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Evaporation is a key element of the water and energy cycle and is essential in determining the spatial and temporal variations of meteorological elements. In particular, evaporation is crucial for thoroughly understanding the climate variations of a region. In this study, we discussed evaporation, precipitation, and temperature by adopting Linyi City in Shandong Province, China, which is an important agricultural region, as a research case. Linear regression analysis, the empirical orthogonal decomposition function, and the Morlet wavelet function were used to reveal the trends, spatiotemporal modes, and multi-time scale characteristics of the three climate factors and provide a theoretical basis for the efficient use of climate resources in the future development of regional agriculture. Results showed that the precipitation (2.09 mm/a) and temperature (0.04 ℃/a) in Linyi City exhibited a synchronous growth trend. Conversely, evaporation (−6.47 mm/a) showed a decreasing trend and the evaporation paradox because of the considerable decrease in evaporation energy. Regional development of water-consuming agriculture in consideration of global warming is a key point for improving water use efficiency in Linyi City. In terms of spatial distribution, precipitation was dominated by the first mode wherein low precipitation was observed at the early stage, and high precipitation occurred at the late stage. The first mode was supplemented by the second mode wherein an inverse phase change occurred in the southeast-northwest direction. Large interannual fluctuations were observed only in Yinan County. Temperature exhibited a pattern of warming change with high homogeneity. Evaporation demonstrated obvious heterogeneity and was dominated by two major modes, and the difference in evaporation between Junan County and the other regions of Linyi City was large. Therefore, the local regional climate changes in Yinan and Junan should be given attention. All three meteorological elements showed interannual and interdecadal variations in the short (5 a), medium (16 a), and long (25 a) terms, with precipitation, temperature, and evaporation dominated by 16 a, 24 a, and 31 a, respectively. In the short-term future, the regional precipitation and temperature in Linyi will experience decrements that are above the multiyear average, and evaporation will increase to above the multiyear average. Given the changing trends of precipitation, temperature, and evaporation, urgent requirements for the regional development of efficient water-saving irrigation and the promotion of digital agriculture should be proposed.

Ultrasonic atomizers can potentially augment the production of sea salt through a process known as ultrasonic nebulization. While the traditional method of sea salt production primarily relies on natural evaporation, ultrasonic atomization can accelerate the evaporation process. The process typically involves the following steps: collection of seawater, evaporation, brine crystallization and then harvesting process of the sea salt. After processing, the sea salt is typically dried and packaged for distribution and sale. In this project, influencing of ultrasonic atomizer in the process a saline water into the brine, before crystallization can be proceeded. The ultrasonic atomization process significantly increases the surface area of the seawater by converting it into fine droplets. Droplets evaporate more efficient due to large surface area of the droplets. According to testing of the research apparatus which had been conducted, an ultrasonic atomization can increase the salinity by brine evaporation or of droplet productivity of sea salt. This result had been shown that this process can be used to increasing the salinity of sea water. For further steps, this technique can potentially augment the production of sea salt.

Meteorological data from 9 weather stations located in different provinces of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta were analyzed and compared in this study. The data analysis showed that in 2014–2020 the average annual temperature in the Mekong Delta was 27.6 °С, the total annual rainfall – 1533.9 mm, the average annual humidity – 79% or more, the total annual evaporation – 942.3 mm, and the total annual sunshine duration – 2521 hours. The average annual temperature in 2014–2020 was higher than that during the 1984–2013 period. Meanwhile, the total annual rainfall and the total annual evaporation in 2014–2020 were lower than that during the 1984–2013 period. Trend analysis of meteorological parameters from 2014 to 2020 showed that the average temperature during the dry season and the absolute minimum temperature at all weather stations tended to increase over time. The rainy season had a higher average daily temperature, more rainfall, and higher humidity, but lower evaporation, and lower sunshine hours than the dry season. The obtained data on the meteorological characteristics of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta lay the foundation for evaluating the dynamics of climate change, providing background for further research and developing solutions for the rational use of climate resources to promote the socio-economic development of this region.

For the first time, a trifunctional high-temperature AlN ceramic material that combines the extreme wicking, evaporative, and cooling functionalities for enhancing the efficiency of evaporation-based technologies was created through engineering a hierarchical surface nano/microstructure. The developed interfacially-engineered structure is an array of tapered micropillars, the surface of which is textured with irregular/regular nanostructures. The created material exhibits excellent wicking, evaporative, and cooling functionalities in a temperature range of 23–230 °C, both in the absence and presence of airflow. The wicking functionality provides unprecedentedly fast capillary flow of intensively boiling water on the AlN surface, even at a temperature of 230 °C. The developed ceramic also provides a very efficient evaporative cooling performance (from 230 to 126 °C). Our important result is a high evaporation rate of the AlN material at various airflows that exceeds that of a free water surface by a factor of 2.5–7.5, depending on the airflow velocity and temperature. The excellent performance of the trifunctional AlN ceramic at low and high temperatures under various airflow conditions shows its great potential for a large variety of evaporation-based technologies, including dew-point (DP) evaporative cooling systems for increasing power generation efficiency, water purification/desalination, thermal management, waste heat recovery, and other existing and emerging evaporation-based technologies.

Study Region: The Hirmand River Basin is a vital transboundary river system, that originates in Afghanistan’s Hindu Kush Mountains and flows into the Sistan Depression, and encompassing the Chah Nimeh Reservoirs in Iran and the Godzareh Depression in Afghanistan. Study Focus: The Kamal Khan Dam, constructed on the Hirmand River in Afghanistan, has significantly altered the downstream water direction and distribution between the Chah Nimeh Reservoirs and Godzareh Depression. Utilizing remote sensing techniques, particularly Landsat 8 satellite imagery and the FAO 56 PM as a evaporation retrieval method, the research focuses on evaluating changes in water allocation and evaporation rates in these regions over the past decade. New Hydrological Insights for the Region: The findings reveal that after operation of the Kamal Khan Dam, water allocation to the Chah Nimeh Reservoirs has drastically decreased, leading to a 54 % reduction in their average area from 2020–2023 compared to the previous years. Conversely, the Godzareh Depression, now receiving the redirected water, has experienced significantly higher evaporation rates, contributing to substantial water losses. These changes underscore the critical need for effective water management strategies to address the escalating water scarcity and hydrological imbalances in this arid region.

This paper introduces an improved numerical approach for evaluating moisture balance on concrete surface which can initiate plastic shrinkage cracking on the surface of fresh concrete in concrete slab. Because plastic shrinkage cracks occur when the tensile stress induced from the surface drying of concrete exceeds the tensile strength in the freshly placed concrete, moisture balance calculated by the introduced approach can be used as the primary indicator for plastic shrinkage cracking. The numerical approach introduced in this paper therefore emphasized an exact evaluation of bleeding and evaporation on the concrete surface. In determining bleeding, the approach introduced in the previous study was improved through the consideration of additional influencing factors of the accelerator and steel fiber and the supplementation of additional experimental data. For reliable prediction of evaporation, an empirical relation was newly introduced. The reduction of evaporation rate with time was taken into consideration, and the use of the weighed characteristic velocity rather than the direct application of the wind velocity was recommended. Determination of an exact distribution for the weighed characteristic wind velocity on the surface of a concrete slab was based on computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analyses. In particular, the effect of installing a windscreen along the sides of the concrete slab was intensively examined. Upon verification of the introduced numerical approach through correlation studies between experimental data and numerical results, additional parametric studies were also performed to numerically examine the relative contribution of each influencing factor in plastic shrinkage cracking. Moreover, the introduced approach can effectively be used for the on-site prediction of surface drying time of a concrete slab and for the preparation of a proper curing strategy to mitigate plastic shrinkage cracking.

An attempt has been made to conserve the nutrition of butterfly pea by modifying the production process. In this paper, butterfly pea syrup was prepared through ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) of butterfly pea flower using water at ultrasound frequency of 40kHz and initial temperature of 50 °C for 30 min. Extraction was modified by addition of sugar and citric acid. Before separation of extract, butterfly pea mixture was adjusted to contain 181,25 g sugar and 2.875 g citric acid per L water. The extract was then concentrated by vacuum evaporation at 50 °C for 2–6 h. The concentrated extracts were stored at 6 °C and 30 °C for 4 weeks. Each experiment was run triplicate and the effect of each treatment on the anthocyanin concentration was measured using UV–Vis Spectrophotometer. Results indicated that presence of citric acid and sugar during extraction affect extraction and shelf life of butterfly pea extract. The presence of citric acid and sugar in anthocyanin extracts also prolongs their shelf life.

This work presents a novel general tool for modeling the process of evaporation without the need for modifying existing software using Python. The tool was developed based on the MDAnalysis package, which is used to import a Molecular Dynamics trajectory. The tool then removes solvent molecules and outputs a new structure file to be used for further simulation and analysis. This process is designed to be iterated by using the resulting dynamic simulation trajectory as the input file. The evaporation is designed to randomly delete solvent molecules while preserving solvation shells around solutes. The evaporation rate can be controlled by the length of the MD simulations and the number of particles removed between dynamic simulations. Validity of the tool was tested extensively using the Gromacs suite. Advantages of this tool include its genericness, simplicity and user friendliness, as no significant modification of existing software platform or Gromacs specific tools are needed. Program summary: Program title: GenEvaPa CPC Library link to program files: https://doi.org/10.17632/y5c3jnbjvs.1 Developer's repository link: github.com/bradsharris/GenEvaPa Licensing provisions: GNU General Public License 3 Programming language: Python >3 Nature of problem: Approximate evaporation/drying processes in atomistic and coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations while maintaining solvation shells around solute of interest. Forced drying in this manner allows for the study of a range of concentrations and self-assembly interactions. Solution method: A python wrapper for existing molecular dynamics codes that randomly selects solvent for removal relative to a distance criteria around a solute to maintain solvation shells. Removal on final structure files maintains generic applicability for MD source codes and enables incorporation into automated loops to study longer drying.

During their formation, terrestrial planets underwent a magma ocean phase during which their metallic cores segregated from their silicate mantles and their early atmospheres formed. These planetary formation processes resulted in a redistribution of the abundances of highly volatile elements (HVEs, such as H, C, N, and S) between the planets' metallic cores, silicate mantles, and atmospheres. This review presents the numerous experimental techniques used to simulate the conditions and identify the parameters that influenced the behavior of HVEs during planetary formation. We also review the analytical techniques used to characterize the different types of experimental samples and quantify the distribution of HVEs between metallic and silicate phases, as well as their solubilities in silicate glasses. This exhaustive review targets students and young researchers beginning their work on the subject, or, more generally, scientists seeking a better understanding of this field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isotope technology is widely used in geochemical mechanisms analysis; however, studies on the origin of pit lake water by isotopes in coal concentration areas in grassland are rare. In this study, 20 groups of water samples were collected, which were subjected to chemical analysis to determine the hydrogeochemical characteristics of pit lake water. The mechanisms of pit lake water formation and recharge–evaporation were ascertained through principal component analysis and the Rayleigh fractionation model. The results indicate that the phreatic water is least affected by evaporation, followed by confined water, surface water and pit lake water. The ionic composition of surface water, phreatic water and most of the confined water is mainly affected by leaching, some confined water can be recharged by surface or phreatic water; while the ionic composition of pit lake water is dominantly affected by evaporation (69.4 %) and is less affected by groundwater recharge (17.1 %) and human activities (11.5 %). The pit lake water is recharged by precipitation, phreatic water and the lateral runoff of confined water; however, the proportion of phreatic and confined water recharge is small. The evaporative loss of the pit lake water is 40–61 % of the initial water body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this experimental study was to identify a suitable type of adhesive that can effectively enhance the absorbency rate and water evaporation capacity of fabrics, consequently improving the cooling capacity of evaporative coolers. Five distinct adhesives, utilized as binders between fabric and aluminum, were compared. The water absorption and diffusion rate through the adhered fabric onto the aluminum workpiece was evaluated by observing the behavior of water droplets. The evaporation capacity was measured in a test rig by assessing the outlet humidity ratio of air after flowing over the wetted sample. Among the tested adhesives, Draga glue demonstrated superior performance in terms of water diffusion rate, evaporation, and cost per unit mass. With Draga glue, water diffusion rates were 5.64, 7.36, and 11.52 times higher than those of SikaFlex 740, hot glue, and SA, respectively. The outlet humidity ratio from the Draga glue sample reached 16.91 g/kg, exceeding the rates of SikaFlex 740, hot glue, and SA by 22.17%, 22.46%, and 26.70%, respectively. Economically, Draga glue was found to be twice as cost-effective per unit mass as the other adhesives studied. These findings indicate that the use of Draga glue can significantly enhance the diffusion rate, evaporation, and cooling capacities of evaporative coolers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joint collapse of , and equal spherical vapor bubbles in water has been studied. The bubbles are symmetrically distributed in liquid, so that their centers are positioned at the end points of a line segment, vertices of an equilateral triangle or a tetrahedron The distance between any two bubbles is the same and is sufficiently large. Such symmetrical configurations are of interest since their mathematical model is reduced to a system of equations for only one bubble because the dynamics of others is the same. The system includes ordinary differential equations in the liquid velocity on the bubble surface, the uniform vapor pressure in the bubble and the bubble radius, and the partial differential equations in the vapor and liquid temperature with the corresponding boundary and initial conditions. The liquid compressibility effect is divided into two aspects. The first one allows for the energy losses from the generation of the acoustic disturbances diverging from bubbles, the second one takes into account the time delay in the influence of acoustic disturbances coming from other bubbles. It has been shown that in the case of four bubbles (), the influence of the liquid compressibility due to generating diverging disturbances and the heat conductivity of both phases on the ratio of the pressure maximum in the bubbles with and without allowing for their interaction is small. The maximum pressures in the bubbles during collapse with the time delay is lower than without it. Collapses of bubbles with and without the mass exchange on the bubble surface are rather different. In particular, when it is taken into account, the difference between maximum pressures in the bubbles with and without neglecting their interaction is rather small when the time delay is allowed for. All features of the bubble dynamics in the case of with and without the time delay are also typical for the cases of and . And with decreasing , all the results gradually approach those in the case of a single bubble. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the global challenges of environmental destruction, limited fossil reserves, and the reduction of the share of energy in the final price of the product, a detailed evaluation of energy‐intensive systems is needed to improve performance. The syrup heating process is one of the basic processes in sugar factories. In this study, the syrup heating system in the purification and evaporation lines, located in the Urmia sugar plant, was evaluated, analyzed, and compared with energy and exergy analysis. Also, the subsystems of the syrup heating process were evaluated with thermodynamic analysis. Mass, energy, and exergy balances were carried out by coding in EES software, and energetic and exergetic operational parameters were extracted. The heat loss rate and exergy destruction rate in the syrup heating system of the purification line were calculated as 121.29 and 404.36 kW, respectively, and in the syrup heating system of the evaporation line as 112.70 and 238.62 kW, respectively. The recovery potential rate was 134.99 kW for the purification line and 37.70 kW for the evaporation line. The stability index and exergy efficiency for the purification line were calculated as 3.03% and 67.01% for the purification line and 6.54% and 84.71% for the evaporation line. The results of the thermodynamic analysis showed that the syrup heating process in the purification line has weaker performance from the energetic and exergetic point of view, is accompanied by large losses, and imposes a greater environmental burden. Accordingly, it is suggested that the improvement of the syrup heating performance in the purification line should be prioritized for engineering optimization and redesign in sugar processing plants. Practical applications: Monitoring the operational state of the systems and determining system losses are critical steps in food thermal processing. A practical and accurate method to evaluate the purification and evaporation lines is required to improve the thermal efficiency. According to exergy analyses, the performance of the syrup heating process in the purification line is low due to large losses and imposes a greater environmental burden. Therefore, the improvement of the syrup heating performance in the purification line should be prioritized for engineering optimization and redesign in sugar processing plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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It is not clear how the Asian monsoon evolved after leaving the spatial range of the Intertropical Convergence Zone in the Late Eocene and before the modern‐like Asian monsoon formed at ∼26 Ma. In this study, the results of a well‐dated, robust, and continuous paleoenvironmental carbonate oxygen isotope record from the Tuotuohe section in the Tuotuohe Basin on the central–northern Tibetan Plateau indicate that the carbonate oxygen isotope showed positive bias at 30.5 Ma. Evidence concerning the temperature, precipitation, paleolatitude, paleoelevation, salt mines and global temperature changes at this time suggest that the positive oxygen isotope shift was mainly due to a combination of the intrusion of the Indian monsoon into the basin and increased evaporation, both of which were ultimately induced by the tectonic uplift of the Tuotuohe Basin before 30.5 Ma and the retreat of the Paratethys Sea after the Eocene. Key Points: Carbonate oxygen isotope in the Tuotuohe Basin has an evident positive shift at 30.5 MaThe Indian monsoon intruded into the Tuotuohe Basin at 30.5 MaThe intrusion of the Indian monsoon mainly induced by the tectonic uplifts of the Tuotuohe Basin before 30.5 Ma [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effectiveness of suspended shade covers in reducing evaporation rates and improving evaporation suppression efficiency. The experiment tested different shading colors (black, white, and green) and intensities (50, 70, and 90%) while considering ecological and economical aspects. Evaporation was determined using class-A evaporation pans, and various microclimatic variables were measured below the shade covers. Additionally, water quality parameters such as EC, phosphate, nitrate, and chloride concentrations were monitored. The results showed that black covers had the highest evaporation suppression efficiency with values of 56.8, 53.6, and 51.7% observed under 90% shading intensity for the black, green, and white covers, respectively. Despite variations in water quality parameters which all met Jordanian and FAO standards for irrigation water, the economic feasibility of installing these covers was found to be viable due to the resulting benefits in water conservation and crop production. However, selecting the best shading cover should consider the multipurpose use of agricultural reservoirs, including aquaculture, and further studies are recommended to investigate other overlapping aspects on a reservoir scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The total evaporation rate due to a volatile capillarity-dominated droplet diffusively evaporating into the surrounding gas is a critically important quantity in industrial and engineering applications such as Q/OLED screen manufacturing. However, the analytical expression in terms of integrals in toroidal coordinates can be unwieldy in applications, as well as expensive to compute. Therefore, simple yet highly accurate approximate solutions are frequently used in practical settings. Herein we present a new approximate form that is both accurate and fast to compute, but also retains the correct asymptotic behaviour in the key physical regimes, namely hydrophilic and superhydrophobic substrates, and a hemispherical droplet. We illustrate this by comparison to several previous approximations and, in particular, illustrate its use in calculating droplet lifetimes, as well as approximating the local evaporative flux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. The aim of the study was the theoretical and experimental determination of the influence of periodic disturbances of the liquid film surface on the intensity of heat transfer during evaporation. Materials and methods. The theoretical results were obtained based on mathematical modeling of heat transfer processes in flowing liquid films with disturbance of its surface by large waves. Physical modeling was performed on an experimental stand, on which heat exchange processes in the film were reproduced in a 9-m-long pipe with a diameter of 30 mm, which was heated by dry saturated steam. The heat flow was measured at the discrete-local level. Results and discussion. The model of heat exchange in a liquid film flowing down a vertical surface is presented, which is cyclically mixed either due to the passage of low-frequency waves of large amplitude, or due to a system of mechanical obstacles in the way of the film movement. The analytical expression for the temperature field in the turbulent film is obtained by the approximate solution of the convective heat conduction equation with the boundary conditions under which vapor formation occurs on the free surface of the film. An analytical expression for the heat transfer coefficient is presented, which includes, as parameters, the distance between the heat transfer intensifiers and the maximum value of the turbulence function, which is proportional to the height of the mechanical turbulators. For film currents flowing in long, smooth heat exchange channels, the role of the parameters is played by the distance between the crests of large waves and their amplitude. The practical implementation of the obtained results of the mathematical modeling of heat transfer in the processes of cyclic disturbance and restoration of the hydrodynamic structure of flowing films is demonstrated by generalization on its basis of the data of experimental studies of heat exchange in a flowing film of water in a pipe with a diameter of 30 mm and a height of 9 m in the range of changes in the mass density of irrigation 0.16-0.72 kg/m sec with. Conclusions. A mathematical model of heat exchange in a liquid film flowing down a vertical surface disturbed either by low-frequency waves of large amplitude or by a system of ring intensifiers of heat exchange has been developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A semi-empirical equation of state for bismuth has been developed taking into account five solid phases, the liquid phase, evaporation, and thermal ionization. The results of model calculations are in satisfactory agreement with data from static and dynamic experiments in the pressure range from atmospheric to 1 TPa and at temperatures from room temperature to 105 K. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a set of two precision, small-scale, water balance lysimeters to provide accurate measurements of bare soil evaporation. Each lysimeter comprises a soil tank, a balance assembly with load cell, a wicking drainage system, and a stilling well to measure drained water. Fiberglass wicks installed at the bottom of the soil tanks provide −60 cm of tension to the base of the soil column, and soil water drainage is quantified to close the water balance within the lysimeter. The calibrated lysimeters return mass changes with uncertainties ranging from 3 to 8 g, corresponding to uncertainties of 0.02–0.05 mm of water. Installed at a semi-arid site in northern Nevada, the two lysimeters are filled with uniform construction sand and silt loam. Over a six-month pilot observation period, bare soil evaporation rates of 0.19 and 0.40 mm/day were measured for the construction sand and silt loam, respectively, which is consistent with meteorological data and models of potential evapotranspiration at the site. The design of the lysimeter can be adapted to specific research goals or site restrictions, and these instruments can contribute significantly to our ability to close the soil water balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An approach based on the direct numerical solution of the Boltzmann kinetic equation is proposed to take into account the influence of homogeneous nucleation on the mass transfer intensity in the evaporation/condensation (recondensation) problem. On the basis of the comparison between the scales of the formation time of a critical-size droplet and the time of supersaturation propagation, it is shown that it is possible to describe the considered problem in two stages, i.e., without taking into account the influence of droplets at the first stage and with taking into account their influence at the second stage. The calculation results show that, in the case of immobile droplets, there is a strong influence of bulk condensation on the intensity of the evaporation/condensation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geotextiles find wide applications in the field for filtration and drainage. When applied on the soil surface they influence soil evaporation. The objective of this work is twofold: (a) to assess the effectiveness of four different geotextiles as cover materials on soil evaporation, (b) to study the combined effect of geotextile and perforated mechanical barriers on soil evaporation. The first set of experimental programs consisted of three soil samples i.e. kaolin, dredged mud from the port of Brisbane and a locally obtained red mud sample from Queensland, Australia tested with four types of non-woven geotextiles under four controlled climatic conditions. All the 4 geotextiles had suppression effects on soil evaporation to degrees that varied with the type of soil, ratio of pore size to thickness of geotextiles (M*), product of pore size to thickness of the geotextiles (N*) and climatic conditions. Geotextiles with a higher pore size (O95) and M* allowed water vapor to move through relatively easily leading to higher evaporation rates. Geotextile with a higher thickness and N* value provided a higher suppression effect on soil evaporation. In a recently introduced dewatering method involving perforated ventilated well method, evaporation from soil take place through geotextiles and the perforated well. Mimicking this, impacts on soil evaporation with geotextiles sandwiched between soil sample and perforated sections were also studied. Maintaining similar number and arrangement of the perforations, soil evaporation was noted to be higher with rectangular shaped perforation compared to circular shaped perforations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sedimentation, consolidation and desiccation behaviour of sub-aerially deposited tailings in tailings storage facilities, despite occurring simultaneously and being essential to maximise tailings dry density and dewatering efficiency, are usually analysed in laboratories using distinctive testing equipment, which is unable to reveal their interactions. A large instrumented column was constructed to test the three processes of tailings in a single apparatus, capable of monitoring the changes in the hydrological parameters of coal tailings with depth and surface settlement under natural weather conditions. The column was initially filled with coal tailings slurry and exposed to natural weather for two years, during which five wetting–drying periods were identified. The monitored results indicate that exposing the slurry tailings for one month would lead to the formation of an unsaturated tailings layer with a thickness of 150 mm, likely representing the optimised tailings deposition cycle and thickness, respectively, under the given tailings characteristics and semi-arid climates. Settlement mainly occurred after major rainfall events due to the collapse of cracks and cavities formed during the preceding desiccation. The maximum thickness of the unsaturated tailings increased over the first four periods as the predominant desiccation and settlement strengthened the evaporative capillary forces, despite it decreasing greatly in the last period due to insufficient desiccation. An empirical model was proposed to consecutively estimate the surface moisture content of deformable tailings and validated by achieving a good agreement in the water mass estimated by two methods during wetting–drying cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the transient evolution of thermo-fluid-dynamics of evaporating sessile droplets over curved substrates in the liquid and gaseous domains. A computational model using the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian framework is adopted. The governing equations in both liquid and gaseous domains are solved in a fully coupled manner, considering coupled effects of evaporative cooling and heat advection due to bulk fluid motion. This bulk motion in the liquid domain is caused by natural advection due to thermal actuations such as thermal Marangoni flow and buoyancy-driven convection. For the gaseous domain, the additional effects of solutal convection (due to vapour-concentration variation), Stefan flow and interfacial viscous stresses are also considered. To depict a generalized role of substrate curvature, both concave and convex surfaces with curvatures over a wide range are studied. The surface wettability effects are also explored by varying the true contact angle of the droplets. Computational predictions on evaporation rate and internal flow field are validated against experimental results from literature. The interplay of wetting state and substrate curvature is noted to substantially affect the evaporation process and its thermo-fluidics. The convex curvature significantly augments internal advection while the same is weakened over concave substrates due to altered mass loss rate. Consequently, the duration of multi-vortex Marangoni flows in the development stages of evaporation and the advection in the external gaseous domain is markedly different for different curvatures. Further, on superhydrophobic curved surfaces, the effects of re-distributed evaporative fluxes play a major role. In such cases, the reduced mass flux over a large interfacial area near the periphery expedites the stable state Marangoni and external flow features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, the biggest issue appears to be the increase in drought in some regions brought on by global warming, which has greatly increased the significance of water management. In light of evaporation's effect on drought, this research intends to evaluate the effectiveness of hybrid machine learning (ML) models, such as the Gradient Boosting Machines (GBM) technique paired with Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), Robust Empirical Mode Decomposition (REMD), Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD), and Variational Mode Decomposition (VMD) signal decomposition techniques, for monthly evaporation prediction models in the Southeast Anatolia Project Area. In the design of the models, 80% of the data was used for training and 20% for testing. Furthermore, tenfold cross-validation was applied to solve the overfitting problem, which negatively affected the forecast performance. In the model setup, various combinations of precipitation, average air temperature, minimum air temperature, maximum air temperature, wind speed, actual air pressure, relative humidity, and solar time variables are presented to artificial intelligence models as input. The study revealed that the GBM methodology in combination with the signal decomposition methods REMD, EMD, EEMD, and VMD generally allowed for more accurate evaporation estimations than the GBM model alone. The study's results are essential in relation to agricultural production, irrigation planning, water resources management studies, and hydrological modeling studies in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turbulent fluxes of heat, momentum, and humidity in the atmospheric boundary layer are pivotal to the evolution of geology, weather and climate, and the possibility of life. Here we extend recent advances in calculating these near‐surface turbulent fluxes in the Earth's atmospheric boundary layer to any terrestrial planetary body with an atmosphere. These improvements include: (a) incorporating Monin‐Obukhov similarity functions that encompass the entire range of atmospheric stability expected on terrestrial planetary bodies, (b) accounting for the additional shear associated with buoyant plumes under unstable conditions, (c) using surface renewal theory to calculate transfer rates within the interfacial layer adjacent to the surface, and (d) explicitly accounting for key humidity effects that become especially important when a volatile is more buoyant than the ambient gas (e.g., on Mars where H2O is lighter than CO2). We tested and validated our model using in situ data collected on Earth, Mars, and Titan under a wide range of atmospheric stability, pressure, and surface roughness conditions. The model shows up to 71% better agreement with measurements compared to methods commonly used on Mars for evaporation/sublimation. Compared to previous estimates for H2O ice on Mars, our model predicts up to 1.5–190x lower latent heat fluxes under stable atmospheric conditions (depending on the wind speed) and 1.78x higher latent heat fluxes under unstable conditions. Our results provide improved constraints on the stability of ice on Mars and will help determine whether ice can melt under present‐day conditions. Plain Language Summary: As air flows over a surface, the resulting turbulent eddies cause the air to mix. The intensity of turbulence generated dictates the rate at which energy is given to, or taken away from the surface. If there are volatiles such as liquid water at the surface, then the magnitude of the turbulent fluxes determines how long the volatiles will remain stable before evaporating or freezing. We applied recent advances made on Earth to develop a model for predicting turbulent fluxes and evaporation rates on any planetary body with an atmosphere. To check whether our simulations are accurate, we compared them with measurements made on Earth, Mars and Titan. We found that our simulations agreed up to 71% better with measurements compared to previously developed models used for Mars evaporation. Our simulations predict significantly higher or lower rates of evaporation when compared to previous estimates, depending on atmospheric conditions. These results provide improved constraints on the stability of ice on Mars and will help determine whether ice can melt under present‐day conditions. Key Points: We present an improved model to predict atmospheric turbulent fluxes and evaporation/sublimation rates on any terrestrial planetary bodyThe model shows up to 71% better agreement with measurements compared to methods commonly used on Mars for evaporation and sublimationOur results provide improved constraints on the stability of Martian ice and will help determine whether ice can melt on Mars at present [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For small droplets undergoing phase change, gravity is generally considered negligible. In the case of binary droplets evaporation, convective flows can be induced due to various mechanisms, such as continuity, buoyancy and/or selective evaporation of one of the components. Convection can also be induced by surface tension gradients resulting from concentration variations along the interface. This study presents experimental results of evaporation for binary mixture droplets. We concurrently investigate sessile and pendant droplets to assess gravity’s impact on binary droplet evaporation. We examine compositions including, pure butanol, pure methanol, pure water, and 50% per volume mixtures of water-butanol and water-methanol, evaporating in a controlled atmosphere. In the case of water-butanol mixtures, the drops contact line ‘depins’ during the evaporation process whereas the case of water-methanol mixture, the contact line of the drops remains pinned most of the lifetimes. The analysis of the evaporation dynamics reveals differences in the evaporation of these two mixtures and the effect of orientation (gravity). For water-butanol mixtures the evaporation occurs in four stages linked to preferential evaporation of the more volatile component and the ensuing surface tension gradients. In the case of water-methanol mixtures, contact lines tend to be pinned during most of the lifetimes of drops. The evaporation rate of the mixture is found to be between the ones of the pure components, i.e. water and methanol. The case of sessile drops exhibits a slight enhancement in evaporation rate in the case of the sessile configuration compared to the pendant one for pure water and mixture cases, which is explained by density differences and buoyancy driven flows. Solutal Marangoni flows in the case of water-methanol mixtures are deemed weaker compared to water-butanol ones. The use of the two mixtures allowed to have a good comparison between two cases where solutal-Marangoni effect can be strong (water-butanol) and weak (water- methanol) influence. The densities of the two organic liquids also highlighted gravitational effect due to the large difference in vapor densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A hydrogeochemical appraisal of groundwater in the Banas river basin area in North West India was carried out to determine its quality and appropriateness for domestic uses. In addition, the objective of the study is to enumerate the effects of geological and human factors on groundwater chemistry in the research area. A total of 38 groundwater samples were gathered and analyzed for the determination of pH, EC, TDS, TH, main cations, and anions. The findings revealed that groundwater is alkaline, fresh to brackish, and very hard in nature; moreover, in the majority of groundwater samples, the physicochemical parameters like EC, TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3−, and Cl− were found to be exceeded to their threshold levels as prescribed for drinking purposes. According to the groundwater quality index, 73.68 and 26.32% of the groundwater samples are classified as good and poor types of groundwater, respectively. According to Piper and Chadha's diagrams, the bulk of groundwater samples are mixed type (Ca. Mg-Cl), followed by Na-Cl and Ca.Mg-HCO3 types, which indicated a shift from pure recharge water to saline water via mixed type water. Alkaline earths outperformed alkalis, and strong acid anions outperformed weak acid anions in the groundwater of the basin. Furthermore, Na+, and Cl− and HCO3− were found to be dominated among the cations and anions, respectively, in water samples, and Gibbs diagrams evidenced that hydrochemistry of water is primarily regulated by rock-water interaction and evaporation processes, while graphical and inter-ionic plots, molar ionic ratios, correlation analysis study, chloro-alkaline indices (CAI), and saturation indices (SI) revealed that the chemical constitution of groundwater is regulating by rock weathering, mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and evaporation, as well as anthropogenic activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating the amount of evaporation from water resources is one of the important and key factors in calculating the water balance and managing water resources in each region. In order to calculate the average evaporation from water resources in Kashan plain and to check the amount of enrichment, the information of stable isotopes of water molecules was used. In this study, 42 water samples were collected from groundwater, Playa Lake and Serajeh salt pan in order to analyze the hydrogeochemical and isotopic characteristics. The amount of 18O isotopic enrichment factor was determined based on Δε18Ov-bl=7.1‰ and the amount of deuterium based on Δε²Hv-bl=6.25‰. According to the results, the overall enrichment value due to evaporation, under the specified conditions and an average annual temperature of 30°C, was determined to be -16.4‰ and -82.25‰ for oxygen-18 and deuterium, respectively. Additionally, based on the Rayleigh distillation, the amount of water losses due to evaporation was calculated based on the differences between the initial sample and the 18O value of the Playa using the simplified Rayleigh equation. Since the remaining water fraction was found to be 0.40, hence the water loss rate in the northeastern part of the aquifer was estimated to be 60 percent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: The wind, as one of the most effective factors on evaporation from the surface of water sources, such as reservoirs of dams, plays a significant role in estimating the volume of losses due to evaporation and thus protecting water resources. However, in most evaporation estimation methods, such as experimental relationships, evaporation pans, and even new methods such as the use of satellite images, wind is considered as a constant parameter. The wind parameter has a spatial distribution under the influence of the elevations overlooking the lake and water levels. On the other hand, simulating the spatial changes of the wind and investigating its effect on evaporation, as one of the factors affecting the water cycle, is time-consuming and difficult due to the complexity of the calculations. Failure to apply wind location changes will reduce the accuracy of the calculated evaporation and as a result, it will be difficult to access the exact amount of evaporation losses. Materials and Methods: In this study, to calculate the effect of spatial changes of wind on evaporation losses from the Dez Dam reservoir located in Khuzestan province and the southwest of Iran, the combination of the CE-QUAL-W2 model and Bowen Ratio Energy Budget (BREB) method was used. The wind shelter coefficient (WSC) as one of the input parameters to the CE-QUAL-W2 model, makes it possible for the model to consider the wind shelter condition in different segments of water bodies differently. However, due to the lack of access to a suitable criterion to show the wind shelter condition in different segments, before this research, the value of WSC was considered constant in all or large parts of the water body. In this study, CE-QUAL-W2 model capability was used for reservoir segmentation, and wind shelter condition was determined in each segment, using the wind shelter index (Sx). Therefore, it was possible to assign different WSC values in each segment. In this way, the thermal profiles in each of these segments, under the influence of two conditions of constant and variable wind (constant and variable WSC), were extracted and entered into the BREB method to calculate evaporation. Results: The results showed that the application of spatial wind changes compared to constant wind conditions, improved the performance of the CE-QUAL-W2 model by 45% in the temperature calibration stage. Also, the monthly evaporation from the lake increased by 13%. Conclusion: This study, introduced a standardized method for simulating the effect of spatial wind changes on evaporation from water surfaces. So that, it was possible to quantify the effect of wind on evaporation and as a result water losses from the lake, by comparing two conditions of variable and constant wind, in different segments of the studied lake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate simulation of reservoirs has been a challenge for global hydrological models due to highly discontinuous water management and uncertainties in reservoir shape representation. In addition, at a global scale, it is crucial to consider those reservoirs that disrupt the downstream flow regime. We augment the mesoscale Hydrological Model with a newly developed lake module (LM) that incorporates an existing reservoir regulation scheme with non‐consumptive demand predictions from random forest. We also evaluate the sensitivity of reservoir shape on streamflow and evaporation for three shape approximations of varying complexities. We tested the LM across 31 non‐consumptive reservoirs covering an extensive range of hydroclimatic characteristics and demonstrate the applicability by using freely available global reservoir information. Streamflow simulations with reservoirs and model calibration show a median Kling‐Gupta Efficiency improvement of +0.94 (calibration) and +0.77 (validation) when compared against model simulations without reservoirs and default parameter set. We find reservoir evaporation highly sensitive to reservoir shape with half‐pyramid approximation consistently resulting in best fit at reservoirs with surveyed bathymetry. In contrast, the linear approximation (rectangular prism) produced a median bias of +114% relative to half‐pyramid, for estimating evaporation, across all the reservoirs. Streamflow simulations were insensitive to the reservoir shape. Our analysis shows that 30% of the non‐consumptive hydropower reservoirs of the GRanD data set are non‐disruptive and can be excluded without loss to model realism. Further work is necessary for testing the regulation approach in reservoirs with consumptive water usage. Key Points: The new reservoir module of mesoscale Hydrological Model improves the median Kling‐Gupta Efficiency of streamflow simulations downstream of reservoirs by +0.94Commonly employed linear (rectangular prism) reservoir shape approximation overestimates reservoir evaporation by a factor of twoThree in ten non‐consumptive hydropower reservoirs within the GRanD data set exhibit insignificant streamflow disruption and can be omitted from simulations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

17O‐excess is a relatively new water isotope parameter that could potentially provide useful information about the hydrological cycle. Previous works focusing on 17O‐excess in polar regions suggest that it primarily tracks moisture source relative humidity, but little is known about how to interpret 17O‐excess data in lower latitudes. Here we present quasi‐hourly triple oxygen isotope data of precipitation collected from two tropical cyclones in Texas and Louisiana in 2020 to understand the impacts of environmental and meteorological processes on the 17O‐excess of low‐to mid‐latitude precipitation. We find that at both hourly timescales and the event scale, 17O‐excess is strongly correlated to changes in on‐site rainfall intensity and relative humidity, which is consistent with the theory that the isotopic fractionation associated with rain re‐evaporation lowers the 17O‐excess of the remaining droplet. In addition, although evaporative conditions at the moisture source region may also influence 17O‐excess of water vapor transported to the precipitation site, their impacts are likely overprinted by the post‐condensation rain re‐evaporation processes. Our results thus suggest that 17O‐excess can be used as a proxy for local rather than source region evaporative conditions during tropical cyclones. Plain Language Summary: The stable isotopic composition of water can be used to track the hydrologic cycle. 17O‐excess measures the relative abundance of the two less abundant stable isotope species of oxygen (17O and 18O), and is known to contain unique information about how humid the air is where the water comes from. However, most of such observations were done in polar regions. In order to understand how to use 17O‐excess in (sub‐) tropical regions correctly, we collected rainwater from two tropical cyclone storms in the southern United States in 2020. We discovered that during these storms, it was actually the humidity at the site of precipitation, rather than where the water came from, that drove changes in 17O‐excess values of precipitation. This is because rainwater tends to evaporate back into the air when the local condition is drier, making 17O‐excess values lower. Our study suggests that 17O‐excess should be interpreted as local humidity instead of the humidity at the moisture source in (sub‐) tropical regions. Key Points: Intra‐event 17O‐excess data is reported for two tropical cyclonesRe‐evaporation is the dominant control on 17O‐excess variability in the tropical cyclones observed in this study17O‐excess may be used as a proxy for assessing rain re‐evaporation in low‐to mid‐latitudes [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SiC components were joined under vacuum at 1100 °C for 10 min via Si–Mg composite fillers with added Al (X Al) ranging over 0–10 at.%. The joining mechanism involves Mg addition to Si, which lowers the melting point of Si. The transformation of the molten liquid phase into a solid Si layer is induced by Mg evaporation. In SiC/SiC joining, however, Mg evaporation was significantly suppressed when X Al = 0 at.%, with a large amount of Mg remaining in the joint, forming a brittle bonding layer of Si, Mg 2 Si, and MgO. Notably, Mg evaporation was enhanced by the addition of Al to the filler, resulting in the formation of a dense Si layer. The joint tensile strength increased with increasing X Al in the range of 0–6 at.% and then decreased with further increases in X Al. The changes in strength were correlated with microstructural changes in the bonding layer. From the microstructure and the phase diagrams, it was concluded that the added Al increased the thermodynamic degrees of freedom, which hindered the rate of Mg-evaporation-induced Si solidification from the liquid during joining. Because the amount of liquid surrounded and trapped by the solid Si decreased, more Mg in the liquid could diffuse to the surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ocular surface system interacts with, reacts with, and adapts to the daily continuous insults, trauma, and stimuli caused by direct exposure to the atmosphere and environment. Several tissue and para-inflammatory mechanisms interact to guarantee such an ultimate function, hence maintaining its healthy homeostatic equilibrium. Evaporation seriously affects the homeostasis of the system, thereby becoming a critical trigger in the pathogenesis of the vicious cycle of dry eye disease (DED). Tear film lipid composition, distribution, spreading, and efficiency are crucial factors in controlling water evaporation, and are involved in the onset of the hyperosmolar and inflammatory cascades of DED. The structure of tear film lipids, and subsequently the tear film, have a considerable impact on tears' properties and main functions, leading to a peculiar clinical picture and specific management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compressed air foam (CAF) and compressed nitrogen foam (CNF) have been widely used for storage tank fire suppression, benefiting from their highly effective extinguishing performance. Mass loss rate is an important parameter to evaluate the stability of foam and an important factor to influence the suppression efficiency of foam. In this work, mass loss mechanisms including drainage and evaporation of two types of foams under a fixed radiation source were experimentally studied to reflect the foam fire suppression efficiency. It was observed that the foam drain rate is directly proportional to the foam mass, with a slight relation to the irradiance when irradiance is lower than 20 kW/m2. Once the irradiance reaches 30 kW/m2, the drain rate increases significantly. For evaporation, as expected from the established theoretical model, the evaporation rate shows a positive relationship with the irradiance level. However, there is no relationship between foam evaporation rate and the initial foam thickness. Through the experimentally measured evaporation rate, the average foam absorptivity is calculated to be approximately 0.63 ± 0.07 for both foams at an expansion ratio (ER) of 10. A comparative analysis of mass loss characteristics in the two types of foam was also undertaken. It was found that the two types of foam have distinct drain rates due to their different foam stability caused by the different expanded gas properties. However, they have a similar evaporation rate. In addition, the foam destruction rate and time to ignite the underlying fuel were measured, and a linear relationship between ignition time and initial foam height was found with a slope of 1.7 ± 0.2. The results demonstrate that CNF has a better fire suppression efficiency, which can be attributed to the better stability of the foam and the nitrogen released by broken bubbles, which inhibits ignition. The work presented here reveals the different functional mechanisms of compressed air/nitrogen foam and presents useful information that could enhance our understanding of the fire suppression effects of fire extinguishing foam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anhydrous dimolybdenum perfluorotetrabenzoate Мо2(ООСС6F5)4 (I) and silver perfluorocyclohexanoate AgOOCC6F11 (II) are synthesized for the first time. Complex I is synthesized by the transcarboxylation of dimolybdenum tetraacetate with pentafluorobenzoic acid. Compound II is synthesized from freshly prepared silver oxide and perfluorocyclohexanoic acid. The evaporation of the complexes is studied by the Knudsen method with mass spectral analysis of the gas phase. The sublimation of Мо2(ООСС6F5)4 is congruent. The enthalpy of sublimation and the equation of the temperature dependence of the vapor pressure are found. The evaporation of AgOOCC6F11 is accompanied by the complete thermal decomposition with the formation of Ag(s) and mainly С6F12, С6F10, and CO2 molecules. The standard enthalpies of thermal decomposition ( (5) = 439.5 ± 16.4 kJ/mol, (6) = 325.2 ± 14.0 kJ/mol) and formation of the silver complex ( (AgOOCC6F11, c) = –2751.0 ± 24.4 kJ/mol) are determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The source region of the Yellow River has experienced obvious climate and discharge changes in recent decades due to global warming, which largely affects the water resources and ecological and environmental security in the Yellow River basin. This study analyzed the changes in runoff and several climate factors in the source region of the Yellow River based on the observed discharges at the Tangnag hydrological station, routine meteorological data from China Meteorological Administration (CMA) stations within and near this source region, and several evaporation datasets. The results indicate that the runoff in the source region was relatively abundant from 1960 to 1989 and then declined sharply afterward. It recovered slightly after 2005 but was still below normal—10% less than that during 1960–1989. Similarly, the precipitation amounts in the source region were relatively low in the 1990s, but they increased significantly after 2003, with an average increase of 31.4 mm or 6% more when compared to that in 1960–1989. In addition, the temperatures in the source region continued to rise from 1960 to 2017, and the evaporation levels also showed an upward trend after 1990. The influences of the spatial and temporal variations in climatic factors on runoff in the source region were then further analyzed. The results indicate that the decreases in precipitation and the number of days of heavy rainfall in the source region from 1990 to 2002 were important reasons for the lower runoff during this period. After 2003, the precipitation in the southeastern part of the source region, which is a key area for runoff generation, increased only to a limited extent, but the evaporation in the entire source region generally increased with increasing temperature, which might have led to the low capacity for actual runoff production in each subbasin and persistent low runoff in the source region. Therefore, such a climate response to global warming in the source region might be unfavorable for increased runoff in the future. The above analysis provides a valuable reference for the future planning and management of water resources in the source region of the Yellow River and the entire Yellow River Basin in the context of warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polymethines containing an allyl group have been synthesized. Their films are produced by physical vapor deposition (PVD) on glass, silicon (Si), gold (Au), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and nanostructured plastic substrates. Optical spectra recorded during the deposition showed no decomposition of molecules. The influence of dye structure and substrate on the morphology of the deposits is studied using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Depending on the dye structure and the substrate material, various nanostructures are grown. Dichroic nanowires (NWs) are formed by self‐assembly on Au and Si substrates. On the Si surface, NWs grow between the edges of neighboring Au stripes. Several methods are used for the selective opening of the allyl group. Smooth films are produced with optical spectra similar to those deposited by PVD. The morphology of the films is dependent on the activation conditions. The thermal stability of the films exceeds the stability of those deposited via PVD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Halophytic plant communities have developed on exposed coastal landforms to form low-stature turf in several locations around New Zealand. We quantify the inorganic geochemistry, mineralogy and simulated ephemeral surface water composition of saline soil-free bare ground at a well-preserved site at Maori Head on Otago Peninsula, where halophytes have colonised from adjacent coastal turf. The community at this site is dominated by Leptinella dioica, Samolus repens, Disphyma australe and Selliera radicans. Maori Head substrates are dominated by clay-altered basalt colluvium and show a general trend from high electrical conductivity (EC > 10 mS/cm) and weakly acid pH (< 6) on bare ground to low EC (< 1 mS cm−1) and higher pH (> 7) in turf and adjacent pasture soils. High salinities on dry substrates and in simulated ephemeral surface waters result from surface evaporation of airborne sea spray and contain halite (NaCl) with some gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). Chemical interactions with the substrate are minor. The high surface salinities were maintained despite a major winter rain event with strong onshore winds. However, surface salinity is frequently leached by rain and shallow groundwater, whereas inland saline sites (pH 8–11) have substantial salt accumulations driven by lower rainfall, high evaporation and chemical interaction with Otago Schist-derived substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a preliminary study of two different methods to handle the limitations of the Lagrangian point-force approach in the context of unstructured LES solvers. Large deviations in mass, momentum, and energy exchanges between the gas and liquid phases may occur if the assumptions of the point-force approach are not verified. In particular, the point-force approach considers the particles to be subgrid-scale phenomena but the use of more and more refined grids for the carrier flow allowed by today's computer power leads to cell sizes of the order or smaller than the particle diameters. Several methods are found in the literature to tackle this problem. However, they are usually suited for structured solvers. In the case of unstructured solvers handling several hundred thousand particles in unsteady flows, such methods are far too expensive. In this work, two original methods adapted for spray calculation in unstructured solvers are implemented and compared: the particle-bursting method, and the multigrid method. In this preliminary study, only the correction on the evaporation model is studied, with drag being neglected. Both methods greatly improve the accuracy of the evaporation model but only the multigrid method is independent of the Eulerian mesh refinement. The results presented show that the two methods are relevant to correct the evaporation source terms when the limits of the point-force model are reached. However, the study should be extended to consider the impact of the methods on the drag model calculation and the effects on the interaction with a reactive gaseous phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimation of pan evaporation (Epan) can be useful in judicious irrigation scheduling for enhancing agricultural water productivity. The aim of present study was to assess the efficacy of state-of-the-art LSTM and ANN for daily (Epan) estimation using meteorological data. Besides this, the effect of static time-series (Julian date) as additional input variable was investigated on performance of soft-computing techniques. For this purpose, the models were trained, tested and validated with eight meteorological variables of 37 years by using preceding 1-, 3- and 5-days' information. Data were partitioned into three groups as training (60%), testing (20%), and validation (20%) components. It was observed that the models performed well (best) with preceding 5-days meteorological information followed by 3-days and 1-day. However, all LSTMs simulated peak value of (Epan) was more accurate as compared to lower values. Meteorological data with julian date improved the performance of LSTMs (0.75pan) for the study region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Drawing development plans requires evaluating the available resources and assessing their sustainable and subsequent utilization-driven environmental impacts. The current work is concerned with evaluating the sustainability of the halite harvesting process from Al-Qasab Playa, Shaqra, Central Saudi Arabia. The authors integrated, conceptually and quantitatively, ArcGIS-processed SRTM-DEM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission-Digital Elevation Model) data, hydrogeochemical and thermodynamic-based geochemical modelling, and graphical approaches to achieve the ultimate aims of the study. The watershed is identified as a nonmarine closed basin with a drainage area of 1290 km2, with the slope controlling recharge to the Playa. The Chadha plot including the rainwater exhibits linear regression, with an R2 value of 0.9947, confirming the rainwater origin of the Playa water. The hardness-forming ions are primarily removed in pond 3, eliminating the need for costly and power-consuming steps of softening with ion exchange resins or nanofiltration as it can be used directly as a readily available feed for the chlor-alkali process for producing NaOH, Cl2, and H2 gases through electrolysis. XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis and the SEM-EDS (Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) of the harvested halite confirmed its purity. An improved design of the current folkloric harvesting process has been proposed based on the saturation indices calculated thermodynamically to provide a readily available feed intake for the electrolysis chlor-alkali process with or without minimal pretreatment to produce higher value chemicals. The methodological aspects presented here are deemed robust and valid for applications in other study areas, including the assessment of the exploitation of the rejected brine from the desalination plants to achieve the zero liquid discharge approach, as well as other types of sabkhas, regardless of their geographical location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to reduce the amount of evaporation from water reservoirs, various methods have been proposed, which can be divided into two physical and chemical categories. In the physical methods, by using physical coverings, such as floating balls, metal and polymer plates, or tree leaves, and by covering the water surface, evaporation waste is greatly reduced. These covers reduce a large amount of solar energy reaching the water surface and reduce vapor transmission by slowing the air flow (Zhang et al, 2017). The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of the coverage and shape of polypropylene sheets on reducing the evaporation rate and the effect of meteorological variables on the efficiency of these sheets efficiency. This research was carried out in two parts, in the first part, the efficiency of square and triangular polypropylene plates was investigated in comparison with floating balls, and in the second part, the efficiency of 100, 70, 50, and 30% coverage of polypropylene plates was evaluated.The results obtained from the tests showed that in the conditions of using floating balls, the reduction of evaporation was more intense and this coating was able to reduce evaporation to a greater extent compared to square and triangular floating plates. Also, using the square and triangular polypropylene plates and floating balls reduced evaporation by 30.71%, 14.86% and 48.7%, respectively, compared to the control pan. The results of two-way ANOVA on different meteorological variables showed that the percentage of relative humidity, which was the most important factor in evaporation from the pan, lost its significance due to the presence of floating balls and polypropylene sheets on the water surface. The comparison of rectangular covers with different densities showed that by increasing the density from 30, 50 and 70% to 100% respectively, evaporation decreases by 2.3, 1.5 and 0.8 times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt precipitation on the surface of porous media significantly affects water transport processes. Most studies on salt precipitation mainly focused on single salts, but in nature, salt precipitation usually occurs as mixtures. Consequently, information on the crystallization of salt mixtures and its effect on water transport remains scarce. This study investigated the precipitation of mixtures (the mass ratios of NaCl:Na2SO4 were 3:7, 5:5, and 7:3, respectively) of NaCl (typical efflorescence) and Na2SO4 (typical subflorescence) in the initially saturated sandy soil columns and its effect on evaporation and compared it with the cases of the two salts individually. The results showed that salt mixtures exhibited a mixed pattern of crystals including both efflorescence and subflorescence, and the efflorescence showed granular aggregation, unlike the mono‐salts. The crystallization coverage of the salt mixtures was smaller than that of NaCl mono‐salt; high (7:3) and low (5:5 and 3:7) proportions of NaCl led to larger and smaller crystallization coverage than that of Na2SO4 mono‐salt, respectively. While the salt mixtures had less crystallization coverage than the mono‐salts, they showed lower evaporation because the salt mixtures formed a denser crystallization structure of efflorescence‐subflorescence‐soil layer, this crystallization structure exhibited greater inhibition of water vapour diffusion, thus reducing evaporation. In addition, the crystallization of the salt mixtures with higher NaCl proportion afforded greater resistance of evaporation. The mixed crystallization pattern formed by the salt mixtures significantly enhances the crystallization resistance to evaporation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Open water evaporation, which often consumes a large fraction of annual storage (especially in arid and semi‐arid regions), is a controlling variable for modern water resource management. Developing a daily reservoir evaporation data set is necessary for reservoir operations to consider the influence of evaporation in a timely manner. However, over the past few decades, the quantification of reservoir evaporation has primarily relied on monthly Class A pan evaporation observations, which might lead to largely biased estimations because they do not incorporate the effects of heat storage and fetch. In this study, we developed a general Daily Lake Evaporation Model (DLEM) based on Penman's equation combined with daily atmospheric reanalysis data sets, to improve the validity and frequency of reservoir evaporation monitoring. Compared with daily evaporation estimates from eddy covariance systems, the DLEM showed good quality and reliability, with R2 values ranging from 0.50 to 0.73 and RMSE values ranging from 1.13 to 1.97 mm day−1 in four different sites. By applying DLEM to all 188 major reservoirs in Texas, we generated a long‐term data set of (1 January 1981–31 December 2021) daily evaporation rates. The results reveal a clear geographic distribution and strong seasonality of evaporation throughout Texas, where the mean evaporation rate is highest during July, with 6.85 mm day−1. Trend analysis indicates that the annual average evaporation rate has significantly increased since 1981 at a rate of 0.076 mm day−1 decade−1. This study provides sufficient data support for water resource operations and management, and regional water planning. Key Points: A general Daily Lake Evaporation Model (DLEM) is developed on modified‐Penman evaporation and compared with in situ eddy covariance measurementsA first long‐term (40+ years) regional scale daily reservoir evaporation data set is generated for 188 major reservoirs in Texas (US)While shortwave radiation affects the long‐term spatial distribution and trends, high wind speed is likely to cause daily extremes [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: In the hydrologic cycle, evaporation is the primary phenomenon that causes water loss. Evaporation takes into account various parts of the water balance under completely different climates, and its correct prediction is very important for water resources management. The importance of evaporation and its impact on surface water balance is highlighted through its relation to climate change and global warming. The latest outputs of meteorological models suggest that global warming has caused an increase in evaporation from the land surface and surface water bodies, which is anticipated to have a serious impact over time on water resources management and the global population. In arid and semi-arid regions, accurate prediction of evaporation is very important for decision-makers due to water scarcity. Estimating daily evaporation with the highest accuracy and in the fastest possible time is essential to determine the water needs of different products, design irrigation programs, and manage water resources in different areas, especially when there is insufficient meteorological information. Evaporation has complex and non-linear behavior. Also, the evaporation variable is not measured in some meteorological stations. Furthermore, meteorological stations are not correctly distributed in many developing countries including Iran. Since coastal areas have more evaporation than others, in many cases the amount of evaporation is higher than the global average. Despite the high importance of evaporation in coastal areas, very few studies have predicted this parameter in Iran. Moreover, accurate prediction of water loss in these areas leads to a better understanding of the hydrological cycle and is essential for optimal water management and agriculture. Thus, the purpose of this research is to predict daily evaporation values in four coastal stations of Abadan, Ramsar, Bandar Abbas, and Bandar Anzali. Methodology: The main meteorological variables including average relative humidity, minimum relative humidity, maximum relative humidity, average temperature, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, sunshine hours, and wind speed, under separate scenarios, as input for support vector regression (SVR) and SVR with firefly algorithm (SVR-FFA) for estimating evaporation values were used on a daily scale. Statistical parameters in the period of 1990-2021 were utilized as input to the mentioned models. To evaluate the performance of the implemented models, various statistical parameters were used, including correlation coefficient (R), root mean squared error (RMSE), Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient (NS), and Willmott's Index of Agreement (WI). To better estimate the daily evaporation values, eight different scenarios were used as the combinations of input parameters. Findings: Based on the obtained results for all studied stations, the SVR-FFA-8 showed the least error with RMSE = 2.843 (mm day-1) for Abadan station, RMSE = 1.13 (mm day-1) for Ramsar station, RMSE = 1.985 (mm day-1) for Bandar Abbas station and RMSE = 1.225 (mm day-1) for Bandar Anzali station. Therefore, the hybrid model was able to improve the accuracy of the standalone model and improve the prediction accuracy. Conclusion: For the indices of correlation coefficient, Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient, and Willmott's index of agreement, the SVR-FFA-8 model also indicated in the highest values between observed and predicted amounts. Also, the indices of correlation coefficient, Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient, and Willmott's index of agreement illustrated the highest accuracy in Abadan station for all combinations compared to other stations, which shows the high correlation of observed and predicted values in this station. After SVR-FFA-8, SVR-FFA-7 model in Abadan and Bandar Anzali stations and the SVR-FFA-6 in Ramsar and Bandar Abbas stations showed acceptable performance. Thus, the RMSE for Abadan and Bandar Anzali stations is 2.995 (mm day-1) and 1.272 (mm day-1), respectively, and for Ramsar and Bandar Abbas, 1.176 (mm day-1) and was obtained 1.993 (mm day-1). Comparing the results of SVR combinations also revealed that for Abadan, Ramsar, and Bandar Anzali stations, SVR-8 model and for Bandar Abbas station, SVR-6 model showed the highest accuracy among all SVR combinations in all four studied stations. Also, the Ramsar station presented the lowest RMSE compared to other stations. After the SVR-8 model for Abadan, Ramsar, and Bandar Anzali stations, the SVR-7 and SVR-6 models for the Bandar Abbas station showed a weaker performance due to having fewer input parameters. The comparison between the input parameters also concluded that the sunshine hours is the most important parameter in predicting the daily evaporation values in all four stations, thus increasing the accuracy of the models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The intricate choreography of evaporation and transpiration plays a fundamental role in the delicate ballet of the water cycle, serving as a linchpin for ecological equilibrium. Regrettably, more than 0.72% of a nation's water reservoirs slip through our fingers due to this natural process. The significance of precise predictions for evaporation and transpiration reverberates across a myriad of applications, encompassing agriculture, water resource management, irrigation planning, and the intricate modeling of plant growth. Robust studies on evapotranspiration, especially within the domains of climate change, sustainable development, and the management of water resources, underscore its indispensable importance. Nevertheless, the scarcity of meteorological stations and the resource-intensive nature of ground-based data collection have propelled an exploration into the realm of remote sensing techniques. Remote sensing techniques, when armed with accurate and fitting outputs, emerge as invaluable instruments for unraveling the intricacies of actual evaporation and transpiration. Among the plethora of algorithms residing within remote sensing, the Sabal algorithm stands out as a beacon of precision. Executing an instantaneous surface energy balance for each pixel in a satellite image, this algorithm becomes a powerful instrument for crafting accurate estimations. This investigation centers on the vibrant city of Tabriz, nestled in the western expanse of East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Material and Methods: To unravel the enigmas of evaporation and transpiration in Tabriz, the Sabal algorithm and Landsat satellite images in sensors ("OLI_TIRS") spanning from 2013 to 2021 were enlisted. These images, procured from NASA, became the canvas for the meticulous strokes of remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS). The harmonious fusion of thermal remote sensing techniques and GIS was orchestrated with precision, employing ARC GIS 10.8 and Envi 5.3 software for the intricate processes of data manipulation, analysis, and visualization. Results and Discussion: The findings of this research unveiled a visual metamorphosis since 2017, as the orange and red tones of Land Surface Temperature (LST) underwent a discernible escalation. Prevailing pixels exhibited temperatures spanning from 315 to 320 degrees and 320 degrees and above, marking a conspicuous warming trend in the surveyed area. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) echoed this narrative, with yellow and red pixels (0.2-0.4) and (<0.6) illustrating an upward trajectory. The Brightness Temperature (BT) index joined the symphony of change, portraying an upward shift, as pixels in the 310-315 range yielded ground to 315-320 and 320 degrees and above. The tangible correlation between vegetation cover (NDVI) and land surface temperature resonated in the accurate depiction of the ascending trend in evaporation-transpiration from 2017 to 2021, particularly in the regions beyond the city center. Conclusion: In conclusion, this research illuminates the surge in evaporation-transpiration beyond Tabriz's city center, notably in regions experiencing a documented temperature increase. The documented correlation underscores the profound influence of climate variations on this indispensable process. It is recommended that, considering the research results indicating noticeable changes in evapotranspiration outside the city center in the years 2017, 2019, and 2021, future investigations utilize daily, monthly, and annual formulas. Factors such as land-use changes and meteorological variables like temperature statistics, precipitation, etc., should be thoroughly examined in upcoming research. And this topic is of utmost importance for sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]