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Teaching record keeping for breeding projects in a way that keeps youths engaged is a difficult task. The activity discussed in this article was used to teach 4-H participants the importance of record keeping by implementing the experiential learning model and without lecturing. A description of the activity, instructions and materials for the activity, and responses to the activity are presented.

Obstacles facing new 4-H volunteers include time constraints and difficulty finding project-specific information, resources, and opportunities available for club members. As a solution to these obstacles and an aid for assisting volunteers in becoming confident in delivering information to youth, content experts produced Discover 4-H Clubs, a collection of curriculum guides. Volunteers across the globe have taken advantage of this free online teaching tool. As new curriculum guides are developed, more information is made available to meet the needs of 4-H volunteers. In this article, implications for Extension are outlined, and a call to action is extended.

This article describes Marathon Month, a workplace wellness program for Extension employees. The program promoted physical activity by challenging employees to walk or run the length of a marathon (26.2 mi) or half marathon (13.1 mi) over the course of 1 month. Of the 317 participants, 90% achieved a self-set goal of completing a full or half marathon, and 31% reported losing weight, with an average weight loss of 4.2 lb per person. Another reported benefit was increased workplace camaraderie. A number of practical ideas, such as sending email reminders and using social media, are provided to facilitate replication in other states.

Lack of adequate access to capital is a major barrier for rural entrepreneurs. Washington State University Extension and the Association of Washington Cities partnered to explore and test an innovative local investment approach that provides access to capital and engages the community in the success of individual businesses. The approach offers local residents the opportunity to invest in local businesses and entrepreneurs the opportunity to find funding through an alternative method. The pilot project engaged more than 26 investors in two communities and led to investment in multiple businesses.

We present the results of a longitudinal evaluation of the Western Region 4-H Institute, a 5-day training program designed to enhance the skill sets of early-career Extension professionals organized around the 4-H professional research, knowledge, and competencies model. Programs such as this often are assessed for their short-term relevance and effectiveness; we expanded the scope of our evaluation by following up with program participants 12 months after the program. Both short- and medium-term results indicated that networking and developing effective programs for youth were paramount for participants, suggesting the importance of providing professional development opportunities for early-career professionals.

Using social media is an inexpensive, innovative approach to supplementing direct education provided by the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP). Focus group research was conducted with EFNEP paraprofessionals (n = 33) and participants (n = 39) to inform the development of a social media presence for the program. Although recommendations by EFNEP's social media committee focus on providing online articles, focus group results suggest that content should be presented as colorful pictures and videos, portraying recipes and nutrition tips. Also, the study highlights the importance of using engaging, colorful visuals when using social media as a form of indirect education.

This article reports on an analysis of the effects of a quasinatural experiment in which 16 rural communities participated in public discussion, leadership training, and community visioning as part of an Extension program at Montana State University. Difference-in-differences methods reveal that key U.S. Census socioeconomic indicators either improved more rapidly or declined more slowly in communities that took part in the program, relative to a statistically matched control group. These findings offer persuasive circumstantial evidence for the ability of Extension programs to build community resilience. The findings and methodology, therefore, have important implications for Extension's role in current public and academic resilience planning discourses.

Purpose: This paper aims to examine factors which influence how tacit knowledge is built and applied by client-facing consultants. Design/methodology/approach: Qualitative methods (interviews, thematic analysis) were used to gather and analyse data from 15 consultants in an agricultural extension context. Findings: Twenty-six factors about how tacit knowledge is built and applied to action emerged, and are presented grouped into four areas: tacit knowledge needed to be successful; how tacit knowledge is presently built; challenges in turning knowledge into action; and ways that building tacit knowledge might be better supported by the organization. Practical implications: How the building of tacit knowledge can be accelerated for new organizational members will be of interest to those not only in agricultural extension, but more generally to those managers in organizations who must design and implement training and mentoring programmes for those who support customers and users of their products and services. Originality/value: The findings provide insight into the mechanisms of building tacit knowledge in client-facing consultants. The experience-based perceptions about effective knowledge-building processes and strategies may contribute to more effective intake and training programmes for consultants.

Purpose: To analyze the Brazilian experience in designing and implementing a recent extension policy reform based on agroecology, and reflect on its wider theoretical implications for extension reform literature. Design/methodology/approach: Using a critical public analysis we characterize the evolution of Brazilian federal extension policy between 2004 and 2015, using political and legal documents as well as recent academic studies for policy frame characterization and implementation analysis. Findings: The case reveals the difficulty of implementing an agroecological extension approach as part of the endogenous development proposal expressed in 2004 PNATER. The agroecological proposal tended to be impaired by a more general demand for diverse public policy programs implementation, facing a series of institutional constraints. A policy reframing process led to a search for alternatives to make it compatible with a federal centralization trend and public administration rules, resulting in a contracting out emphasis. Theoretical implications: The study shows the political economy aspects of extension reform, and how original plans are influenced by path dependence and different and contrasting demands. Practical implications: The study points to the importance of considering political and institutional environments in extension reforms, and indicates a necessity for additional reflection about strategies for scaling up proposals for agroecological and sustainability oriented extension. Originality/value: Few studies are dedicated to understanding the political economy of extension reform, and reform of Brazilian rural extension systems.

Purpose: In this paper, the knowledge dynamics of the farmer-rural extensionist' interface were explored from extensionists' perspective with the aim of understanding the matchmaking processes between supply and demand of extension services at the micro-level. Design/methodology/approach: Forty semi-structured interviews were conducted with extensionists whom work in the North-Eastern, Argentine provinces. Findings: Two different, general types of knowledge dynamics were identified: one moderately diffusionist, based on a hierarchical relationship and the prioritisation of experts' knowledge, and the other constructivist, based on horizontal processes of co-construction. Interestingly, some extensionists support beliefs pertaining to both approaches. They also highlight the importance of unceremonious trainings, interpersonal trust and making recommendations that take into account farmers' rationale. Practical implications: Results show the persistence of diffusionist rural extension and that extensionists have different, even contradictory, extension approaches, which renders inappropriate any attempt to generalise their perspectives. Theoretical implications: This study suggests that farmers' demand is the result of a constructive, interactive process, and thus is not prior to the interaction between the demand side (farmers) and the supply side (extensionists). Consequently, the knowledge and power dynamics that take place within the farmer-extensionist interface should be considered the nucleus of demand construction and the matchmaking process. Originality/value: This paper addresses the dynamic matchmaking process between supply and demand of extension services at the micro-level, suggesting it is a constructive process and showing the core role played by power dynamics.

Purpose: To examine the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the adoption of best practice with regard to herd-level mastitis management. Design/Methodology/Approach: Somatic cell count (SCC) is an indicator of herd health with regard to mastitis and is negatively related to productivity and profitability. Panel data regression methods are utilised here to quantify the role of agricultural education and extension in reducing cell count and in influencing farmer best practice with regard to herd health. The impact of education and extension on farmer uptake of milk recording is of particular interest. Data utilised is farm-level Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) data for Ireland over a five-year period (2008-2012). Findings: Farmer uptake of formal agricultural training and liaison with agricultural extension services are shown to significantly improve mastitis herd health. Collectively, education, extension and milk recording results in an overall SCC reduction of 25% for the average herd. Farmers who undertook agricultural training were ten times more likely to monitor milk quality through milk recording compared to those who had not. Additionally, those farmers in contact with an extension service and also participated in a dairy discussion group were seven times more likely to practice milk recording. Practical Implications: The importance of farmer behaviour in the optimum management of herd health has been validated, as has the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the uptake of best practice by farmers. Originality/Value: To date little research has been conducted using nationally representative herd-level data on the role of agricultural education and extension in improving animal health best practice.

Purpose: The study aims at analysing the influence of demographics factors on inclusion of agriculture in school curriculum. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study was conducted in five villages of Rewari district in Haryana using a Mixed Methods Research Approach. After a qualitative discussion with the parents in groups, a personal interview survey was administered among 75 parents having diverse demographic and socio-economic profiles. The descriptive statistics and chi-square tests have been used for validating the hypotheses on parents' perception towards inclusion of agriculture in school curriculum. Findings: Result of the study shows that parents who are older in age, farmers by occupation and have landholdings greater than three acres view the inclusion of agriculture in curriculum in a positive manner. It was also found that parents who viewed vocational training favourably also viewed inclusion of agriculture positively. Practical Implications: This research has an implication for policy makers and school administrators while formulating teaching and learning strategies. The study also provides insights in school curriculum development by the educationists based on local requirement. Originality/Value: There are limited numbers of studies which have evaluated parent's perception on inclusion of agriculture in the school curriculum.

Purpose: This paper explores the interaction between extension services and gender relations in order to suggest ways and strategies that can be useful in ensuring that extension services are gender-equitable and empowering for women. Design/Methodology/Approach: In total, 35 sex-disaggregated focus group discussions with farmers, and 4 interviews with extension officers were conducted in Dedza and Ntcheu districts. Data on the type of training offered, training participants recruitment methods, as well as data on barriers to and opportunities for training were collected. A social relations approach, focusing on gender relations, was used to analyse the data. Findings: Underlying gender norms and cultural norms mediate access to information. For instance, some men regard themselves as representatives of their households during training and, to some extent, extension officers reinforce these views by using biased training recruitment methods. Gender norms related to household decision-making impact on the ability of women to access training opportunities. Practical implications: Agricultural extension should not be a purely technical programme focusing only on good agricultural practices. It should also embed modules aimed at addressing social practices that disadvantage some people, particularly women, as well as adopt gender sensitive recruitment methods that do not rely on male-biased recruitment channels. Originality/Value: The social relations approach used, focusing on gender relations, is aimed at trying to come up with the conditions necessary for agricultural training to be empowering for women. This paper is therefore of interest to extension agents and other development practitioners interested in women's empowerment and the transformation of gender relations.

Purpose: We investigated how information resource diversification can enhance smallholder agricultural knowledge in Ghana. Design/Methodology/Approach: Study tools and methods were questionnaire survey (N = 200), focus group discussion (N = 1), in-depth interviews (N = 18) and field direct observation. Findings: This study shows there existed diversity of information resources in Hohoe. This diversity was, however, devoid of a broad integration process to enhance smallholder access to and use of agricultural information. We demonstrate that new information channels or sources cannot function independently, but rather through an integrated approach that relies on a human facet of extension. Practical Implications: We illustrate the need for integrated extension that includes interactive field modules such as basic cell phone decision guides that support smallholder construction of solutions for their circumstances. This process requires new sets of smallholder skills and holistic extension schemes that diversify information resources through incorporation and adaptation, rather than substitution. New information resources can only be gradually mainstreamed through integration with more familiar extension means. They need a human interface because smallholder householders did not require same types and/or amounts of information. Human interface is essential to ensure critical groups including women access and utilise agricultural information resources, but without entrenching unfair task allocations among smallholder householders. Originality/Value: This paper illustrates how extension can be strengthened through new approaches. However, new approaches such as use of basic cell phones cannot be standalone processes; they require a human interface and an integrated process. The article presents actual data collected from the Ghana.

Purpose: This paper discusses theoretical, policy and practical issues concerning the problem of "agrochemical dependency" in Thailand, including roles that public extension services play in advocacy or mitigation of agrochemical use. Methodology/Approach: Our research aimed to better understand department of agricultural extension (DOAE) institutional and officials' perceptions of contributing factors to agrochemical dependency as well as strategies for mitigating agrochemical use. We reviewed relevant policies, web materials and technical cooperation agreements. We supplemented theoretical and document analysis with interviews totaling 15 DOAE managers or senior officers comparing Bangkok headquarters and Nan Province perspectives. We refer to relevant secondary literatures for explanatory context. Findings: Results showed differences as well as similarities between views of DOAE officials in Bangkok headquarters and those from one province (Nan) about DOAE priorities, responsibilities and perceived reasons why farmers overuse agrochemicals or do not adopt organic agriculture (OA). A national policy encouraged "safe use" of agrochemicals but not (necessarily or effectively) mitigation while the DOAE still (to a much lesser extent) promoted self-sufficiency and OA alternatives. Interviews and documentary evidence revealed DOAE public-private partnerships with corporate advice, technical support, human resources and learning activities that encouraged or normalized agrochemical use and dependency.Practical Implications: Study results should be useful for governments, donors, international agencies and department officials in policy development, program planning, training design, budgeting and delivery. Originality/Value: This study is unique for: better understanding implications of agrochemical dependency and privatization of public extension services; analyzing factors inhibiting OA adoption; and examining contentious policies, partnerships, and training activities.

Public land-grant universities have historically engaged with the public through knowledge extension in the agricultural sciences, which later grew into other forms of outreach. Given the important mission of land-grant institutions to positively impact agricultural sciences, this inquiry focuses on the role of agricultural extension and the exchange of Indigenous knowledge through university programs. In a case study of a Native-serving institution with land-grant status, we explored the roles of Western and Indigenous science through interviews with university faculty and food producers. The responses demonstrate that perceptions of Native science in the Western knowledge environment are varied and can create a barrier between the University and the community. The barrier, in turn, can produce a gap that prevents the university from fully offering public benefits that are inclusive of Native peoples, perspectives, and science.

Purpose: As part of the institutional reforms and agricultural restructuring in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), this paper provides an assessment of the performance of the agricultural extension system as well as factors explaining it. Method: This paper involves key informants' interviews and surveys of 107 extension organizations and 162 extension agents in randomly selected 156 villages, analyzed using qualitative and logistic regression methods. Findings and Practical Implications: Results show that despite having one of the highest extension agent-to-farmer ratio and a pluralistic extension system, DRC fails to deliver knowledge and technologies to rural areas due to lack of coordination, no unified and clear policy and mandate, lack of funding, aging and low competencies of agents, and lack of mobility and interactions of agents with key factors. This paper complements findings by other studies that number of agents is not a sufficient indication of performance, but an effective system needs to focus on the enabling environment for agents to be motivated to work as mandated. In this paper, enabling conditions that are found to be statistically significant are external funding, enforcement of performance targets, systems of rewards and sanctions, mobility to foster linkages, and skills development. Originality: This paper contributes by: (1) analyzing a cross-section of various organizations and agents to identify factors that explain variations in performance in a statistical and systematic approach; (2) providing insights on how to prioritize investments and options for a fragile state like DRC, with weak infrastructure and institutional capacity and with a long history of neglect for their national extension system; and (3) illustrating how a rich and well-cited conceptual framework can be implemented empirically to provide policy options for a country like DRC.

Farmers and agricultural professionals who are aware of species likely to invade agricultural landscapes can be active participants in efforts to detect invasive species. To reach this audience we created a short invasive species program and added it to the existing and required pesticide applicator recertification workshops. We highlighted four invasive species that can affect rural landscapes. Publications were made available. As a result, farmers and agricultural professionals were very receptive to learning about invasive species that may affect their agricultural business. Teaching about invasive species through pesticide applicator programs is an effective way to reach agricultural and rural audiences.

Purpose: This paper reflects upon the practice of Argentine rural extensionists working in the extension public system through the process of identifying different rural extensionists' types of mindsets and comparing them with transfer of technology extension approach, dialogical processes of horizontal knowledge exchange, participatory perspectives and innovation system approach. Design/Methodology/approach: A quali-quantitative investigation was conducted. Surveys containing closed and open questions were sent via email to rural extensionists. This allowed the researcher to identify their beliefs about different issues connected to extension practice. The sample was incidental (n = 219; 143 men, 76 women). Qualitative data was categorized and quantified. Finally, a two-steps cluster analysis was implemented. Findings: Two types of rural extensionists' mindsets were identified, one of which relates to the transfer of technology approach and other to the dialogical/horizontal model, yet neither of them fitting the ideal of the most important extension institution of the country, which supports an innovation system approach. Practical implications: Extensionists' practices and institutional ideals do not coincide. Reflexive training processes are required to make beliefs about rural extension explicit in order to build a contextually suitable extension proposal. Originality/Value: Through a quali-quantitative approach to the issue of rural extensionists' mindsets, this paper contributes to a better understanding of Argentine rural extensionists' practices.

Purpose: The aim of this article to examine key irrigation management issues and their implications for future research and extension developments. Design/Methodology/Approach: Peri-urban landscapes are important as they supply fresh fruit, vegetables, turf, ornamental plants and other farm products to the cities. In this study, the Hawkesbury-Nepean Catchment (HNC) was used as a case study and a number of farmers were selected to examine how they use the available technologies for irrigation scheduling to make better decisions for developing water management strategies on their farms. The farmers who participated in the study were mainly growing fruit, turf, vegetables, pasture, olive trees and cut flowers. Findings: It was observed that a range of factors influenced correct irrigation scheduling decisions of farmers, including their limited understanding of the soil-water-plant relationship, costs of implementing soil-moisture monitoring technology and finding a date for irrigation activity that is compatible with their other farm tasks. It was also found that the farmers' experiential knowledge played an important role in their irrigation scheduling decisions. The study indicated that irrigation scheduling approaches, which have a low labour requirement and are cost effective and easy to use would be helpful to farmers. Practical Implications: The study highlighted that there are some irrigation management issues for research and extension that are specific to peri-urban farming and as such they need to be addressed to improve irrigation management and to cope with future water scarcity in urban and peri-urban landscapes. Originality/Value: This is one of few studies that examine irrigation scheduling issues in a peri-urban context. The study has revealed that irrigation scheduling in reality cannot be an exact science, but it needs to accommodate various farmer constraints in field situations and may have implication for extension activities in peri-urban and other regions.

Purpose: This paper examines the benefits of using an outcome-based education (OBE) method within agricultural extension outreach programmes for professional and farmer audiences. Design/Methodology/Approach: The method is elaborated through two practical examples, which show that focused, short-duration programmes can produce meaningful skill development and impacts at the farm level. Both examples addressed pressing problems that were evolving during the education programme, and we sought a method that would respond adaptively to local circumstances and unanticipated changes. Key aspects of the method include strategic planning to properly focus education programmes, and the integration of data-driven decision support tool development to reduce uncertainty associated with the use of high-risk pest management inputs. Findings: Professionals and farmers increased their knowledge and skills related to pesticide management, and follow-up evaluation documented high levels of adoption of risk reduction and mitigation practices by farmers. Practical Implications: We recommend OBE for several reasons: (1) it uses a group process to elicit an accurate view of the system that learners operate within, (2) it provides cohesive and active learning with the potential for continuation, and (3) it enables feedback between all stages of programme development and implementation. Originality/Value: The most novel aspect of our adaptation of the OBE approach is the integration of, and feedback between, participatory programme design and tool development throughout the process, which maximises the value of each, and their ability to deliver outcomes. The OBE method integrates science, technology and social learning, and connects these with authentic problem-solving tasks to perpetuate learning beyond the classroom to where outcomes are attained.

Purpose: The objective of the study was to determine the level and determinants of demand for extension services among small-scale maize farmers in Kenya. Design/methodology/approach: Based on an exploratory research design, primary data were collected from a sample of 352 households through face-to-face interviews. Focus group discussions were used to collect contextual data. The sample comprised of organic and conventional small-scale maize farmers in Bungoma County, Kenya. In data analyses, descriptive statistics and a zero inflated negative binomial regression were employed. Findings: Results indicate that organic farmers had a mean of three contacts with extension providers compared to conventional farmers who had a mean of one contact during the year. Further, age of the household head, education level, farming experience, amount of off-farm income and credit received, group membership, land tenure and distance to the nearest extension service provider significantly influence the demand for extension services. Practical implications: The major policy implication from the findings is that; whether farmers are organic or conventional, extension agents should customize their services according to their clients' socio-economic characteristics in order to improve demand for agricultural extension services. Originality/value: The study contributes to knowledge by applying the count data models in modeling the determinants of demand for extension services at a micro-level.

Purpose: Changing research design and methodologies regarding how researchers articulate with end-users of technology is an important consideration in developing sustainable agricultural practices. This paper analyzes a joint experiment as a multi-stakeholder process and contributes to understand how the way of organizing social learning affects stakeholders' ownership of process outcomes. Design/Methodology/Approach:A learning group composed of the different stakeholders of the oil palm seed system in Benin was set around a joint experiment. We use a detailed account of the group dynamics to understand the social process. Findings: The way the process is designed and conducted has a great effect on the ownership by the participants. Methodological steps taken in this research process showed its efficacy to produce quick and positive feedback mechanisms. Stakeholders' perspectives on what constitutes a quality oil palm seedling varied widely. Participants, mainly nursery holders, learned new production practices. Representatives of the research center learned a mismatch of recommendations with users' contexts. Field observations further to the process indicate changes in practices among stakeholders that would be sustainable. Practical Implications: Beyond focusing on outcomes, initiatives in multi-stakeholder processes should also document and analyze social processes in order to better understand the mechanisms by which such processes foster socio-technical change, as well as identify potential institutional barriers to such processes. Originality/Value: Through a detailed analysis of group dynamics, this paper addresses an important knowledge gap in participatory agricultural development.

Purpose: Approaches to build farmers' analytical capacities are said to trigger wide-ranging changes. This article reports on the communication process between participants and non-participants in one such approach, related to the technical and management skills learned by participants and the changes these participants subsequently made, and the outcomes in terms of non-participants' learning. Design/Methodology/Approach: In this study, we analysed the following: (1) participants' learning and changes in social practices; (2) communication between participants and non-participants regarding technical and management skills and changes in social practices; (3) non-participants' learning and changes in social practices. The case study was a management advice to family farm project in three villages in Benin. Findings: Most participants learned management skills, which led them to reassess their objectives and to reduce traditional social practices they now considered unproductive. Even in the case of frequent communication, non-participants found it difficult to learn management skills, which hindered their experiential learning. Non-participants consequently had difficulty understanding why participants changed their social practices such as reduction of their traditional gift giving, leading to limited well-argued discussion about these changes in practices between participants and non-participants. Practical Implications: This study shows that, due to the limited learning process of nonparticipants communicating with participants, there is a need to design and test approaches to achieve capacity-building while including more participants at a similar cost, and to stimulate explicit discussion at village level about the changes in values and social practices that these approaches may trigger. Originality/Value: The article analyses both participants and non-participants' experiential learning, and looks at the two sides of the interaction between the communication processes and non-participants' learning.

Purpose: This paper explores the concept of peer-to-peer learning (P2PL) in the context of North-European small-scale forest owners. The aim is to develop a framework for initiating new and evaluating already existing forest owners' P2PL communities. Design: Previous studies of peer-learning are used to determine and justify eight dimensions for forest owners' P2PL. To demonstrate and test the operability of the dimensions, two potential forest owners' peer-learning cases are described. The Finnish case focuses on forest owner clubs based on group interview data and the coordinator's interview, and in the Swedish case an ongoing study circle was observed and its participants interviewed. Findings: The eight P2PL dimensions defined are: initiation, reinforcement, content profile, participant profile, schedule, role of professionals, responsibility and role continuity. Of the described cases, Finnish forest owner clubs rely heavily on the expertise of the invited forest professionals, while owners themselves have a stronger role in Swedish study circles. Practical Implications: The two studied cases and the fictional example demonstrate how the framework defined can be used when assessing real life cases. The framework allows describing consistently P2PL, when designing new practices or implementing step-by-step changes to modify existing P2PL practices. Value: The framework gives new insights into the research of forest owner extension, which has had an increasing interest towards P2PL approach, but where its conceptualisation has remained vague. However, since the domain of the study is novel, further research with various case examples is needed to develop both the theoretical framework and real life practices.

Purpose: This paper identifies the stakeholders of System of Rice Intensification (SRI), their roles and actions and the supporting and enabling environment of innovation in the state as the elements of the Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS) in SRI in Tripura state of India and studies the relationship matrix among the stakeholders. Methodology: A descriptive research design was followed to study the agricultural innovation system in SRI. Criterion and expert sampling were employed to select the stakeholders and data was collected by a personal interview method with the help of a semi-structured schedule. Actor Linkage Matrix was employed to study the linkage among the stakeholders in the innovation systems. Findings: The major stakeholders of the innovation systems were the public extension system and the farmers. A unique role of popularization and dissemination of the agricultural technology among the farmers was played by the Panchayati Raj Institutions, the democratic decentralized administrative units at the grass-root level for the dissemination. The relationship between the farmers and the Department of Agriculture, Government of Tripura was found to be strong. The farmers, even though they were primary stakeholders, were not much integrated in the system in decision-making. Media, an important stakeholder for creating awareness, was found to be working independently in the state to create awareness on SRI. The enabling environment for innovation was supported to a great extent by the policies and political and administrative support structures in the state by assisting the farmers in growing rice through SRI. Practical Implications: This paper concentrates on how the integration of stakeholders in the SRI innovation systems has promoted knowledge generation, management, sharing, and learning in SRI, which can be effectively applied in other crops and sectors in India and the developing world. Originality: The paper is one of the very few studies conducted to understand the stakeholders of SRI in the context of Agricultural Innovation Systems in North East India.

Purpose: We investigate how the structural conditions of eight different European agricultural innovation systems can facilitate or hinder collaboration and social learning in multidisciplinary innovation networks. Methodology: We have adapted the Innovation System Failure Matrix to investigate the main barriers and enablers eight countries (England, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, The Netherlands and Switzerland). Findings: Results show some of the recent trends the AKS actors in these countries have experienced and how these have affected their potential to act as collaborators in multidisciplinary innovation networks. Lack of funds, combined with horizontal and vertical fragmentation and the lack of proper evaluation criteria for collaborative innovation networks are among the most important threats we found. Practical Implications: This study shows that each national AIS has some unique features. This means that the implementation of policies promoting collaboration and social learning (e.g. the European Innovation Partnerships and Operational Groups) should depend on a critical reflection of the existing structural elements of the AIS in each country and whether there is a need for inclusion of new actors, or whether certain innovations for collective goods should be promoted. Originality: The paper contributes to the ongoing discussion in the scientific literature on the advantages and disadvantages of privatization of extension and advisory services and the shift from thinking in terms of the traditional Agricultural Knowledge System towards a broader Agricultural Innovation System.

Objective: This study describes perceived levels of involvement in school-based Response to Intervention (RtI) initiatives as reported by occupational therapy (OT) practitioners from different types of communities (i.e., rural, suburban, and urban). In addition, it identifies differences among practice patterns of rural OT practitioners, compared to those from different communities, and provides suggestions for future research and training. Method: A postal survey was sent to a random sample of 1,000 OT practitioners from the American Occupational Therapy Association's Early Intervention and School Systems Special Interest Section. Results: The survey had a 29.5% response rate (n = 295 OT practitioners). Twenty surveys (6.8%) were excluded due to missing or incomplete data. Two hundred and seventy five surveys were analyzed. OT practitioners in rural communities (58.1%; n = 50) were more likely to report participation in early identification of students benefiting from RtI interventions than practitioners in other communities. Practitioners in rural settings were also more likely to participate in universal screenings (33.7%; n = 29) and to cite a lack of resources as a limiting factor to their work in RtI (77.9%; n = 67). Conclusion: OT Practitioners in rural communities may be involved in key RtI practices more often than OT practitioners in urban and suburban contexts. Rural practitioners report this increased level of involvement despite a perceived lack of resources. More research is needed to understand how rural OT practitioners are involved in universal screening and to identify the resources that they believe they are lacking.

Google Earth is an accessible, user-friendly GIS that can help landowners in their management planning. I offered hands-on Google Earth workshops to landowners to teach skills, including mapmaking, length and area measurement, and database management. Workshop participants were surveyed at least 6 months following workshop completion, and learning outcomes as well as landowner application of Google Earth were assessed. Participants made significant gains in Google Earth skill level immediately following workshop completion, but longer-term skill retention was variable. Most participants found Google Earth to be a valuable tool for a variety of land management purposes.

Extension educators have new computer-assisted tools as audience response systems (clickers) for increasing educational effectiveness and improving assessment by facilitating client input. From 2010-2012, 26 sessions involving 1093 participants in six diverse client categories demonstrated wide audience acceptance and suitability of clickers in agricultural and horticultural programming. Farmers, ag students, and Master Gardeners provided anonymous information using wireless clickers. Analyzed data was shared in each session. Such user-friendly technology improved pedagogy with rapid and sustained learner engagement and through enhanced peer-to-peer instruction. Pre-post assessment and re-teaching techniques provided documentation for group demographics, educational evaluation, and programmatic impacts.

Extension educators provide resources to community coalitions. The study reported here adds to what is known about community coalitions and applies an assessment framework to a state-level coalition-based Extension program on healthy relationships and marriages. The study combines the Internal Coalition Outcome Hierarchy (ICOH) framework with four coalition capacity categories: general, internal, external, and prevention. The findings from two focus groups, one with formation coalition leaders and one with midlevel coalition leaders, are presented. Recommendations are made for designing educational, service, and evaluation interventions to meet the needs of community coalitions at specific developmental stages.

As our world becomes more interconnected on international, domestic, and personal levels, our need to be more culturally competent increases (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2007; Ting-Toomey, 1999). Recognizing this need, Washington State University Extension sought to increase skills of its personnel by developing a set of cultural competencies and training curriculum. This article describes the process of creating, implementing, and evaluating the training. Examples are offered to show how WSU Extension addressed quality standards for successful implementation of diversity training models as outlined by Bendick et al. (2001), serving as guidelines for other Extension organizations with similar goals.

Purpose: Capacity development for agricultural research and development is missing an opportunity. Initiatives tend to focus on developing capacity of individuals and even when the ultimate aim is social change leave the transformation of individual into social learning largely to chance. I use the lens of social learning systems, particularly concepts from Community of Practice theory, to explore how that theory can provide practical insights into transforming individual into social learning and the design considerations that would support this. Design/methodology/approach: Using as a case study a professional development programme, African Women in Agricultural Research and Development (AWARD), I conducted a use-oriented systemic inquiry among 26 AWARD participants, with myself as informed investigator within the system of inquiry. Data from interviews and questionnaires were subjected to qualitative analysis using analytic induction with sensitizing concepts from Community of Practice theory. Practical implications: I identify strengths and challenges, and provide five design considerations that might enable the individuals participating in a capacity development programme to continue to engage after the programme ends and self-organize for concerted action. Originality/value: The originality of this research article is the use of the three central Community of Practice concepts of domain, community and practice as analytical tools for understanding individual and social learning among the alumni of a professional capacity development programme. This has value for designers of capacity development initiatives.

Purpose: Many farmers remain hesitant to implement structured management plans and strategies tailored to address soil health, irrespective of mounting scientific evidence for the credibility of certain soil health indicators, an increase in the reporting of program benefits and progress in communicating these benefits. Hence, the purpose of this research is to better understand the impediments associated with the adoption of such programs. Design: Non-parametric analysis of a mail-based survey supported with content analysis of landholder comments was used. Findings: This research highlights that impediments to the adoption of soil health programs are affected by region and that this is likely influenced by the availability, enthusiasm and motivation of surrounding environmental service providers. While the initial investment in soil health management is perceived as an impediment, landholders indicate that production longevity and long-term financial gain are achievable. Education is not viewed as an impediment by landholders, but cannot be ruled out as an impediment due to the increasing complexities of farming and the displayed knowledge of landholders. Practical implications: Impediments and incentives to the adoption of soil health management plans have been identified. This provides for strategic planning in promotion and adoption of such plans, as well as identifying priority issues of concern. Originality/Value: In investigating the impediments and incentives associated with adoption of soil health management plans, strategies for adoption can be formulated and pressing areas of concern are identified.

Purpose: The rapidly evolving nature of agricultural innovation processes in low-income countries requires agricultural extension agencies to transform the classical roles that previously supported linear information dissemination and adoption of innovation. In Bangladesh, strengthening agricultural innovation calls for facilitation of interactive communication and a wide range of mediation tasks within (and between) stakeholders operating in different social spheres. This paper examines how a public-sector agricultural extension agency has attempted to change its roles in implementing a major agricultural extension project in order to strengthen agricultural innovation. This role adjustment is a key outcome of an effectively functioning innovation system because it enables collective actions and enhances performance that meets the needs of clients. Methodology: The study uses a case study design that includes mixed methods data collection and analysis. Using interviews, group discussions, observations, and a semi-structured survey, data were collected from stakeholders of a major regional agricultural extension project in Bangladesh. Findings: The findings suggest that the agricultural extension agency missed the opportunity to deliver the agricultural extension project in such a way that it strengthens collective actions and functions that would respond to the needs of all clients within the system. This is due to institutions that create obstacles within the agricultural innovation system. These obstacles relate to the tendency to remain in a linear paradigm of technology transfer and dependency on public service, the under-estimation and depreciation of intermediary roles of extension personnel (e.g. brokering, negotiating, convening), and finally, an inability to foresee extension methods (e.g. training, demonstration) as the facilitation of interactive learning and knowledge embedding processes. Originality/ Practical Implications: This is the first case study from Bangladesh that provides insights into extant initiatives taken by a public-sector agricultural extension agency to put innovation system thinking into use. The paper discusses a number of lessons, which will be useful for evolving new forms of extension work and applying agricultural innovation systems thinking in low-income countries.

Purpose: This article evaluates the dissemination and use of rice training videos by radio stations, farmers, farmer associations and extension services in Benin. It pays attention to positive deviants and process innovation within a "hands-off experiment". Design/methodology/approach: Using questionnaires and checklists we interviewed leaders of radio stations, extension services of nine municipalities and organized focus discussions with 13 farmer associations. Interviews focused on the processes of video dissemination/acquirement and the use and usefulness of the video. Findings: The commercial radio of Glazoue´ developed persuasive adverts and sold most of the 240 VCDs to farmers and extension services, whereas the community radios distributed most VCDs free of charge. About 20% of all the VCDs were sold, suggesting that farmers are eager to invest in acquiring knowledge. Extension services acquired the rice videos in various ways, indicating the need to inject videos via multiple pathways into the agricultural innovation system. Watching the farmer-to-farmer videos during staff meetings gave extension agents more confidence to interact with farmers. Practical implications: Videos do not need to be distributed to all farmer associations in the same village, as dissemination may take place between different associations. Farmers appreciate watching videos with their families if they are available in their local language. When suitable language versions are not available, group viewing is more appropriate. Originality/value: The farmer-to-farmer rice videos have created a momentum in Benin and across Africa, especially in the current context of rapid changes in the agricultural systems. The newly established non-governmental organization Access Agriculture aims at further supporting video-mediated learning in developing countries.

Purpose: The study evaluated how farmer acquisition, sharing and use patterns of information and knowledge interact with different socioeconomic factors to influence integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technology uptake. Design/methodology/approach: The study was conducted as part of an evaluation of field-based farmer learning approaches introduced by SOFECSA in Zimbabwe. Building on emerging farmer interactive platforms, data were collected using farmer participatory research approaches. Findings: Over 90% of the farmers identified the national extension agents as the farmers' most preferred and reliable sources of information on ISFM, with farmer-to-farmer interactions ranking second. Non-governmental organisations and the print media emerged as the least trusted sources of agricultural technical information. Field-based learning centres, which enabled interactive evaluation of different ISFM options, constituted 50%, indicating that they were major platforms for information and knowledge sharing. Uptake of ISFM was influenced by farmer resource group and farmers' visits to learning centres. Farmer experience and access to extension services were, in turn, the major factors influencing farmers' use of ISFM information. Approaches that support farmer-to-farmer interactions are required and learning centres are a suitable platform for such interactions to occur. Practical implications: The article brings to attention the role of learning centres in fostering adoption of ISFM technologies. Insights on the need to support and strengthen agricultural extension in rural smallholder communities are provided. Originality/value: This is a unique study exploring the role of farmer-oriented information and knowledge management in promoting complex technologies such as ISFM. A new dimension on the demands of new approaches for information dissemination to enhance knowledge sharing is presented.

Purpose: This article investigates the extent of multiple knowledges among smallholders and connected non-farm agents around Mount Elgon in Kenya and Uganda in order to build the communicative competence needed to scale up conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS). Design/methodology/approach: Our methodological approach examines local conditions through the analysis of farmers and non-farm agents' perceptions of agricultural norms and practices or technological frames across four sites. Responses to a list of 20 questionnaire items characterizing three ideal types of technological frames (conservation agriculture, conventional modern agriculture, and risk averse agriculture) were analyzed through inter-group comparisons and multiple regression. Findings: The findings indicate that there is a fundamental gap between the perspectives framing the knowledge of farmers and those of the service sector/community agents with respect to agricultural production norms and practices. Specifically, agricultural service providers and other community agents are significantly more supportive of conventional modern farming than farmers, and significantly less supportive of mixed crop and livestock farming; however, farmer perspectives also vary across sites. Practical implications: Recognition of multiple knowledges, their relationship to agro-ecologies and the technological frame gap between farmers and non-farm agents is important for effectively negotiating dialog among farm and non-farm knowledge networks. Originality/value: Our exploration of variation in local knowledges provides insights into how individual proclivities, adaptation to the agro-ecology, and a supporting set of network partners contribute to the mindset changes needed for establishing CAPS.

Purpose: The aim of the paper is to analyse the attitude of Italian farms in gaining access to agricultural extension services (AES). Design/methodology/approach: The ways Italian farms use AES are described through the AKAP (Awareness, Knowledge, Adoption, Product) sequence. This article investigated the AKAP sequence by submitting a questionnaire to a sample of Italian farms, providing questions on each step of the sequence. Findings: The results confirm the validity of the model and the necessity to evaluate AES in each phase of the sequence, through an in-depth analysis of the possible motivation for not adopting them. Practical implications: The functional repositioning of agriculture redefines the role of the farm, by introducing new possibilities of production and by fostering multifunctional activities. In this context, new tasks for AES emerge, aiming at sustaining farm development along either sectorial or territorial paths. Difficulties in adopting AES call for both fostering higher levels of access to services on behalf of farms and the adequate supply of services to farms' new needs. Originality/value: AKAP models have been prevailingly used in developing countries to evaluate the efficacy of extension in increasing agricultural productivity. This article demonstrates how this model could be of help in developed agriculture too in performing new lines of development rooted in the new models of multifunctional agriculture.

Through the study of leadership, the concept of leadership effectiveness and its importance has emerged. Effective leadership contributes to successful organizations (Amagoh, 2009; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach, 1999). According to Gordon & Yukl (2004), because of constantly changing environments, it is important to continue research in the leadership and leadership effectiveness fields, especially when it comes to leadership in academia. Using Seiler and Pfister's (2009) Dynamic Five-Factor Model of Leadership as the theoretical frame, a qualitative study of leadership effectiveness influencers of Agricultural and Extension Education department heads was completed. The research looked at both internal and external influential factors.

Ethiopian agriculture is characterized by smallholders farming whose access to modern technology and basic education is very limited. Research, extension, education and farmers are the main pillars of agricultural knowledge systems and their effectiveness largely depends on strong linkage among each other. However, the existing research-extension-education linkage has not been effective. This very weak linkage has been a major limiting factor to increased food productivity, agricultural transformation and sustainable development. Thus, the purpose of this review is to point out the major challenges for effective linkage between Research, Extension and Education (REE) and propose some recommendations for better linkages. Much of the problems bounce around limited implementation capacity and lack of commitment. Specific challenges include unnecessary competition and duplication of efforts, lack of decentralized approach, failure to involve poor farmers and inefficient monitoring and evaluation system. Thus, policy framework that synergizes the relevant actors' linkage in a sustainable manner should be in place to bring the intended growth and transformation in agriculture through technology and innovation.

Purpose: To promote sustainable agriculture, various development projects are encouraging farmers around Madagascar's Lake Alaotra to adopt conservation agriculture techniques. This article's objective is to analyze the capacity of a project-funded advisory system to accompany such an innovation and to design and implement an advisory method aimed at fostering learning processes for sustainable changes at the farm level. Design/methodology/approach: We used an analytical framework where three components are responsible for the advisory system's performance: the governance, including the funding mechanisms, the methods for generating advice and the capacities of actors involved in the provision of advice. We carried out surveys with the main actors involved in advisory services and with farmers involved in conservation agriculture. Findings: Results of the study highlight the current domination of technical advice dedicated to promoting conservation agriculture based on recommendations arising from agricultural research. Even if advisory actors show a willingness to promote advisory services which address the overall farm complexity, the results question the advisory method used and the ability of advisors to adopt an advisory system built jointly with the farmers. The farmers and farmers' organizations have a limited ability to influence choices made by the project. The results question the sustainability of the advisory mechanism in the context of external funding of the advisory system. Practical implications: The case study provides useful lessons for other projects funding advisory systems aimed at promoting conservation agriculture combining standard solutions for many farmers and learning process. Originality/value: The systemic approach at advisory system level to understand the advisory method in action is the main originality of the article. (Contains 2 figures, 1 table and 2 notes.)

Purpose: This article outlines the emergence of programme teams in the Australian dairy farm sector as a response to counter weaknesses in the institutional environment for agricultural innovation which favours technology adoption/diffusion approaches. Design/methodology/approach: The strengths, weaknesses and risks of different approaches to innovation in the Australian dairy sector RD&E system are analysed and key features of an emerging programme team approach defined. The programme team approach is compared and contrasted with the features of innovation capacity from international literature. An analysis of the relative investment in this innovation capacity in different topics or domains of dairy innovation is provided. Findings: The programme team approach to innovation involves groups of researchers, extension people, public and private organisations, farmers, community groups, and policy and service groups brought together to progress innovation and change in a topic area or domain. Leadership of the process is provided by an area expert or champion. The team takes responsibility for: (a) understanding the businesses of key players who have an influence in the innovation or domain; (b) deciding the nature of the desired change that all stakeholders can align to; (c) identifying features of the enabling environment to establish what capacity is needed; (d) designing a "route to change" strategy (in contrast to traditional route-to-market thinking); and (e) piloting and refining the approach within the target populations. The group manages emerging risks and keeps on top of issues, as well as identifies any knowledge gaps for research that are preventing innovation and change. Conclusions/practical implications: The programme team approach provides a semi-formal governance mechanism for innovation to develop, despite an institutional environment that favours technology adoption. Further, the activities of programme teams consist of practices which integrate research-led and demand-pull approaches. Currently, investment in such innovation capacity is relatively low and highly variable across different topic domains. Added value: The article provides tangible activities that managers of agricultural RD&E programmes can invest in to progress systemic approaches to innovation and is a guide for agricultural education and extension practitioners to proceed in their innovation work. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Purpose: The aim of this article is to provide evidence on the consequences of the privatization process in Brandenburg with a focus on the agricultural advisors' situation. Before the background of future European Union (EU) expectations on Farm Advisory Systems (FAS), their capacities and competences to respond to such challenges are discussed. Design/methodology/approach: Data from three empirical studies, conducted over a time span of 15 years, and with partially similar research questions, are analysed comparatively. All studies used a mixed qualitative and quantitative research design relying on structured, face-to-face interviews and an online survey, respectively, among advisors and others. Findings: Face-to-face communication remains predominant in the advisor-client relationship. The intensity of advisory services to the single farmer in terms of farm visits was reduced. Linkages of the advisors within the overall knowledge system became fragmented and partially one-sided. Nevertheless, most advisors appreciate the demand-driven relationship they have with their clients. In contrast, the information flow from public authorities is viewed more critically. Practical implications: If Brandenburg's advisors want to profit from the up-coming EU policy instruments for the enhancement of knowledge transfer and innovation generation in rural areas, more pro-active engagement for networking and cooperation will be necessary. Awareness creation and incentives from the federal state of Brandenburg would be useful measures. Originality/value: The article combines results from three empirical studies which are so far only published in German and this allows for a longitudinal appraisal and comparative view. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to describe and critically analyse recent advisory efforts and the prevailing discourses that have affected the advisory service in Sweden over the past 15 years. The focus is on those efforts that have had a declared aim to support farmers to become more competitive and viable. We also analyse why the efforts do not seem to have been effective enough, and give recommendations for future initiatives. Methodology: The article is based on a discourse analysis. In the data material, which consists of a wide range of published and internal documents, we have searched for recurring themes that together create distinct discourses and how they are manifested in practice as advisory efforts. Findings: We propose that in order to support farmers in achieving sustainability, advisors must question their traditional role as experts and begin to engage in discussions in which both their own and the farmers' Weltanschauung are questioned. Practical implication: The article discusses how a more reflective and critical advisory service can be achieved. Originality/value: There are several papers that deal with the advisors' different roles and new extension methods. This article analyse contemporary efforts to adapt advisory services to new demands, and add a critical perspective on why such efforts do not reach expected results. (Contains 1 table, 2 figures and 2 notes.)

This essay argues that capacity development is a response to changes in the organization and practice of agricultural extension as these changes have excluded small resource farmers. In this essay I trace the changes in the organization of agricultural extension through to the emergence of the concept and practice of capacity development. The idea of capacity development is then examined as presented in the existing literature where it is concluded that capacity development is a somewhat vacuous concept. It is then argued that capacity development needs to be understood in the context of an emerging participatory worldview. The foundations of this participatory worldview are then articulated, including the dimensions of a participatory epistemology. The concept of capacity development is then revisited examining the implications of this new worldview for the practice of capacity development followed by the conclusions. (Contains 1 table and 10 notes.)

The purpose of this paper is to describe an educational partnership experience between rural retailers and graduate students in a Merchandising, Apparel and Textiles program. Students were afforded an opportunity to work with small business owners in rural communities, giving them real world exposure to the actual challenges being faced by today's rural retailers. This collaborative effort provided the rural retailers with ideas to improve their businesses, while giving the students interactive experiences in the workplace.The usefulness of this type of partnership is described.