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This paper models 'no war, no peace' situations in a game theoretical framework where two countries are engaged in a standoff over a military sector. The first main objective is to identify rational grounds for such situations and, more precisely, for the explicit equilibria that lead to such situations. It is demonstrated that both countries gain the same payoff from being in this continuous state of perpetual hostility and, moreover, that 'no war, no peace' situations can be explained only if the countries perceive an equal measure of military advantage from controlling the area. Given this insight, the second objective of the paper is to provide insights about how 'no war, no peace' situations can be resolved. Two different pathways are suggested. The first is idealistic and based on mutual trust, whereas the second is based on deterrence, involving both countries imposing a threat of using armed force against the other country in their respective military doctrines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current, highly unpredictable context, in which the great powers want to preserve their economic, political, cultural and military influences, and the regional powers seek to receive an as comfortable as possible place at the table of the powerful ones, there is still a dilemma for which military strategies do not have a definitive answer: territorial troops versus professional forces. The two concepts are found, in specific forms, in the Romanian military terminology, as well as in the legislation approved in order to modernise the Romanian military body ever since the time of Prince Alexandru Ioan I (Alexandru Ioan Cuza). In the first years of the establishment of the modern Romanian Army, the political factors, but especially the military ones, with decision-making power, enacted the organisation of the Romanian armed power, introducing modern doctrinal concepts, starting, however, from the traditional military doctrine, according to which the national territory of the country is defended by the entire people. Thus, during the reign of Alexandru Ioan I, the main components of the Romanian Army were the permanent army, with its reserve forces, the territorial army, as well as the militias, which included, without being paid special importance, the city guard and the crowds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the evolution of product-based technological trajectories by linking technology and socioeconomic factors. Products evolve to adapt to market conditions in a manner similar to biological evolution, and form a constant trajectory under the influence of the current technological paradigm. This study analyzes the changes in technological trajectories after the emergence of a dominant design in the core weapon of the army—armored tanks. Based on a case study of the evolution of tanks between 1915 and 1998 and the application of principal component analysis (PCA, to transform technological characteristics of tanks into product performance) and K-means clustering (to classify the types of tanks based on the PCA), we find that tanks have evolved into a common pattern of product evolution and the main battle tank concept plays a role as the dominant design. In addition, military tactical doctrines and capability requirements are used to explain the socioeconomic factors at the core of the technological paradigm behind tank development. We argue that the interaction between science, technology, and the social element is responsible for product evolution. In the case of tanks, moreover, we show that the product evolution process follows continuous changes in the technological trajectory resulting from technological advances. This study also derives policy implications for weapons system acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Politologija is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Babylon Center for Humanities Studies is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Babylon Center for Humanities Studies is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Any confrontation seeks the (partial) imposition of one party's will on an adversary. In recent years, digital technologies and data science have combined to create new ways of controlling the narrative and carrying out powerful information or disinformation campaigns that are part of a new type of warfare with digital characteristics. In particular, based on a literature review and the direct work of authors in different expert groups, this paper studies the use of either static or moving images (real, altered, or wholly artificially generated) as one of the most efficient means of altering perceptions and thereby narratives in the so-called cognitive domain. To this aim, this article collects in an orderly and exhaustive way the most recent military and intelligence doctrine related to such "influence operations," from a dual technological-sociological perspective. Based on this, the paper determines the differences between traditional disinformation techniques and those incorporating digital and artificial intelligence technologies in the form of images and video. The paper proposes a new double-entry taxonomy that can display the degree of image faking and the objective of disinformation. This helps to identify and prioritize the most relevant cases and thus adopt the most appropriate countermeasures. These are also examined in detail, leading to the conclusion that only a combination of transparency, consumer education, technology, and regulation can counteract the increasing use of images and video with false content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on the Strategic Culture Theory, this article analyzes Iran's evolving ballistic missile program (BMP), by focusing especially on the period of the Trump administration (January 2017-January 2021), including both Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) shooting down a US surveillance drone in the Strait of Hormuz in June 2019 and Iran's attack on the US military bases following the assassination of IRGC General Qasem Soleimani, in January 2020. This work demonstrates the increasing reliance on the 'revolutionary', more offensive narrative, which has become additionally reinforced after the assassination of General Qasem Soleimani and Professor Mohsen Fakhrizadeh. This has consolidated the retaliatory aspects in Iran's foreign and security policy, while it has also marginalized moderated actors willing to engage in negotiations with the US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article empirically examines how British 21st Army Group produced a functional doctrine by late 1944. How much weight to give Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery in the outcome remains unclear despite significant scholarly literature. This article shows his openness to the "bubbling up" of operational methods from subordinate commanders. He closely managed this process, actively promulgated its output, and determined when he had gleaned sufficient feedback from it. His doctrinal contribu- tion to the British Army's inal push against the Germans developed into British doctrine for many decades, and many Commonwealth countries followed the British lead. This article examines its roots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1945 to 1961, the United States Army Historical Division collaborated with German officers to write a history of the Second World War. As relations between the United States and the Soviet Union deteriorated and the U.S. Army prepared for a war against the U.S.S.R., the Historical Division and other parties endeavored to exploit the operational knowledge of these German officers while ignoring their attempts at mythologizing the past. This article argues, however, that a substantial intellectual baggage of racist, Social Darwinist, and generally anti-Russian beliefs underpinned even the "purely operational" German lessons that shaped U.S. Army doctrine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Any field team, regardless of the professionalism of the leadership, will eventually experience a critical event. Some events will result in a subtle degradation of the team's work; others will cause emergent threats to the safety of the team. A team's sustained performance during a field season depends partly on such chance events and partly with the team's ability to plan for and respond to the dynamic environment of the field. The duty of a field leader is to conduct clear-eyed conversations and ensure that solid preparations are laid for both the group as a whole and the individual team members. Some of these plans need to be manifested by material preparations, some of which require months of forethought. This article walks readers through a two-hour exercise, giving them frameworks from business continuity and military field doctrines to understand risk. Readers will conduct a SWOT analysis, define emergencies within their organizations, and then apply risk management practices of qualitative risk assessment and all-hazards planning to develop planning priorities. By the end, readers will have built specific action plans for improving field season readiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The area of special operations doctrine offers a number of research avenues for exploration in order to provide broader context and understanding of special operations and special operations forces (SOF) to both scholars and practitioners. In this spirit and to add to the body of existing special operations literature, this article delivers an overview to published UN, NATO, and EU SOF doctrine and compares and analyzes these documents for similarities and differences. The exploration of the SOF doctrine of international organizations is germane to states committing SOF units to missions abroad under UN, NATO, or EU mandates. While the SOF contingents will deploy guided by national military doctrine, they will need to align their operational approach with the SOF doctrine published by the multilateral organization leading the operation. SOF deployments to Afghanistan under the auspices of NATO, to Mali under the EU, and to Sudan under the UN demonstrate the real-world necessity of doctrinal understanding for multinational SOF interoperability. The conclusion offers some thoughts to follow-on areas of SOF doctrinal research that would contribute to an increased understanding of SOF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In light of the Iraqi crisis's overall developments between 2015 and 2020, the Arab Crises Team– ACT at the Middle East Studies Center in Jordan decided to publish this report on the current crisis. The team has published an earlier report on the Iraqi crisis in September 2015. The new report aims to reach an exit strategy as a roadmap for Iraq to emerge from its ongoing crisis since the American occupation in 2003. The report considered the background of the crisis, its nature and description, and the local and external influential players. It provided the possible scenarios and the player's possible options as such. The Iraqi crisis is considered complex, whose details include international, regional, and local factors. The main crisis pillars are: 1. The sectarian dimension in the political system based on quotas with the significant imbalance in managing state resources efficiently and justly, 2. The security dimension that overlaps between militias, the military and security apparatuses, 3. The international and regional interference in Iraqi affairs, directly and through Iraqi forces. The report discussed the fundamental transformations that the Iraqi crisis witnessed during the years 2019-2020, most notably the outbreak of widespread and varied sectarian and regional popular protests in various parts of Iraq, especially in the primary ruling parties' cities' influence. The motives behind this development in the Iraqi crisis are referred to the weak role of the state in achieving social justice and controlling resources, the inability of successive governments to manage the state's essential services, the deepening of direct Iranian and US military and security intervention in Iraq under the pretext of fighting ISIS, in addition to the economic dimension, which is one of the most prominent manifestations of the crisis. The widespread popular protests erupted in Iraq in October 2019, even in light of the Corona epidemic challenges that the demonstrators face. Furthermore, among its most essential demands: building an alternative, non-sectarian political environment, amending the constitution and changing the structures of provincial councils, the independence of the military establishment and its monopoly alone of armed forces and arms, the provision of essential services in the country, and the conduct of new parliamentary elections to be fair under national non-sectarian election law. Despite several factors that weakened the strength of this popular movement, it was able to achieve several successes, most notably its continuation despite the difficulties, its distribution in the various regions of Iraq, and its success in dismissing the existing government and forming a new government (the government of Mr. Mustafa Al-Kazemi). The protests also succeeded in maintaining their peacefulness, despite all the security violence it faced. The report believes that there are internal and external parties that have a significant influence on this crisis. The report concluded that local forces' policies and trends had become a reflection of the nature of relations between regional and international powers and their interests in Iraq. This relation has weakened the independent national will and made these parties face a significant challenge in reaching any settlement for many issues. The report analyzed the positions, policies, and interests of these parties and concluded that their Iraqi affairs interventions have led to this crisis's additional internal and external complications. The report discussed the typical scenarios for the crisis. It identifies three possible scenarios: 1. The stalemate and the continuation of the crisis in its current state 2. The scenario of intensifying the crisis politically, socially, and in living conditions 3. The scenario of achieving national consensus and getting out of the state of this crisis 4. The team discussed the conditions for achieving each of these scenarios and highlighted their implications. The report set out several determinants to favor the more expected possible scenario. The report concluded that the crisis seems likely to alternate between the first scenario (stalemate and the continuation of the crisis in its current state) and the third scenario (national consensus and exit from the crisis). That might keep the possibilities of slipping into dangerous trends, if not reaching stability and unity among Iraqis on the road map to exit the crisis. The report proposed an exit strategy based on the need to address three fundamental causes that emanate problems in several directions: 1. The absence of sectarian balance between parties and sects 2. Iranian and American influence 3. The aggravating living problems of people including the lack of essential services The report provides Several recommendations in three main axes: the political, the social and economic axis, and the security and military axis. Among the most important of these recommendations is to hold an inclusive Iraqi national conference that unites the state and the Iraqi people without exclusion. The conference aims to stop the internal and external depletion of Iraq's role and its resources. The suggested conference would reinforce the Iraqi state's sovereignty over all its territories free of the foreign armed presence. The conference ought to agree on a specific roadmap to get Iraq out of this ongoing and renewed crisis. The road map includes developing the political system to be an open system without ethnic or sectarian quotas and unifying Iraqi citizenship's political weight, away from religion, sect, race, and others. Iraq would restore its Arab and Islamic unitary identity and relieves other sub-identities. The government has to dissolve armed militias and seize weapons in civilians' hands in an integrated system. The government would draw the re-positioning of Iraqi foreign, regional and international relations to guarantee Iraq the preservation of its sovereignty and independence and does not hinder its progress. The measurements have to satisfy the need to calm sectarian tensions and stop the sectarian prosecutions on false charges such as terrorism, eradication, cooperation with the former regime... etc. It is to control the general budget, reducing state expenditures from current and administrative expenditures, expanding investment in productive projects as the agricultural and industrial sectors. Moreover, to encourage investments in the primary service sectors and reorganizing the oil sector from production to export to ensure the restoration of national sovereignty over this sector. The government ought to combat administrative and financial corruption and reduce the government apparatus's masked unemployment burden. The report recommends, in particular, to rebuild the Iraqi security and military doctrine according to the intellectual, social, historical, and civilizational principles of Iraq. It is to cuff-hand from Iraqi interference in other countries, to control and stop any Iraqi party's cooperation with any parties threatening other countries' security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of URVIO - Revista Latinoamericana de Seguridad Ciudadana is the property of FLACSO - Ecuador (Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Annals of the Croatian Political Science Association / Anali Hrvatskog Politoloskog Drustva is the property of Croatian Political Science Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is the premier and only security alliance uniting 30 countries and growing with many partner states in the provision of collective security and against threats posed by conflict and natural disasters. Security of countries and communities is increasingly threatened by a broad spectrum of unconventional types of war and disease threats - from hybrid and asymmetric to multi-domain and peer-to-peer/near-peer conflict. The NATO Centre of Excellence for Military Medicine (MILMED COE) is the centre of gravity for medical best practices and promotion of medical doctrine across the NATO alliance. Disaster medicine is multidisciplinary and in NATO, multinational, requiring best practices that are driven by data and evidence to prevent death on the battlefield and prepare for future conflicts. "Vigorous Warrior" is a live military and disaster medicine exercise series using both civilian and military actors across all sectors of health focused on health security and identifying lessons learned to ready the alliance for future threats. In this brief report, we make the case that the Vigorous Warrior exercise exposes gaps, highlights challenges and generates an evidence base to make NATO military medicine systems more robust, more efficient and in provision of best medical practices. We specifically argue that clinical data capture must be duplicated and continuous across the alliance to ensure evidence-based medicine stays current in NATO military medical doctrine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The US military must prepare for the realities of densely populated areas as it plans and conducts campaigns. This planning must include considerations of soldiers' health and wellbeing. An engaged analysis of urban battlespaces in the midtwentieth and early twenty-first centuries highlights the need for essential updates to US military doctrine and training, particularly in the areas of civilian mass casualties and civilian noncombatants in the urban battlespace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

US military Joint and Army civil affairs doctrine has failed to consider the operational relevance of gender, posing a risk to mission accomplishment and force protection. A comparison of NATO and Australian Defence Force doctrine reveals gender considerations have been included in Allied doctrine in recent years. US land-force operational planning can provide an example of how a focus on civil affairs doctrine could jump-start the process to address the larger doctrinal gender deficit quickly and effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Battle of Britain is one of the most important military events of the Second World War. Different approaches have been used to study it and understand the rationale behind Britain’s and Nazi Germany’s strategy. However, the use of warfare concepts, such as centers of gravity and its contemporary meaning, to scrutinize the planning and prosecution of the battle have not been as prolific. This article aims to contribute to the debate by maintaining that the concept of Centers of Gravity provides an advantageous framework that facilitates the understanding of the mindset and development of the battle in terms of critical capabilities, requirements, and vulnerabilities required to win.

In December 2017 and January 2018, the Sejm and Senate, thanks to the votes of the deputies of ruling party Law and Justice, passed hugely controversial law amending inter alia Polish Electoral Code. Its adoption was opposed by the parliamentary opposition, by the electoral administration bodies and by many experts, however unsuccessfully. The enactment of this law destabilises the electoral system without a clear or evident need and treats the electoral code as a political instrument. Secondly, it does not provide the sufficient time for adaptation (vacatio legis), which may jeopardise free and fair local elections and the stability of the political system. Thirdly, the bill contains numerous unclear provisions and is in many parts written in a careless and contradictory way. Such amendments do not correspond with the European standards, described in the Venice Commission’s Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters.

This article explores the problem addressing the process of international rationalization of uses of force in the conduct of foreign policy by states. Behavior of states is to a great extent preconditioned by the existence of an obligation to interpret the rules of international law publicly. Author defines the subject matter of the process of international rationalization of uses of force and the basic missions of it. Additionally the article does evolve the coherence of that process with military doctrine and translated into reality national security strategy.

Approaching Human Security advocates the necessity of embracing an integral approach to security in order to ensure that humanity survives and flourishes. Human Security requires utilization of the tools of science and the values inherent in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It incorporates multiple dimensions of human activity, such as culture, economics, politics, and military deployments and doctrines. Additionally, the article highlights several areas that require change. These include the current economic focus on perpetual growth rather than recognition of the requirement of harmony with the natural world, the dominant paradigm of national security that is excessively focused on nationalism and militarism, the requirement of heightened levels of international cooperation to address pandemics and the elimination of nuclear weapons and other issues that cannot be successfully addressed at a national level. The article explains why an integral approach to Human Security is both morally compelling and practically necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is aimed at studying the selective options, a nuclear weapons employment doctrine launched by the United States in 1974 to reinforce its deterrent position by enabling a limited nuclear war. However, by widening the military gap with the Soviet Union and exploiting its worst fears, the implementation of this doctrine almost caused a nuclear crisis in 1983. Since this constitutes one of the few known nuclear deterrence failures, the study of this historical case may contribute to explaining the working of this process which is regaining its central role in the field of Strategic Studies. The article is divided into two parts: the first theoretical part delves into the literature on deterrence up to the fourth wave of studies on the phenomenon and the consolidation of tailored deterrence models. The second one, as a historical case study, analyzes the selective options. It is argued that this doctrine, in force during the last stage of the Cold War, does not only constitute a proto-model of tailor-made deterrence, but its realization also caused a failure of deterrence that fortunately did not culminate in catastrophe. Even if the few cases of nuclear deterrence failures prevent drawing general conclusions, the article concludes by warning about the contextuality, credibility and relativism of deterrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding states' perception of biological-weapons (BW) utility is key to understanding the motivations behind states' development, possession, and use of these weapons. The calculations underlying a determination of utility are complex, having to balance threat perceptions, national scientific and industrial capacities, diplomatic relations, and the importance of prohibitory norms. Case studies of the former US and British offensive BW programs, beginning in World War II, illustrate how perceptions of BW utility evolve under wartime circumstances. The US case also illustrates how perceptions of BW utility heightened during periods of international tension, namely the Korean War and early in the John F. Kennedy administration. Both the US and UK examples also demonstrate how possession of nuclear weapons affected perceptions of BW utility and the role of BW in military doctrine. Given the prohibitions on BW development and possession, BW utility today is limited to small-scale, covert operations, including assassinations, much like the recent assassinations and attempted assassinations conducted by North Korea and Russia. Unlike chemical weapons, BW have the additional characteristics of delaying the onset of effects, mimicking natural diseases, and foiling attribution efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Military doctrine assures a nation's survival. Yet even when faced with a security threat that requires change, militaries rarely innovate but instead adhere to old doctrines that enhance autonomy, reduce uncertainty and claim resources. Existing theories cannot explain an important case of peacetime military innovation when the U.S. Air Force adopted Battlefield Air Interdiction to support the Army's AirLand Battle doctrine. A revised theory of peacetime military innovation through inter-service cooperation resulting from external and internal threats explains not only why innovation occurred with Battlefield Air Interdiction but also why such successful cases are so rare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Warfare organophosphates nerve agents constitute one of the prime threats to mankind on the battlefield and in the scenario of civilian terror. Exposure to organophosphate (OP) nerve agents dose-dependently result in incapacitation. They affect multiple organs, but the eye is one of the first and most frequently affected. Ocular OP insult may result in long-term miosis, impaired visual function, and ocular pain thus inducing functional incapacitation. The currently recommended military medical doctrine of using 1% atropine eye drops is far from being the optimal treatment. Although effective in reducing ocular pain and the miotic response, this treatment induces long-term mydriasis and cycloplegia promoting photophobia and restricted accommodation, which may result in further impairment in visual function. An optimal treatment must ameliorate the long-term ocular insult enabling rapid return of normal visual function, while avoiding the induction of mydriasis and cycloplegia side effects, which could possibly worsen the visual performance. Optimal treatment should also keep effects of misuse to a minimum. Work done in recent years examined treatments with various anticholinergic drugs alone or used in combination with oxime treatments and may offer improved efficacy in ameliorating the ocular insult. This review is a summary of the applied research in animals and will discuss clinical implications and possible alterations in treatment protocols following OP exposure. Taken together the data points toward the use of topical low concentrations of potent anticholinergic ophthalmic drops such as atropine or homatropine, which rapidly ameliorate the long-term OP-induced ocular insult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Definitions of sea power in reputable studies can be classified into two broad categories: sea power as a form of military power at sea, and sea power as the capacity at or from the sea to influence others' actions or conditions. Despite the differences in definitions of sea power, the relevant literature written by international relations scholars, maritime historians, and naval affairs experts is abundant and has primarily focused on grand strategies, military strategies, and military doctrines. This paper briefly introduces an exceptional monograph on the logistic foundation of British maritime ascendancy, but it has not sufficiently explored the political processes of sea power. This paper thus utilises the concepts of politics, elite coalition, and power source to highlight the importance of studying the political processes behind the creation, maintenance, enhancement, and even corrosion and destruction of sea power. Specifically, building on the logistics of maritime ascendancy, this paper suggests that it is not only essential to examine how the state co‐ordinates all required resources for its sea power, but that it is also necessary to evaluate how elite coalitions amenable to sea power are organised and sustained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Israeli army's policing since 1967 has raised public awareness of the suffering of the Palestinian population, thereby implicating it as a key player in the Israeli political debate. This article discusses how policing has been presented in the leading military journals Ma'arakhot and Bein HaKtavim from 1967 to 2018. It argues that this coverage has served to mitigate the controversy by avoiding the explicit term 'policing' and replacing it with euphemisms that construct it differently in three distinct periods. In particular, since early in the twenty-first century, these journals have suggested alternative terms, which provide policing with hybrid military connotations that respond to pressure from both nationalist and liberal groups. New terms such as 'the war between the wars' promote broad public acceptance of the intractable nature of the conflict and legitimize the need to use violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, issues related to environmental governance have not been aligned to the military's objectives except in a few cases. Since environmental change has not been recognised as a critical 'security' issue yet in India, there is a reluctance on the part of the security establishment, including the military, to deal with it on an urgent basis. The question of why the armed forces should be trained to undertake environmental activities when their primary duty is to defend the country against external aggression assumes significance as it is largely believed that if they are trained for the former, their primary functions could suffer and territorial integrity of the nation could be threatened. Other impediments to institutionalisation include the complex relations between the civil and military establishments; constitutional and legal status of the Indian armed forces that is not uniformly enshrined or recognised; and their societal status that still comes under constant scrutiny, leading to a wedge between the military and civilian domains. In this context, the article attempts to identify the doctrinal and policy dimensions of the Indian military's role in environmental affairs as well as the factors that influence formal institutionalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within only two decades (1920-1940), the navy of Greater Romania underwent a spectacular growth, becoming a complex, well-balanced and homogenous force. As a result of the provisions of six consecutive programs, the Romanian navy was equipped with six gunboats, four destroyers, three submarines, one mine planter, one submarine tender, four M.A.S. type anti-submarine patrol boats, three torpedo boat destroyers, one training ship and others. Also, significant progress has been made in the field of naval communications, fortifications and fixed defences of the coastline, naval engineering and infantry, naval aviation, arsenal and naval bases. During the same period, the foundations were laid for a modern naval education, capable to cover the needs of both civilian and military navy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The International Military Education and Training (IMET), has given Indonesian military personnel access to U.S. doctrine and tactics. However, due to the dynamics and changes in priorities of interest between the U.S. and Indonesia, the IMET program has experienced a critical period, when for over a decade, from 1992 to 2005, the U.S. Congress imposed a ban on the program for the Indonesian military. The country also adopted an embargo towards Indonesia in responding to the 'Santa Cruz' incident in East Timor in 1991. Not only had the embargo limited defence cooperation with the United States, but also with its alliance countries. During the 'IMET Ban' period, access to U.S. professional military education was significantly reduced. The ban fully restricted Indonesian military's development since the country relied on the American military's doctrines and tactics. The ban further disrupted the U.S.–Indonesia defence relations. Therefore, through desk research, this article uses process tracing approach to qualitatively examine the dynamic of the US–Indonesia defence relations during the 'IMET Ban' period. The lessons learned during this period in the article are important to help the current Trump and Widodo administrations navigate their bilateral defence relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on an analysis of state documents, this article analyzes the features of the evacuation policy of the Soviet government during the Second World War, using the example of the Kazakh SSR. It is shown that material resources were of primary importance, and human resources — even those people who would have been of use to the war economy and the nomenklatura — were of secondary importance in the wartime evacuation policy of the Soviet state. On the basis of declassified archive sources, the article shows that the evacuation policy of the Soviet government on the whole reflected the social hierarchy that had developed and the system of privileges of the Soviet state. The families of the nomenklatura and the higher leadership personnel were in a more favored position, regardless of their personal labor contribution. The article examines the specific features of the material and everyday services, medical and sanitation services, and social support of the people evacuated to Kazakhstan. The difficulties and problems the evacuees faced with respect to resettlement, conditioned by the catastrophic shortage of material resources, food, and industrial goods, are also examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By employing well-known methods of warfare, but in innovative ways and with the help of new technologies, Russia's concept of operations in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine took many in the West by surprise. Almost immediately, Western analysts embarked on a search for definitions for this 'new' approach, most of them within the West's own theoretical framework. These have included the Gerasimov Doctrine, hybrid warfare and hybrid threat, non-linear warfare, fourth-generation warfare, and most recently 'gray zone' conflict. Nevertheless, a vast volume of Russian theoretical debates about new ways of warfare has remained under-studied. This has resulted in misconceptions in the characterization of Russian strategy, through molding it to fit Western theoretical constructs as opposed to those within which it was developed. Rather than helping assess the real options open to Russia, each of the aforementioned terms has tended to be unhelpful, as none reflects Russia's doctrine or assumptions about the nature of war in the 21st century. This article's main aim is to describe the Russian way of 'sub-threshold warfare' as defined by Russia itself. This was done by researching more than 30 years of Russian military literature, case studies from Crimea and Eastern Ukraine built from interviews with Ukrainian military and security personnel, and information on the Syrian case based on Russian sources. An analysis of the Russian military literature when compared to the empirical evidence of Russian tactics in Ukraine and Syria shows that its strategy is multi-layered and comprehensive. It is counterproductive to frame the Russian strategy within artificial frameworks established outside of the threat context, such as Hybrid Warfare. The Russians have their own framework that, although influenced by Western military doctrine, is the result of their own theoretical developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cold War versions – 'AirLand Battle', 'AirLand Battle 2000', and 'Follow-On Forces Attack' – of the 'Deep Battle' concepts developed by Germany and the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s, caused the flare-up of rare criticism within the community of defence experts and, in particular, friction between the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Army and, on a broader spectrum, between the USA and its European allies. Thanks to recently declassified documents, we can now also add the CIA to the chorus of critical voices; the CIA's scepticism provoked serious disagreements with General Rogers, the then Supreme Allied Commander for Europe. The likely inadequacies of the various forms of Deep Battle for fighting the Soviet threat, along with the total or partial absence of external factors that normally drive the changing of military doctrines, suggest the existence of more prosaic, parochial reasons for their ideation and adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a five-year journey for the Polish Armed Forces and U.S. Special Operations Command's Joint Special Operations University in establishing military design education, theory, and practice within the Polish military. Military design is presented as a significant development in defense theory that draws from complexity theory, systems theory, scenario planning, postmodern theory as well as social paradigm theory as applied to security contexts and war. Military design is a recent development and in part a reaction to traditional, mechanistic, and linear planning and strategy methodologies becoming insufficient in contemporary security environments. The increasing complexity of modern security challenges coupled with institutional barriers to challenging well-established military doctrine, decision-making methodologies, and belief systems concerning war and warfare have ushered "military design" to the forefront of numerous militaries; designing for war is not without controversy and debate over methodological application and relation to existing warfare methods. JSOU and a small team of Polish Army educators would work in tandem to implement military design theory as currently provided within the SOCOM enterprise to international partner nations such as the Polish Armed Forces and Polish Special Forces. The JSOU andragogic approach to design education emphasizes building design facilitation capacity within the partnered organization, and this article explains the five-year process to stand up Polish-centric design concepts and customized education oriented toward Polish security challenges and attuned to cultural as well as geopolitical considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the Colombian Army's military doctrine and its relationship with practices during the internal armed conflict from 1995-1998. First, the development of the Colombian military doctrine in that period and the United States and other countries' influence on it, as well as its eclectic combining with the national doctrine in the face of the irregular conflict, was addressed through qualitative analysis. Then, the practices and their relationship with the doctrine were analyzed in a sample of 180 then active Army officers participating in surveys, interviews and a focus group, based on four operational setbacks suffered at the time. It was found that, although the officers recognized and valued the doctrine, they faced complex situations that led them to take initiatives with varying results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Battle of Britain is one of the most important military events of the Second World War. Different approaches have been used to study it and understand the rationale behind Britain's and Nazi Germany's strategy. However, the use of warfare concepts, such as centers of gravity and its contemporary meaning, to scrutinize the planning and prosecution of the battle have not been as prolific. This article aims to contribute to the debate by maintaining that the concept of Centers of Gravity provides an advantageous framework that facilitates the understanding of the mindset and development of the battle in terms of critical capabilities, requirements, and vulnerabilities required to win. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the evolution of the Indonesian military doctrines during the Old Order, the New Order, and the Reformation Era. Under Sukarno's leadership, the use of military force was outward looking and offensive, apart from constantly viewing neighbouring countries as potential enemies. Suharto prioritised homeland security and built synergies among nations within the region. The military doctrine during the Reformation Era has undergone four amendments as an effort to improve military professionalism. This study analyses factors that led to the evolution of the Indonesian military doctrine and explains the evolution that took place during the three periods. This study employed a qualitative method supported by Neoclassical Realism analysis through literature study, document analysis, and interviews as an attempt to analyse various factors for the military doctrine evolution. The study outcomes showed that domestic politics emerged as the most dominant factor that sparked the evolution of military doctrine. Finally, this study concludes that the evolutionary doctrine of the Indonesian military reflects a form of adjustment to political developments and strategic environment in maintaining the Indonesian national security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defense modeling and simulation (DM&S) has brought insights into how to efficiently operate combat entities, such as soldiers and weapon systems. Most DM&S works have been developed to reflect accurate descriptions of military doctrines, yet these doctrines provide only guidelines of military operations, not details about how the combat entities should behave. Because such vague parts are often fulfilled with the appropriate behavior of combat entities in a battlefield, one part argues that DM&S should consider individual combat behaviors as well. However, it is known as an infeasible problem discovering best individual actions from infinite searching space, such as the battlefield. This paper proposes a layered behavior modeling to practically resolve this issue. The proposed method applies descriptive modeling to reduce the searching space by employing domain-specific knowledge; and prescriptive modeling to discover best individual actions in the reduced space. For the generalization, the proposed method adapts both modeling methods being modularized, and then the proposed method suggested an interface between them that is based on their semantic analogies. Both modeling methods are modularized, so they are interacted through an interface defined in the proposed method. This paper presents a realization of the proposed method through a case study of infantry company-level operations. In the case study, the proposed method is implemented with discrete event system specification formalism as the descriptive part and Markov decision process as the prescriptive part. The experimental results illustrated that the combat effectiveness resulted from the proposed method is statistically better than that from the descriptive-only modeling, and the difference would be guided by the objective of the combat behavior. Through the presented experimental results and the discussion, this paper argues that future DM&S should consider a broad spectrum from the battlefield incorporating the rational behavior of military individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article compares the national security doctrines developed in the Peruvian CAEM and the Brazilian ESG. First, we will present a bibliographic overview of the military doctrines of Brazil and Peru, then we will show how the French and American influences acted in each of the military schools. Next, we will analyze as sources the presentations made in the two military academies about their respective doctrines, highlighting how the circumstances and social demands perceived by the military led to different solutions to the problem of security - defense: on the one hand, the doctrine of integral security and on the other, national security. This comparative analysis aims to understand how military schools with similar influences built different responses to what they considered the challenge of communist subversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]