform thickness and good adhesion are obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

3D printing is one of the most portentous technologies for the time being. Recently, 3D printing has progressed remarkably and is expected to proceed in numerous applications, such as automotive, medical, wind turbine, and aerospace applications. 3D printing technology opens the door to enhancing and optimizing several applications. Although of such advancement, there is still a lack of the tribological research investigations in this area. This work is devoted to studying the tribological properties of 3D printed polymers (ABS, PLA, Co-polyester, and PCL) for utilization in a wide range of applications, such as medical, automotive, and various tribological applications. The test specimens were printed using fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. The tribological characteristics of 3D printed specimens were evaluated using a pin-on-disc tester. Vicker's hardness tester was used to determine the specimens' hardness. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with backscattering was used to examine the worn surfaces of samples. Based on the findings of the current investigation, it was discovered that 3D printing technology enhanced the bonding strength and wear resistance of the tested specimens. Furthermore, the 3D-printed polymers (ABS, PLA, Co-polyester, and PCL) produced varying friction coefficient (high and low) values at acceptable wear resistance making them suitable for a wide range of applications. The samples that were printed using PLA and co-polyester had the lowest coefficients of friction (0.3) while the samples that were printed using ABS and PCL had the greatest coefficients of friction (0.4) and (0.39) respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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AddJoining technique has been recently introduced to produce metal–polymer composite hybrid layered structures. The methodology combines the principles of joining and polymeric additive manufacturing. This paper presents three AddJoining process-variants investigated and demonstrated for the material combination aluminum 2024-T3 and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene to form hybrid single lap joints. The microstructure and mechanical performance were assessed. The process variant using heating control showed the ultimate lap shear force of 1.2 ± 0.05 kN and displacement at a break of 1.21 ± 0.16 mm as a result of strong bonding formation at the interface of the hybrid joints. For instance, the other two process variants tested (with epoxy adhesive, and with thin-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) coating layer applied on the metal) presented reduced mechanical performance in comparison to process variant using heating control, namely approximately 42% and 8.3%, respectively. The former had a mixed adhesive–cohesive failure due to the lower bonding performance between the adhesive and ABS printed layers. The latter displayed a slight decrease in force in comparison to heat-control specimens. This could be explained by the presence of micro-voids formed by solvent evaporation at the ABS coating layer during AddJoining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we used three gases (CO2, N2 and normal hexane) for diffusivity measurements in Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). We proposed a diffusion model that the diffusion coefficients of each gas in ABS could be estimated from the specific volume of ABS/gas mixture and chemical potential of gas in ABS. The solubility and diffusivity of three gases into ABS were determined by a magnetic suspension balance. The results showed that the solubility and diffusivity of three gases increased with increasing of pressure. Also it was determined that N2 has a lowest solubility and the highest diffusivity in ABS in all temperature and pressure ranges. It was shown that there was a suitable overlapping between the experimental and predicted values from the proposed model, in which the proposed model could successfully estimate the diffusion coefficient of mentioned gases in ABS in all temperature and pressure ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this work was to investigate the mechanical properties of additive manufactured (AM) polymeric parts (polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)) reinforced by different types of fibres. Natural (jute and curauá) and synthetic (glass) fibre fabrics were laminated on the outer sides of the AM parts by using an epoxy resin. The reinforcement was applied to the AM parts as 1 and 2 layers for each fibre type. The mechanical characterization of the AM-reinforced composites was performed through tensile and flexural tests. It was found that the addition of the reinforcement fibres improved the mechanical properties of the AM parts for both materials tested. In general, the glass fibre–reinforced specimens presented better mechanical properties when compared to the natural fibre–reinforced AM parts. The curauá fibre–reinforced specimens presented improved performance when compared to the jute composites and matched the mechanical properties of the 1-layer glass fibre–reinforced AM specimens. The failure modes significantly varied as a function of the material. The PLA specimens showed a brittle failure, while the ABS specimens presented delamination in the resin/printed part interface. Adding different fibre fabrics to 3D-printed materials may be a promising innovation in order to improve their mechanical properties and these improvements might enable these materials to serve for high load bearing purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital three-dimensional (3D) printing is a popular solid object fabricating technique to print the 3D and complex parts with high accuracy. The present work signifies the effect of reusing the photovoltaic cutting waste such as micron-sized silicon powder with the various weights of (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10) percentage as reinforcement in the making of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filament using a single-screw extruder. Extruded ABS filaments with various compositions of silicon particles are used for making 3D printed composite parts. The mechanical, tribological, and melt flow index property of the ABS/silicon composites are studied experimentally in this work. The addition of micron-sized silicon particles has reduced the melt flow index value nominally up to 10%, and beyond this, there is a radical reduction in the index value of melt flow. The mechanical characteristics of 3D printed ABS components with 6% silicon particle addition perform much better on the ABS matrix. Mechanical property such as tensile strength of the 6 wt% micron-sized silicon particle-loaded composite exhibits the maximum value of 31.5 MPa, and maximum Shore D hardness of 88 was observed on the 10wt% composite. The wear resistance qualities, such as friction coefficient and rate of specific wear, have improved as the percentage of micron-sized silicon in the ABS matrix has increased. The ABS polymer composite with 10% silicon particle added had the lowest coefficient of friction of 0.184 and the lowest specific wear rate of 1.91(10−3mm3 N-m). Fractography of the tensile-tested samples with 6 wt% of micron-sized silicon particle was uniformly distributed in the ABS matrix, and there is a presence of lower order of voids present in the ABS/silicon composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fused Deposition Modeling is an additive manufacturing technology that is used to create a wide range of parts and applications. Along with its benefits, there are some challenges regarding the printed parts' mechanical properties, which are associated with printing parameters like layer thickness, printing speed, infill density, printing temperature, bed temperature, infill pattern, chamber temperature, and printing orientation. One of the most crucial challenges in additive manufacturing technology is the residual stress, which significantly affects the parts like fatigue life, cracks propagation, distortions, dimensional accuracy, and corrosion resistance. Residual stress is hard to detect in the components and sometimes is costly to investigate. Printing specimens with different parameters costs money and is time-consuming. In this work, numerical simulation using Digimat-AM software was employed to predict and minimize the residual stress in printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene material using Fused Deposition Modeling technology. The printing was done by choosing six different printing parameters with three values for each parameter. The results showed a significant positive correlation between residual stress and printing temperature and infill percentage and a negative correlation with layer thickness and printing speed. At the same time, we found no effect of the bed temperature on the residual stress. Finally, the minimum residual stress was obtained with a concentric infill pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• ABS with a thickness of 450 µm experiences a critical aging period that leads to a transition from ductile to brittle behaviour. • This critical aging time was identified using dynamic tensile tests, which enabled the application of uniform stress across the sample under dynamic conditions. • Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) analysis revealed that polybutadiene elastomer nodules on the sample surface became rigid due to photo-oxidation. • The brittle behaviour of the material is attributed to the development of thin, fragile layers that contribute to the overall brittle fracture of the sample. The extensive use of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) raises challenges due to its vulnerability to oxidative degradation, primarily impacting its mechanical behavior. Photodegradation appears to be the pivotal driver in this degradation process. The main aim of the present study is to provide a comprehensive approach to the underlying mechanisms governing the transition from ductile to brittle behavior in ABS after exposure to UV-induced photodegradation. This study thus focuses on the multiphase nature of ABS, wherein polybutadiene (PB) nodules are dispersed within a matrix of styrene-acrylonitrile. Dynamic mechanical tensile tests have been employed to highlight aged layer mechanical impact by blocking the dissipative response of the matrix and applying a homogenous stress field, while atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used to characterize the local mechanical properties of ABS finely. The evolution of global mechanical properties has been correlated with changes in microstructural behavior. One of the main contributions of the present work is the correlation between the formation of brittle layers with the brittle state of aged ABS. Mechanical testing using dynamical tensile test revealed a critical aging time marking the transition from a ductile to a brittle state of the 450 µm thick samples. Chemical analysis using infrared spectroscopy revealed evolutions in the material composition, especially in the carbonyl, hydroxyl, and PB unsaturation groups. Distinct thin oxidized layers on each exposed surface were observed using optical microscopy. Finally, AFM analysis on the exposed surface shows the stiffening of PB nodules, indicating the formation of brittle thin layers due to oxidation causing an apparent fragile behavior of ABS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Elastic particles ADP@SiR with P/Si and core-shell structures are prepared. • Shell structure improves interaction between matrix and the fillers remarkably. • ADP@SiR achieved good balance in fire-safety and mechanical properties. • ADP@SiR accelerates the pyrolysis of ADP and exerts superior quenching effect. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS) is widely used in structural parts owing to its impressive mechanical properties. However, a delicate balance between flame retardancy and mechanical properties is essential for the safety performance of flame retardant ABS. To address this concern, elastic particles (ADP@SiR) were constructed by using silicone rubber (SiR) and aluminium diethyl hypophosphite (ADP). On the one hand, the core-shell structure realized effective isolation of flame retardants (ADP particles) from the resin and weaken destructive effect during the processing. The SiR elastic shell layer also enabled a certain toughening effect on the ABS matrix, which can resist impact damage through the elastic deformation of silicone rubber shell structure. Specifically, the impact strength of 20ADP@SiR/ABS was 433% higher compared with 20ADP/ABS. On the other hand, 20 wt.% ADP@SiR achieved a LOI values to over 33% and UL 94 V-0 rating in ABS and decreased the heat release rate and total smoke yield by 61.4% and 28.8% compared to ABS, contributing by the gas and condensed phase synergistic effects of ADP@SiR. In the gas phase, ADP released phosphorus containing free radicals to quench combustion reaction. Meanwhile, SiR further facilitated the decomposition of ADP to exert quick flame retardant effect. In the condensed phase, SiR in ADP@SiR also promoted the formation of phosphorus containing fragments, which was able to interact with silicon fragments to exert P/Si synergy. Moreover, ADP@SiR significantly inhibited the smoke release of composites compared to ADP/ABS. Therefore, this study is meaningful practical exploration for developing the halogen-free flame retardant ABS composites with excellent toughness and flame retardancy. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the synergistic effects of a two-step surface modification approach on acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastics. The first step involves a mechanical grinding pretreatment followed by chemical etching in sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, which increases surface roughness and enhances the wettability of the ABS surface. The second step focuses on the chemical synthesis of polypyrrole (PPy) on the pretreated ABS, demonstrating improvements in PPy surface roughness and adhesion after grinding and chemical etching. Adhesion tests reveal a significant increase from 0 % (PPy on untreated ABS) to 66 % (PPy on the grounded ABS) and ultimately to 100 % (PPy on the grounded ABS after chemical etching). This research is dedicated to a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental mechanisms, substantiated by a rigorous analysis involving X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) examination, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and contact angle measurements. Furthermore, the electric conductivity of PPy coatings is enhanced through electrochemical doping of PPy using dodecyl sulfate anions (DS/PPy/ABS) and the incorporation of silver particles (Ag/PPy/ABS). Raman spectroscopy demonstrates the Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) effect of silver particles on PPy coatings, showcasing their interaction. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms the enhanced crystallinity of DS/PPy/ABS, aligning with increased conductivity after electrochemical doping with DS anions. • ABS plastics were modified using grinding and chemical etching, enhancing surface properties. • The ABS surface treatment introduced polar groups, leading to increased surface roughness and hydrophilicity. • PPy coatings on treated ABS surfaces exhibited improved adhesion and characteristics. • Enhanced electrical conductivity of PPy coatings was achieved through different strategies and characterization techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of radiation on polymer materials, and consequently on their mechanical and physical properties, is a burgeoning field of research. This research assesses the dosimetric, mechanical, and thermal characteristics of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Polylactic Acid (PLA) materials developed through plastic injection molding as possible alternatives to commercial bolus used in radiotherapy. The materials were thoroughly compared with the commercial bolus material, EXAFLEX, by various tests such as Hounsfield Unit (HU) Analysis, Radiation Transmittance, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The research indicates that ABS and PLA materials have similar radiological qualities to EXAFLEX, showing constant surface and accumulation area doses. Minor differences are seen deeper inside the phantom, indicating a stable tissue equivalency. ABS demonstrated strong resistance to radiation-induced chemical modifications, but PLA exhibited susceptibility to molecular changes. The TMA findings showed that radiation caused a decrease in softening temperatures and an increase in the coefficient of thermal expansion for both ABS and PLA, indicating changes in their thermal stability and mechanical characteristics after irradiation. The study highlights the potential of ABS and PLA materials made through plastic injection molding as efficient and safety substitutes for commercial bolus materials, particularly for large area irradiation. This requires more research into their clinical uses and consequences. • Assessed ABS and PLA as radiotherapy bolus alternatives, comparing to commercial EXAFLEX. • Employed tests including HU Analysis, Radiation Transmittance, and TGA to compare materials. • Found ABS and PLA show similar radiological qualities to EXAFLEX with stable doses. • ABS resists radiation-induced changes; PLA shows susceptibility to molecular alterations. • Radiation affects thermal stability and mechanical properties of ABS and PLA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on the fabrication of plastic flexure hinges from diverse plastics such as ABS, PP, HDPE, and LDPE. To enhance hinge efficiency, the recycling ratios are also investigated. The amplification ratio of different recycle ratios and plastic types are measured. The results show that the input and output displacements of all PP, ABS, and HDPE hinges are linear. The presence of recycled plastics has no impact on this basis. The pure PP, ABS, and HDPE flexure hinges achieve the highest amplification ratios of 5.728, 8.249, and 5.668. The addition of recycled plastics reduces the amplification ratio. This decrease in the amplification ratio, however, is small. At a 25% recycle ratio, the PP, ABS, and HDPE flexure hinges have 12%, 13.3%, and 21.7% lower amplification ratios than the pure plastic hinges. Furthermore, the utilization of recycled plastics may lessen the need for new plastic made from raw materials. With the PP flexure hinge, a maximum input value of 157 µm could result in an output value of 886 µm. At a maximum input value of 115 µm, the ABS flexure hinge could achieve an output value of 833 µm. Finally, a maximum input value of 175 µm might result in an output value of 857 µm when using the HDPE flexure hinge. The average amplification ratio values for all recycling ratios for PP, ABS, and HDPE flexure hinges are, respectively, 5.35, 7.60, and 5.02. The ABS flexure hinge frequently outperforms the PP and HDPE flexure hinge in terms of amplification ratios. Among these plastics, HDPE flexure hinges have the lowest amplification ratio. In general, increasing the thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) content of the LDPE/TPU blend increases the amplification ratio. The cause could be the TPU’s high compatibility with the LDPE polymer. The LDPE/TPU blend hinge offers a broader range of the amplification ratio of 2.85–10.504 than the PP, ABS, and HDPE flexure hinges. It is interesting that changing the blend percentage has a much greater impact on the amplification ratio than changing the recycling ratio. The findings broaden the range of applications for plastic flexure hinges by identifying optimal plastic types. The impact of the hinge shape on the performance of the injected plastic flexure hinge might be studied in further research.

In fused deposition modeling (FDM), the cooling history impacts the bonding between filaments and layers. The existence of thermal gradients can cause non-homogeneous properties and localized stress points that may affect the individual filaments, resulting in distortion and detachment. Thermal analysis can aid in understanding the manufacturing flaw, providing necessary tools for the optimization of the printing trajectory. The present work is intended to deepen understanding of the thermal phenomena occurring during the extrusion of polymeric materials, aiming at more efficient three-dimensional (3D) printing methods. A one-dimensional (1D) finite differential method was implemented using MATLAB to simulate the temperature evolution of an extruded filament, and the results were compared with two-dimensional (2D) COMSOL Multiphysics simulations, and experimentally validated using infrared thermography. Acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) was used as a test material. The energy dissipation includes forced convection and radiation heat losses to the surrounding medium.

In recent years, additive manufacturing technology, particularly in plastic component fabrication, has gained prominence. However, fundamental modelling of the influence of materials like ABS, PC, and PLA on tribological properties in fused deposition modeling (FDM) remains scarce, particularly in non-lubricated, oil-lubricated, and grease-lubricated modes. This experimental study systematically investigates the effects of material type, lubrication method, layer thickness, and infill density on FDM component tribology. A tribology analysis is conducted using a TRB3 tribometer. The results indicate a coefficient of friction (CoF) range between 0.04 and 0.2, generally increasing and decreasing with layer thickness and filler density. The lubrication impact hinges on the material surface texture. The study models the intricate relationships between these variables via full-factor analysis, showing a strong alignment between the modelled and measured friction coefficients (an average error of 3.83%). Validation tests on different materials affirm the model’s reliability and applicability.

Four-dimensional printing is a process in which a 3D-printed object is intentionally transformed in response to an external stimulus such as temperature, which is useful when the final geometry of a 3D-printed part is not easily manufacturable. One method to demonstrate this is to print a part made of thin strips of material on a sheet of paper, heat the part, and allow it to cool. This causes the part to curl due to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients of the paper and plastic. In an attempt to quantify the effect of different temperatures on various materials, samples of three common 3D printing filaments, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), and polylactic acid (PLA), were heated at different temperatures (85 °C, 105 °C, and 125 °C) for intervals of 15 min and then allowed to cool until curling stopped. This heating and cooling cycle was repeated three times for each sample to determine if repeated heating and cooling influenced the curling. Each sample was filmed as it was cooling, which allowed the radius of curvature to be measured by tracking the uppermost point of the part, knowing the arc length, and calibrating the video based on a known linear length. After three cycles, all three materials showed a decrease in the radius of curvature (tighter curl) as heating temperature increased, with PLA showing the trend much more predominantly than ABS and PETG. Furthermore, for PETG and PLA, the radius of curvature decreased with each cycle at all temperatures, with the decrease being more significant from cycle 1 to 2 than cycle 2 to 3. Conversely, ABS only shared this trend at 125 °C. The findings of this work can provide guidelines to users on the temperature dosage for the mass manufacturing of complex geometries such as packaging, self-assembly robots, and drug delivery applications.

The multicomponent injection molding of liquid silicone rubbers (LSR) with thermoplastics, such as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) or polyamide (PA), is a state-of-the-art technique and is used in the manufacturing process for many components in the automotive industry and in the field of sanitary engineering. Standard thermoplastics, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), cannot be bonded with silicone rubbers in injection molding because of their low heat deflection temperature. In this study, we investigated ABS grades approved for medical applications to show how dynamic mold heating and various pretreatment methods for thermoplastic surfaces can be used to produce ABS-LSR test specimens. In addition, such components’ sterilization effect on the adhesive bond will be shown.

The purpose of this work was to investigate the structural, thermal, micromechanical and tribological properties of novel polymer/metal composite materials for bearing applications. Copper (Cu)-filled Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) composites were mixed in a laboratory scale by an internal mixer with two blade impellers, and then injection-molded. Neat ABS, ABS+5wt% Cu, ABS+10wt% Cu, and ABS+15wt% Cu were the four materials that were tested. The dispersion of Cu particles in the ABS matrix was investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and a micro-tomography scan. The filler particles have a uniform distribution in the matrix, according to the observations. The incorporation of Cu filler also refined an increase in the glass transition temperature from Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and less intensity in the amorphous phase by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Nanoindentation tests were carried out to characterize the micro-mechanical behavior of the composites. Friction and wear analysis were also examined using a pin-on-disk tribometer. Compared with neat ABS, all the micro-composites showed much higher indentation hardness, Vickers hardness, and indentation elastic modulus. It was also concluded that the incorporation of Cu filler into ABS simultaneously improved the friction and wear properties of the composites, which contributed to the suitability of the micro-filled composites with hard metallic particles for a wider range of mechanical components for bearing applications.

This article studies the flexural behavior of thin-walled specimens with square hollow sections fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM). The specimens were 3D printed from an ABS filament reinforced with aramid fibers. Four wall thicknesses were analyzed. The strength data were collected during three-point flexural tests. There are visible, clear differences in the flexural properties between the X- or Y-oriented specimens and those printed in the Z direction, and they vary up to 70%. It was also found that the flexural strength was dependent on the G-codes controlling the print head’s motion, path, and position. For specimens with a thickness up to 1.4 mm, the infill pattern was linear, whereas 1.8 mm and 2 mm specimens needed a stitch, which had some negative effects on the strength properties.

This article introduces a multi-objective optimization approach for determining the best 3D printing parameters (layer thickness and infill percentage) to efficiently produce PLA and ABS parts, extensively analyzing mechanical behavior under tests for different traits such as tensile strength, compression, flexural, impact, and hardness. The value analysis method is used to optimize settings that balance use value (Vi- represented by mechanical characteristics) and production cost (Cp). Findings reveal that the infill percentage significantly influences the Vi/Cp ratio for tensile, compression, and hardness tests, while flexural tests are influenced by layer thickness. Impact strength is influenced nearly equally by both factors, with material-specific variations. The desirability function proved useful for optimizing processes with multiple responses, identifying the optimal parameters for the FDM process: a layer thickness of 0.15 mm with 100% infill percentage for PLA, a layer thickness of 0.20 mm with 100% infill percentage for annealed PLA, and a layer thickness of 0.15 mm with 100% infill percentage for ABS. Overall, this study guides efficient 3D printing parameter selection through a technical-economic optimization based on value analysis.

Additive manufacturing (AM) by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) provides an innovative manufacturing method for complex geometry components. 3D printers have become easily accessible to the public. The technology used by these 3D printers is Fused Deposition Modelling. The majority of these 3D printers mainly use acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) to fabricate 3D objects. This study aims to investigate the influence of some printing parameters like infill pattern (Tri-Hexagon, Zig - Zag, and Gyroid), infill density (25%, 50%, and 75%), and layer thickness (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm) on the compressive strength of ABS materials. The design of the experiment was achieved by Taguchi method. A total of nine specimens were fabricated with different processing parameters using a commercial FDM 3D printer and then were tested according to the ASTM D695 standard. Findings presented in this research showed that the compressive strength of printed parts depends on the printing parameters employed. Analysis of variance revealed that the infill density is the most sensitive parameter among the three parameters examined. The optimal printing parameters were (0.3 mm 75 %, Gyroid) for improving compression strength according to signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio analysis. Experiment number (9) showed the highest compression strength with a value of 44.64 MPa.

The new space economy paradigm demands for cost-effective systems for its development. Plastic CubeSats are appealing candidates. To enable the use of this new generation of space systems, the challenge of designing suitable communication sub-systems must be faced. In this work, a 3Dprinted ABS antenna easily embeddable in a plastic CubeSat is proposed. The 3D-printed material has been characterized in terms of dielectric, mechanical and thermal properties, and the compliance with space requirements has been assessed. In particular, thermogravimetric and calorimetric tests have been carried out. Static and dynamic mechanical analysis were performed. To comply with the stringent weight and space requirements, the unique antenna design of a curved stacked patch has been proposed. The patch covers the uplink (2.025–2.11 GHz) and downlink (2.2–2.29 GHz) bands for Telemetry Tracking and Command (TT&C) applications, with an overall bandwidth of about 300 MHz (14%). Additionally, taking advantage of the curved shape, the proposed antenna shows a size reduction of the resonant length of about 34%. The size of the antenna is $71.5 \times 71.5 \times 13$ mm3 and is characterized by a weight of only 51 g. Also, in silico tests, by relying on the measured physical properties and a non-linear numerical model, have been carried out to assess the performances of the final antenna layout during a typical CubeSat mission. The proposed design strategy could be used to develop plastic CubeSats embedding performing antennas.

The evolution of consumption habits, in search of more natural products, increasingly requires the use of genetic resources to satisfy the demands of society. Considering that many of these resources come from transboundary species and that access to them and their use in research and technological development is primarily regulated by international ABS regimes, the article exposes some of the limits of international standards, especially the Nagoya Protocol, when dealing with these situations in particular, identifying the intention in the elaboration of the regimes. Based on this analysis, a regional solution is proposed, allied to the existing trend towards the elaboration of norms at this level of governance, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the regimes. To implement this solution, the use of blockchain technology is suggested to create distributed platforms that can serve different countries, traditional peoples and users involved in activities with genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge. The technology allows for greater transparency, traceability and decentralization of data, in addition to allowing automation and cost reduction of several operations, among other attributes, although it is not free of limits, challenges and criticisms.

Additive manufacturing techniques continue to develop and cover all industrial fields. However, the performances of aspect and mechanical behavior of the parts obtained by this process remain to be mastered and are still the subject of current research works. Among these performances, the one corresponding to the resistance to the propagation of cracks. In order to improve this very interesting property in various industrial fields, it is desirable to master the understanding of crack propagation in this type of structure obtained by 3D printing. The objective of this paper is to analyze and understand the effect of the adopted raster angle on the crack propagation in SENT specimens obtained by FDM in ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene). Two approaches were developed: one is experimental to determine the critical stress intensity factor KIC and the other is numerical to predict the possible paths of crack propagation.

This study aims to assess the delamination effect and predict the evolution of damage in 3D printed specimens to investigate the mechanical behavior occurring due to the delamination of the layers of 3D printed thermoplastic polymers. Thus, additively manufactured ABS samples are subjected to tensile tests Made for different thicknesses of specimens by subtracting layer by layer. The mechanical behavior of the layers and the adherence between the layers are studied in this paper. The deposition of the layers is modeled as a laminated material. The delamination effect on the resistance of printed material is evaluated experimentally by comparing the mechanical characteristics of homogenously printed specimens, and laminated layers gathered together. Thus, the global resistance is reduced significantly due to the lack of adherence. Besides, crack growth, and critical intensity factor investigation are based on damage and rupture mechanics theories. Furthermore, the results allowed us to evaluate the energy behavior of the 3D printed material subjected to static loads and subsequently predict the evolution of the damage and find out the impact of layers' delamination. Indeed, we determined three stages of damage along with the critical life fraction leading to the failure of the specimen.

A satisfactory reproduction of three-point bending and impact test data of an industrially important amorphous polymer, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), in the context of finite element analysis is of prime importance to industry. Constitutive material models developed for amorphous polymers are capable of describing their complex mechanical behavior under multiaxial loadings with a variety of success; therefore, the computational accuracy directly depends on the selection of constitutive model and a proper determination of its associated parameters. Thus, this study aimed at accurately predicting the multiaxial mechanical behavior of ABS by the Anand–Gurtin elastic–viscoplastic material model selected as the constitutive model and employed for the first time in the numerical implementations of the three-point bending and impact tests of ABS. To this end, the constitutive model parameters never identified for ABS before was first determined mainly depending on uniaxial compression test data at various strain rates ranging from 2 × 10−4 s−1 to 2 × 10−1 s−1 and then validated against tension test data for a broad range of strain rates varying from 1 × 10−3 s−1 to 45 s−1. All the experimental data taken into consideration in this study was taken from the previous studies of authors. The material model with the validated constitutive parameters of ABS was utilized in the numerical implementation of three-point bending tests for two different bending speeds (0.05–10 mm/s), in addition, impact tests for two various low impact velocities (4.43–6.23 m/s). Numerical results revealed that the constitutive model successfully reproduces the three-point bending test data of ABS for both bending speeds but acceptably overestimates the impact response of ABS under both low impact velocities in terms of peak impact load. Hence, it was concluded that this computationally inexpensive complex material model with the constitutive parameters determined for ABS can be used in the accurate prediction of its multiaxial material behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The manufacturing of machine parts with additive methods (AM) is of significant importance in modern industry. The development of 3D printers and all 3D printing technology is impressive. The ability to make parts quickly and relatively cheaply with AM gives excellent opportunities in terms of e.g., shortening the production preparation time. Proper selection of printing parameters allows for a significant reduction of printing time and production costs. Unfortunately, this has different consequences. Due to the course of the printing process and the parameters that can be set, the same product produced with different parameters has different mechanical properties – mainly different strength. This paper presents the impact of 3D printing parameters on the strength of manufactured parts. Strength tests were carried out on samples made in accordance with DIN EN ISO 527-1:2019. The samples were printed in technology FDM from three different materials, i.e. PLA (completely biodegradable), PETG (recycled material) and Smart ABS (material with minimal shrinkage). The tested samples were made in three levels of print filling – 10, 30 and 60% and with different types of filling – line, mesh and honeycomb. A series of static tensile tests were carried out to determine the strength of the samples produced with different printing parameters. Thanks to the obtained test results, it is possible to select the optimal printing parameters depending on the forecast load of the manufactured parts. The manufacturing of machine parts with additive methods (AM) is of significant importance in modern industry. The development of 3D printers and all 3D printing technology is impressive. The ability to make parts quickly and relatively cheaply with AM gives excellent opportunities in terms of e.g., shortening the production preparation time. Proper selection of printing parameters allows for a significant reduction of printing time and production costs. Unfortunately, this has different consequences. Due to the course of the printing process and the parameters that can be set, the same product produced with different parameters has different mechanical properties – mainly different strength. This paper presents the impact of 3D printing parameters on the strength of manufactured parts. Strength tests were carried out on samples made in accordance with DIN EN ISO 527-1:2019. The samples were printed in technology FDM from three different materials, i.e. PLA (completely biodegradable), PETG (recycled material) and Smart ABS (material with minimal shrinkage). The tested samples were made in three levels of print filling – 10, 30 and 60% and with different types of filling – line, mesh and honeycomb. A series of static tensile tests were carried out to determine the strength of the samples produced with different printing parameters. Thanks to the obtained test results, it is possible to select the optimal printing parameters depending on the forecast load of the manufactured parts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is one of the low-cost 3D printing techniques for the preparation of innovative composite structures using thermoplastic materials. The manufacturing of mechanically sustainable composites structures are currently needed. In the recent past, few scientific studies have reported modifying the mechanical properties of thermoplastic material using the metal spraying method by the FFF process. In this study, the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS-based thermoplastic composites structures have been prepared by Aluminum (Al) metal spray. To investigate the effect of Al spray reinforcement, three input parameters have been selected: the number of sprayed layers (2, 3, and 4), infill pattern (line, triangle, and cubic), and infill density (60, 80, and 100%). The results of the study suggested that maximum strength at peak and maximum strength at break have been observed for composite structures prepared with three number of Al spray layers, triangular-shaped infill printing pattern, and 100% infill density. The genetic algorithm-based multi-objective analysis has been performed for the selection of optimum process parameters. Results of the study were supported with crystallinity analysis using x-ray diffraction (XRD), particle analysis using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and fracture analysis using optical microscopy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mattel's Barbie dolls are the most famous and iconic dolls since 1959. Today, they are being collected by individuals and often conserved in museum environments due to their cultural and historical significance reflecting everyday life and historical events. However, just like most museum objects made of plastics, both historical and more recent Barbies show evident degradation phenomena. Firstly, Barbies were made of plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC), affected by the migration of additives—mostly the plasticizers—from the bulk phase to the outermost layer, appearing as a tacky and glossy exudate. Over the years, Barbies' polymeric constituents were replaced with more stable ones, whose additives migration is limited compared to PVC, even though still occurring. Multispectral photography in visible (VIS) and ultraviolet (UV) light, microscopical observations in VIS and UV light, and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy in the Attenuated Total Reflectance mode (FT-IR ATR) were performed to characterize the constituent materials of 15 Barbies produced between 1959 and 1976, bridging the information gap on their processing over the years. The micro-invasive multi-analytical approach also allowed for the characterization of the degradation products, permitting the reference of the exudated compound to the specific bulk polymer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present work is to evaluate the influence of material color on mechanical properties of fused deposition modeling (FDM) parts. The performance of the products is evaluated by testing eight different colors of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) material in terms of tensile strength, compressive strength, and flexural strength. The analysis of data shows a significant difference in mechanical characteristics of prints depending on filament color. For different colors, these three strengths almost follow the same rising and falling tendency. In order to explore the relationship between mechanical strengths and filament colors, the color-mixing theory and the least-squares method are adopted to fit the best ratio coefficients of different color combinations. Results are presented showing that the strength value (e.g., tensile) of the mixed color can be evaluated through that of primary colors by fitting the other strength (e.g., compressive or flexural). It is shown that the predicted value is always no more than 7% error compared with the actual strength, in spite of two-color or three-color mixtures. An additional confirmation test with seven colored PLA filaments from different suppliers was conducted to focus on the extensibility. The outcomes show the maximum fitting errors of strengths for mixed colors in all cases are within 5%, proving the effectiveness and applicability of this predicted approach. This study can bring a detailed analysis that enables better estimation of the function of material color and contributes to improving the property of FDM printed products for consumers by choosing the suitable filament color. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of components obtained through the additive manufacturing (AM) technique has become increasingly widespread in recent years, playing a central role in industrial production, and in particular in some fields such as automotive, biomedical, aerospace and electronics. Among all AM techniques, FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling) represents the most used printing technique to produce polymeric and composite components, thanks to the flexible printing process, the low cost and the diversity of the materials adopted. The aim of the present work concerns the comparison between the mechanical properties of three plastic materials printed with the FDM technique (polylactic acid PLA, polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified PETG and Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ABS) using an Original Prusa i3 MK3S, by varying the raster angle between 0°, 45° and 90° degrees. Infrared Thermography has been adopted to monitor the temperature evolution during static tensile tests and to assess stress level that can initiate damage within the material. Failure analysis was performed to correlate the mechanical behaviour with the microstructural characteristics of the materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thanks to dyeing of polymers, the possibilities of their use are constantly increasing. It is equally important to use additives that will have several functions. A perfect example is titanium dioxide used as an optical brightener and a flame retardant at the same time. Mostly it is used in the form of a powder. However, there are no studies where TiO2 is used as a colourbatch based on the different polymer matrix. The aim of the work was to investigate the effect of titanium white in the form of colourbatch on the flammability and selected properties of mouldings produced in various processing conditions. Colourbatch based on PS matrix, was used in the research. The variable processing parameters were: injection temperature Tw, volume flow rate Vw, residence time and the addition of a colourbatch. On the basis of the measurements, it was found that the processing conditions and the addition of the colourbatch have low effect on the hardness of the mouldings, which was in the range from 75.59o Sh D (Shore type D) to 81.95o Sh D. It was also noted that the addition of colourbatch with TiO2 and increasing injection temperature reduces impact strength even by several dozen percent. Moreover, it was found that use of TiO2 causes a delay in the ignitability of the samples in selected cases. It is difficult to determine whether the variable processing conditions or the addition of TiO2 on the PS matrix have a greater impact on the ignitability of the moulded parts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adsorption behavior of Ba2+, Co2+, and Sr2+ ions from aqueous solutions by sulfonated poly (acrylonitrile‐butadiene‐styrene) (ABS-SO3H) was investigated. The structure of (ABS-SO3H) was confirmed using available spectroscopic tools such as Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and FT-IR together with DSC and TGA analyses in addition to EDX spectra. Various parameters including contact time, pH, adsorbent weight, and the initial metal concentration that affect the adsorption process, were investigated. The results indicated that the removal of Ba2+, Sr2+, and Co2+ increased with the increasing pH of a solution until pH =7 at a contact time of 1 h. The maximum adsorption capacity was calculated, and it was found to be 157.3, 107.5, 177 mg/g for Ba2+, Co2+, and Sr2+ ions, respectively. The kinetic study indicated that the adsorption process of Ba2+, Sr2+, and Co2+ using ABS-SO3H could be fitted to the pseudo second-order kinetic model (R2 =0.998). The Freundlich isotherm could be used to interpret the adsorption mechanism of Ba2+, Sr2+, and Co2+ by (ABS-SO3H). The separation feasibility of Ba2+, Sr2+, and Co2+ from a simulated aqueous solution was also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plastic gear applications are rapidly increasing in transmission systems in automotive, domestic and kitchen machineries. Biopolymer gears are now being preferred over polymer gears due to its biodegradable properties. Hence, a comparative investigation of wear characteristics between polymer and biopolymer gears is studied. Injection molded biopolymer, PLA (polylactic acid) gear and polymer, ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) gear have been fabricated with appropriate properties. Gears are experimentally tested for the period of 3 h at three different rotational speeds (500, 1000 & 1500 rpm) with and without load (1 kg). Wear debris, material loss, thermal damage and microstructure surface condition monitoring have been investigated. PLA presents better adhesive wear resistance and shows thermal deformation and tooth breakage. Biopolymer gives better thermal and wear resistance than polymer gear. At low rotational speed of 500 rpm under no-loading condition, both PLA and ABS show higher weight loss and wear rate due to thermal damage occurred due to gear pump effect. Whereas when load is applied, PLA shows wear loss at all rotational speeds due to inferior thermal conductivity and ABS shows wear loss at high rotational speeds of 1000 rpm or 1500 rpm due to loading effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incorporation of plastic aggregates as a partial replacement of natural aggregates in cementitious materials is interesting in several ways. From a mechanical point of view, the partial substitution of sand with plastic aggregates could improve some properties (e.g., ductility, thermal insulation). This paper deals with the mechanical strength of mortars containing plastic aggregates as a partial replacement of sand. Part of the volume of sand in cement mortars is substituted with plastic aggregates which originate from WEEE (Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment) and consist of a mix of ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene), HIPS (high impact polystyrene) and PP (Polypropylene), or of monomaterial ABS from WEEE sorting. Three rates of replacement (by volume of sand) were tested: 10%, 15% and 30%. Mechanical tests were performed according to European standard EN196-1. The results show that compressive and flexural strength decrease with rate of replacement, but remain satisfactory for structural purposes. In addition, the density of mortar is reduced with the incorporation of plastic aggregates. The decrease of mechanical strength is mainly due to the weak bond between cement paste and plastic aggregates leading to the increase of porosity. Furthermore, it appears that mortars containing plastic aggregates could present a ductile rupture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fabricating complex parts using additive manufacturing is becoming more popular in diverse engineering sectors. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) methods can be implemented to reduce inspection costs and ensure structural integrity and safety in these parts. In this study, the Surface Response to Excitation (SuRE) method was used to investigate the wave propagation characteristics and load sensing capability in conventionally and additively manufactured ABS parts. For the first set of the test specimens, one conventionally manufactured and three additively manufactured rectangular bar-shaped specimens were prepared. Moreover, four additional parts were also additively manufactured with 30% and 60% infill ratios and 1 mm and 2 mm top surface thicknesses. The external geometry of all parts was the same. Ultrasonic surface waves were generated using three different signals via a piezoelectric actuator bonded to one end of the part. At the other end of each part, a piezoelectric disk was bonded to monitor the response to excitation. It was found that hollow sections inside the 3D printed part slowed down the wave travel. The Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) and Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) were implemented for converting the recorded sensory data into time–frequency images. These image datasets were fed into a convolutional neural network for the estimation of the compressive loading when the load was applied at the center of specimens at five different levels (0 N, 50 N, 100 N, 150 N, and 200 N). The results showed that the classification accuracy was improved when the CWT scalograms were used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]