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Compared to monocultures, intercropping systems offer many agronomic benefits, including higher yield stability. In this study, we assessed whether cropping systems that are beneficial for yield stability are also beneficial for pollinator communities and whether the effect is modulated by the landscape type. Using a replicated block design in one heterogeneous and one homogeneous agricultural landscape, we studied the pollinator communities in eight populations (i.e., genotypes) of white clover (Trifolium repens) grown as a monoculture or as a two-species mixture (together with perennial ryegrass, Lolium perenne) or three-species mixture (together with perennial ryegrass and chicory, Cichorium intybus). We recorded 1486 honey bees and 1254 wild pollinators belonging to 46 species. Bumble bees were the most abundant wild pollinators (49.6 %), followed by hover flies (23.4 %), and non- Bombus wild bees (21.5 %). Lepidoptera accounted for only 5.4 % of the wild pollinators. We found a higher species richness and abundance of wild pollinators in monocultures than in two-species mixtures, but white clover population did not influence pollinators. Moreover, species richness and abundance were also higher in the homogeneous landscape than in the heterogenous one. Most species were foraging on white clover. However, 18 species (39.1 %, n = 18/46) were recorded foraging on chicory and/or weeds, and ten of these wild pollinator species were never recorded on white clover. Our study highlights that diverse pollinator communities require both abundant floral resources and diverse plant communities, that their needs are not in conflict with the goal of achieving yield stability, and that the landscape type can modulate the effect of the cropping system. Moreover, the lack of pollinator preference for different white clover populations suggests that farmers can select mixtures that enhance yield stability without negatively affecting pollinator communities. Overall, these results highlight that intercropping systems comprising several plant species and plant genotypes can guarantee yield stability without compromising the pollinator community, showing that win-win situations for farmers and biodiversity are possible. • Ryegrass-white clover intercropping can support diverse pollinator communities. • However, several pollinator species require species other than white clover. • Landscape heterogeneity can modulate the effect of the cropping system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural environments are characterized by variable wind that can pose significant challenges for flying animals and robots. However, our understanding of the flow conditions that animals experience outdoors and how these impact flight performance remains limited. Here, we combine laboratory and field experiments to characterize wind conditions encountered by foraging bumblebees in outdoor environments and test the effects of these conditions on flight. We used radio-frequency tags to track foraging activity of uniquely identified bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) workers, while simultaneously recording local wind flows. Despite being subjected to a wide range of speeds and turbulence intensities, we find that bees do not avoid foraging in windy conditions. We then examined the impacts of turbulence on bumblebee flight in a wind tunnel. Rolling instabilities increased in turbulence, but only at higher wind speeds. Bees displayed higher mean wingbeat frequency and stroke amplitude in these conditions, as well as increased asymmetry in stroke amplitude-suggesting that bees employ an array of active responses to enable flight in turbulence, which may increase the energetic cost of flight. Our results provide the first direct evidence that moderate, environmentally relevant turbulence affects insect flight performance, and suggest that flying insects use diverse mechanisms to cope with these instabilities.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) adult workers change behaviors and nutrition according to age progression. Young workers, such as nurses, perform in-hive tasks and consume protein-rich pollen, while older workers (foragers) leave the colony to search for food, and consume carbohydrate-rich nectar. These environmentally stimulated events involve transcriptional and DNA epigenetic marks alterations in worker tissues. However, post-transcriptional RNA modifications (epitranscriptomics) are still poorly explored in bees. We investigated the transcriptional profiles of m6A and m5C RNA methyltransferases in the brain and fat body of adult workers of 1) different ages and performing different tasks [nurses of 8 days-old (N-8D) and foragers of 29 days-old (F-29D), sampled from wild-type colonies], and 2) same-aged young workers caged in an incubator and treated with a pollen-rich [PR] or a pollen-deprived [PD] diet for 8 days. In the brain, METTL3, DNMT2, NOP2, NSUN2, NSUN5, and NSUN7 genes increased expression during adulthood (from N-8D to F-29D), while the opposite pattern was observed in the fat body for METTL3, DNMT2, and NSUN2 genes. Regarding diet treatments, high expression levels were observed in the brains of the pollen-deprived group (DNMT2, NOP2, and NSUN2 genes) and the fat bodies of the pollen-rich group (NOP2, NSUN4, and NSUN5 genes) compared to the brains of the PR group and the fat bodies of the PD group, respectively. Our data indicate that RNA epigenetics may be an important regulatory layer in the development of adult workers, presenting tissue-specific signatures of RNA methyltransferases expression in response to age, behavior, and diet content.

We have investigated different ways of bees’ stimulation to lay protein food while using artificial honeycombs. It has been proved that the use of artificial combs to get bee-bread upon the condition of the post-treatment processing of its elements by wax and honey syrup does not stimulate bees to lay and process protein food in their cells. It has been identified that upon the condition of the direct involvement of the working bees into the formation of bee-bread supplies the protein food has been mostly consumed. This proves that the working bees use the freshly-gathered pollen pellet for their own needs in the period of its active gathering. It has been determined that the most effective way of bee stimulation to reprocess pollen pellet into bee-bread is it's single densifying in artificial honeycombs with the follow-up processing of the upper layer of the feed by honey. This way encourages bees to form stocks of bee bread and decreases their activity of consuming protein food from cells of artificial honeycombs. The processing of thickened pollen pellet by honey probably oppresses the bees’ need to consume protein food from the packed cells redirecting them to other honeycombs of the bee family’s nest which has areas with bee-bread reserves.

Global food security is heavily reliant on crop pollination. However, evidence on pollinator decline has been reported in all continents. Globally affordable conservation strategies need to be developed, as high-cost measures like European agri-environment schemes are not scalable in all countries. Here, we test, if a low-cost conservation approach named "Farming with Alternative Pollinators" (FAP) can benefit wild pollinator abundance and richness in agro-ecosystems and in crops, through establishment of marketable habitat enhancement plants (MHEP). The study was carried out in four Moroccan agro-climatic regions, during two years, using 6 main crops (pumpkin, zucchini, faba bean, tomato, eggplant and apple) and 201 sites. Additionally, we investigated how crop type, crop-MHEP composition (i.e. phylogenetic distances among crop and MHEP) and local climate can drive the success of the approach in comparison to monocultural fields. Based on 7097 recorded specimens, our results show that the wild pollinators of the entire FAP fields (i.e. 75% main crop and 25% MHEP) were significantly more abundant and species-rich than those of control fields (i.e. 100% main crop). Considering the main crop wild pollinators, FAP did not display any significant effect either on wild pollinator abundance or on pollinator richness. The mean phylogenetic distance between the main crop and MHEP, and climatic variables were not correlated with increase in wild pollinator abundance and richness in FAP fields. The crop type was found to influence the effect of the FAP approach. Our study provides strong evidence that FAP constitutes a relevant method for wild pollinator conservation in agro-ecosystems. Further research on additional environmental factors is necessary to outline the circumstances under which the FAP approach can positively affect wild pollinator communities. • Marketable habitat plants support pollinator abundance and richness in agro-ecosystems. • Marketable habitat plants does not promote crop pollinator abundance and richness. • Phylogeny of habitat plants and crop does not affect pollinator abundance and richness. • The climate does not shape the effect of habitat plants on pollinator communities. • The crop type modulates the impact of marketable habitat plants on pollinators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Habitat fragmentation decreases the nutritional quality of resources collected by bumblebees. • Proteins, lipids and protein to lipid ratio of pollen were influenced by landscape configuration. • Local plant species richness influenced protein and polyphenol content of pollen. • Longer foraging trips were recorded in areas with reduced green cover. • Specific plant communities composition was linked to pollen nutritional features. Habitat fragmentation is modifying landscapes and the distribution of floral resources, possibly shaping pollinator resource acquisition, which is an issue of global concern for pollinator health and urbanization sustainability. Here, in different urban parks contrasting in terms of local features and surrounding urban matrix, we aimed to clarify how fragmentation and local flower availability shape bumblebee foraging dynamics by characterizing several components: the nutritional content and plant composition of collected pollen pellets, the trip length and the plant-nutrition association along a fragmentation gradient. We found mostly negative linear or non-linear relationships between nutritional quality and fragmentation, tight plant composition-nutrition associations interpretable as low access to alternative resources, and longer foraging time in smaller green areas, showing that urban green area fragmentation limits nutritional resource accessibility. However, flower local richness improved the collection of beneficial nutrients as proteins and polyphenols, thus potentially rescuing negative landscape effects. This study illuminates the link between landscape and local features and the nutritional ecology of pollinators, a key aspect for understanding pollinator foraging dynamics. The findings of the study can provide valuable guidelines for policy makers and stakeholders involved in the management and ecological restoration planning for urban green areas and even for outlining mitigation measures in urban contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Microsporidia from the Nosema (Vairimorpha) genus are pathogenic fungi that complete their life cycle in the honeybee intestine. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the impact of the course of infection on the viability of honeybee intestine cells. Methods and Results: Intestines isolated from healthy and N. ceranae-infected honeybees were stained using two dyes, SYTO 9 and propidium iodide, and analyzed under an Axiovert 200M fluorescence microscope immediately after the isolation of the intestines. The ImageJ program was used for the quantitative analysis of the cell structure parameters. Our study demonstrated for the first time that healthy bees have a higher number of live cells in their intestines than infected bees, and that the intestines of N. ceranae-infected honeybees contain dead cells concentrated in spots. The results obtained for these two cases differed significantly, and were confirmed by statistical tests. Conclusions: The intestines of infected honeybees contain dead cells concentrated in red/dead spots, which can lead to necrotic changes, the interruption of the host’s intestinal continuity, intestinal leaking and the increased mortality of the host.

Due to the emergence of microorganisms resistant to antibiotics and the failure of antibiotic therapies, there is an urgent need to search for new therapeutic options, as well as new molecules with antimicrobial potential. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of Apis mellifera venom collected in the beekeeping areas of the city of Lambayeque in northern Peru against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bee venom extraction was performed by electrical impulses and separated using the Amicon ultra centrifugal filter. Subsequently, the fractions were quantified by spectrometric 280 nm and evaluated under denaturant conditions in SDS-PAGE. The fractions were pitted against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. A purified fraction (PF) of the venom of A. mellifera and three low molecular weight bands of 7 KDa, 6 KDa, and 5 KDa were identified that showed activity against E. coli with a MIC of 6.88 µg/mL, while for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, it did not present a MIC. No hemolytic activity at a concentration lower than 15.6 µg/mL and no antioxidant activity. The venom of A. mellifera contains a potential presence of peptides and a predilection of antibacterial activity against E. coli.

Agricultural abandonment is one of the main land-use changes in Europe, and its consequences on biodiversity are context- and taxa-dependent. While several studies have worked on this topic, few have focused on traditional orchards, especially in different landscapes and under a Mediterranean climate. In this context, we aimed to determine the effects of almond orchard abandonment on the communities of three groups of beneficial arthropods and the role of the landscape context in modulating these effects. Between February and September 2019, four samplings were carried out in twelve almond orchards (three abandoned and three traditional (active orchards under traditional agricultural management) located in simple landscapes as well as three abandoned and three traditional in complex landscapes). Abandoned and traditional almond orchards harbor different arthropod communities and diversity metrics that are strongly conditioned by seasonality. Abandoned orchards can favor pollinators and natural enemies, providing alternative resources in simple landscapes. However, the role that abandoned orchards play in simple landscapes disappears as the percentage of semi-natural habitats in the landscape increases. Our results show that landscape simplification, through the loss of semi-natural habitats, has negative consequences on arthropod biodiversity, even in traditional farming landscapes with small fields and high crop diversity.

Pesticide exposure has been cited as a key threat to insect pollinators. Notably, a diverse range of potential sublethal effects have been reported in bee species, with a particular focus on effects due to exposure to neonicotinoid insecticides. Here, a purpose-built thermal–visual arena was used in a series of pilot experiments to assess the potential impact of approximate sublethal concentrations of the next generation sulfoximine insecticide sulfoxaflor (5 and 50 ppb) and the neonicotinoid insecticides thiacloprid (500 ppb) and thiamethoxam (10 ppb), on the walking trajectory, navigation and learning abilities of the buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris audax) when subjected to an aversive conditioning task. The results suggest that only thiamethoxam prevents forager bees from improving in key training parameters (speed and distanced travelled) within the thermal visual arena. Power law analyses further revealed that a speed–curvature power law, previously reported as being present in the walking trajectories of bumblebees, is potentially disrupted under thiamethoxam (10 ppb) exposure, but not under sulfoxaflor or thiacloprid exposure. The pilot assay described provides a novel tool with which to identify subtle sublethal pesticide impacts, and their potential causes, on forager bees, that current ecotoxicological tests are not designed to assess.

Obesity is a disease that affects people's quality of life and is a risk factor for some fatal diseases. Its prevalence is increasing in the world and the biggest factor is nutritional problems and a sedentary lifestyle. Royal jelly (RJ), a natural product for obesity, a preventable disease, has been the subject of various studies. RJ secreted by young honey bees (worker bees) is the only food source for the queen bee and the first three days of food for immature bees. Several studies have shown RJ's anti-obesity, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. In addition, RJ is seen as a promising functional food in the prevention of obesity and protection from its negative effects. This study is an examination of studies on the effects of RJ on obesity and its accompanying problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crucial issue for landscape ecologists is identifying the spatial extents at which a landscape affects species occurrence. Multi‐scale analyses are usually conducted to identify the 'scale of effect', that is, the spatial extent associated with the best relationship between landscape variables and species occurrence, which is assumed to be related to species traits. However, few guidelines exist to determine the range of distances to be investigated. Based on the foraging distances of wild bee species, our main goal was to estimate the maximum distance of effect, that is, the distance beyond which the scale of effect for wild bee species is unlikely to be detected. Using the InVEST pollination model, we 1) modelled bee categories with distinct foraging distances and identified the scale of effecton their simulated abundance 2) defined an index, noted λ, that estimates the distance beyond which landscape composition has only negligible effects on simulated abundances. We validated our results by identifying the scale of effecton the abundances of 16 bee species collected in south‐western France. We detected a significant positive relationship between the average foraging distance (α) of the modelled bees and their scale of effect. The λ index was linearly related to the average foraging distances of bees (λ = 5.4α + 253) and was above the identified scale of effect for the modelled bees. The λ was also found to be above the scale of effect for 93% of the observed bee species. Our results suggest that the λ index is a good estimator of the upper limit of the scale of effect for wild bees. The λ index could be used to identify the minimum distance between sampling sites before setting up an experiment and the maximum buffer size required in multi‐scale analysis to detect the scale of effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few studies in the northern region of Brazil regarding honey consumption. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the perception of the population regarding the consumption of honey in the State of Roraima. An online questionnaire was prepared and applied in 2021 through the Survio website, containing 340 respondents in total. Regarding the socio-educational profile of the interviewees, 43% (145/340) belonged to the age group of 21 - 30 years, 65% (221/340) were female and incomplete higher education was the level of education with the highest percentage of respondents 39.4% (134/340). Regarding consumption, it was found that 45% (153/340) of respondents rarely consume honey and when asked about the reasons that would lead them to stop consuming honey, the price 35% (110/316) followed by health 34% (107/316) were the reasons with the highest number of respondents. For 77% (273/340) of the interviewees, honey has a food function. Regarding advertising, 75% (255/340) reported that they had never seen advertising encouraging the consumption of honey. The research showed that the consumption of honey in the State of Roraima has a low frequency when compared to other states in the country, such as the southern region. There is a need to increase improvements in marketing incentive actions, influencing the increase in honey consumption, as it is an important product of animal origin that should be more present on the consumer's table, always considering products of proven quality through the inspection services, reducing risks to consumer health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viruses infect all types of organisms, causing viral diseases, which are very common in humans. Since viruses use the metabolic pathways of their host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eradicate without affecting the cells. The most effective measures against viral infections are vaccinations and antiviral drugs, which selectively inhibit the viral replication cycle. Both methods have disadvantages, which requires the development of new approaches to the treatment of viral diseases. In the study of animal venoms, it was found that, in addition to toxicity, venoms exhibit other types of biological activity, including an antiviral one, the first mention of which dates back to middle of the last century, but detailed studies of their antiviral activity have been conducted over the past 15 years. The COVID-19 pandemic has reinforced these studies and several compounds with antiviral activity have been identified in venoms. Some of them are very active and can be considered as the basis for antiviral drugs. This review discusses recent antiviral studies, the found compounds with high antiviral activity, and the possible mechanisms of their action. The prospects for using the animal venom components to create antiviral drugs, and the expected problems and possible solutions are also considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of bees has decreased drastically partly due to bacterial pathogens like Paenibacillus larvae that cause American foulbrood disease. The recent emergence of pathogenic resistant strains makes it more difficult to, successfully, treat infections. Research on alternative antibacterial agents from naturally occurring plants that also have low toxicity levels is critical to address the issue of Paenibacillus larvae in bee colonies. Five compounds were screened with a minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) test in order to identify a compound with effective antibacterial activity against Paenibacillus larvae. Of the tested compounds, pimaric acid showed the best antibacterial activity with a MIC value of 6.25 µg/ml after 48 hours of incubation on MYPGP media. An agar diffusion test also confirmed the anti- Paenibacillus larvae activity of pimaric acid with an inhibitory zone of 10 to 14 mm. Crystal violet assay results suggested that pimaric acid disrupted the plasma membrane of Paenibacillus larvae, causing the leakage of material with an optical density of 260-nm and 280-nm, which confirmed that the compound induces the rupture of this microorganism. Pimaric acid inhibited the formation of a Paenibacillus larvae biofilm in a dose-dependent manner. An additive effect of pimaric acid with tetracycline and terramycin was shown through a checkerboard assay with a fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index value of 0.75. Finally, an MTT assay on insect cells of Trichoplusia ni and normal human skin cells from the HaCaT cell line, showed that pimaric acid is safe for both insect cell and human skin cells at the dosage required to treat Paenibacillus larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red propolis is a substance produced by bees by mixing resins from plants with wax, oils, and other secretions to protect the hive against natural enemies. Dalbergia ecastaphyllum (L.) Taub. (Fabaceae) is the primary botanical source of the Brazilian red propolis, where bees Apis mellifera L. collect a reddish resin from the stems to produce propolis. This species occurs in coastal dune and mangrove ecosystems, where local beekeepers install their beehives for propolis production. The induction of propolis production was virtually unknown. Previous reports and field evidence suggested that the reddish resin available in D. ecastaphyllum stems was not produced spontaneously but induced by the presence of a parasitic insect that feeds on the plant's stems. Research in the apiaries of the beekeepers' association of Canavieiras, Bahia, Brazil, led to the capture of a jewel beetle of an unknown species of the genus Agrilus Curtis (Buprestidae). It was confirmed that this jewel beetle is a red propolis production inductor. The adult and immature of this new species, Agrilus propolis Migliore, Curletti, and Casari sp. nov. are here described and illustrated. Behavioral information on the biology and chemical ecology confirms that the reddish resin of D. ecastaphyllum is directly related to the beetle attack and only occurs when Agrilus propolis sp. nov. adults emerge from the plant stem. This information is very important for Brazilian propolis producers interested in expanding red propolis production, which can have favorable effects on the economy of mangrove communities, promoting income generation, creating new business opportunities, and helping to sustain local communities and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objects in farmlands often have characteristic of small volume and high density with variable light and complex background, and the available object detection models could not get satisfactory recognition results. Taking bees as research objects, a method that could overcome the influence from the complex backgrounds, the difficulty in small object feature extraction was proposed, and a detection algorithm was created for small objects irrelevant to image size. Firstly, the original image was split into some smaller sub-images to increase the object scale, and the marked objects were assigned to the sub-images to produce a new dataset. Then, the model was trained again using transfer learning to get a new object detection model. A certain overlap rate was set between two adjacent sub-images in order to restore the objects. The objects from each sub-image was collected and then non-maximum suppression (NMS) was performed to delete the redundant detection boxes caused by the network, an improved NMS named intersection over small NMS (IOS-NMS) was then proposed to delete the redundant boxes caused by the overlap between adjacent sub-images. Validation tests were performed when sub-image size was set was 300×300, 500×500 and 700×700, the overlap rate was set as 0.2 and 0.05 respectively, and the results showed that when using single shot multibox detector (SSD) as the object detection model, the recall rate and precision was generally higher than that of SSD with the maximum difference 3.8% and 2.6%, respectively. In order to further verify the algorithm in small target recognition with complex background, three bee images with different scales and different scenarios were obtained from internet and test experiments were conducted using the new proposed algorithm and SSD. The results showed that the proposed algorithm could improve the performance of target detection and had strong scale adaptability and generalization. Besides, the new algorithm required multiple forward reasoning for a single image, so it was not time-efficient and was not suitable for edge calculation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bifidobacteria have long been recognized as bacteria with probiotic and therapeutic features. The aim of this work is to characterize the Bifidobacterium asteroides BA15 and BA17 strains, isolated from honeybee gut, to evaluate its safety for human use. An in-depth assessment was carried out on safety properties (antibiotic resistance profiling, β-hemolytic, DNase and gelatinase activities and virulence factor presence) and other properties (antimicrobial activity, auto-aggregation, co-aggregation and hydrophobicity). Based on phenotypic and genotypic characterization, both strains satisfied all the safety requirements. More specifically, genome analysis showed the absence of genes encoding for glycopeptide (vanA, vanB, vanC-1, vanC-2, vanD, vanE, vanG), resistance to tetracycline (tetM, tetL and tetO) and virulence genes (asa1, gelE, cylA, esp, hyl). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: In this study, the content of the honey produced by the flora of Turkey’, physi-cal, chemical and biological research aimed at active properties.Methods: Searched the database EMBASE/Pubmed and Turkish Medicine Index research article about Turkiye honeys’ specialities. Results: Different botanical sources were caused, different kinds of chemical composi-tions of the honeys. The amount of HMF, pH, moisture, and acidity are the chemical qulity criteria of the honey. Carbohydrates are seem the most important components of honey. The glycemic index of the consumed honey is important. Turkiye’s honey quality seems ap-ropiate for using apitherapy.Conclusion: Honey is the most important product of beekeeping all over the world in terms of economy and health. Manufacturers of honey should be careful while producing honey. They should be avoided unhealty situations and they should be obey the rules. These rules are the basis for protecting our health by consuming bee products.

Honey is used in the food industry as a natural sweetener and has therapeutic effects on the human body. Obtaining quality honey involves using organic preventive and treatment agents in beekeeping. The most common of these agents are probiotic supplements. This research aimed to study honey’s interaction with an inhibitory effect on the growth of microorganisms from the probiotic supplement Immunobacterin-D under laboratory and experimental field conditions. At the first stage of the research, we assessed the effects of ten honey varieties (buckwheat, sunflower, meadow and forest plants, linden) on B. subtilis and B. licheniformis from the dry probiotic supplement. The honey-containing nutrient media had an inhibitory effect on the growth of B. subtilis colonies. After 24 hours of cultivation under aerobic conditions, the concentration of B. subtilis decreased, on average, from 5×1012 colony-forming units in 1 g to 3.2×104 and 2.1×105 CFU/g in samples with monofloral and polyfloral honey, respectively. These results emphasize the need for further research on the symbiotic role of microflora in the stability of the microbiota of the hive and bee colony ecosystem. The next stage of the study investigated the probiotic effect on bee colonies in the field. Observations were made on the sanitary conditions of the hives and the behaviour of bees at the Petrodolyna demo apiary. No differences were found at the macro hive-bee colony ecosystem level between control bee colonies (n = 5) and the experimental ones (n = 5) that had received carbohydrate feeding with added probiotics. This confirms the inhibitory effect of honey on the development of bacteria, which eliminates the risk of uncontrolled growth of B. subtilis and B. licheniformis strain colonies inside the hive and the bacteria getting into bee products. The probiotic had positive effects, increasing the live weight of worker bees by 9.15% by the end of the apiary season compared to the control. This can improve the viability of the bees during wintering. At the last stage of the research, the honey obtained from the experimental colonies was checked for the spores of B. subtilis and B. licheniformis using melissopalynology.

Mourecotelles Toro & Cabezas (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Colletinae) currently includes only nine valid species of cellophane bees found mostly in relatively-dry regions of western South America (Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and Ecuador). In this paper, we describe and illustrate a new species of the genus - M. braziliensis Ferrari & Melo, sp. nov. - based on individuals of both sexes captured through trap-nesting in an environmental protection area (Araucárias Municipal Natural Park) and in flowers in different localities in southern Brazil. In total, we obtained 16 nests of M. braziliensis, each consisting of two to eleven brood cells arranged horizontally and lined with a cellophane-like substance. Of the 57 adult bees that emerged, 41 were male (mean weight 46.5 mg) and 16 were female (mean weight 58.9 mg), resulting in biased sex and investment ratios of 2.56:1 and 2.02:1, respectively. Both the numbers of provisioned cells and mortality rate were higher for trap nests with the narrowest bore diameter, although the differences in relation to other trap nests were not statistically significant. Pollen of nine different plant families were found in brood cells of M. braziliensis, but the species showed a clear preference for Fabaceae and Polygalaceae. Indeed, some of the specimens were collected while foraging in flowers of an unidentified species of Monnina Ruiz & Pav. (Polygalaceae) growing in swampy areas. The evolutionary and biogeographical implications of our discovery are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In intensive agricultural landscapes semi-natural habitats for pollinators are often limited, although willingness to establish pollinator habitat is increasing among farmers. A common pollinator enhancement measure is to provide flower strips, but existent or improved hedgerows might be more effective. In this study, we compare the effectiveness of three pollinator enhancement measures at edges of conventional apple orchards: (i) perennial flower strips, (ii) existent hedgerows, and (iii) existent hedgerows complemented with a sown herb layer. We used orchard edges without any enhancement as control. The study took place over three consecutive years in Southern Germany. Wild bee abundance and species richness were highest in flower strips followed by improved hedges. Hoverflies were also most abundant in flower strips, but not more species rich than at control sites. Wild bee but not hoverfly community composition differed between control and enhancement sites. The overall pollinator community included only few threatened or specialized species. Flower abundance was the main driver for wild bee diversity, whereas hoverflies were largely unaffected by floral resources. Pollinator enhancement had neither an effect on the abundance or species richness within the orchards nor on apple flower visitation. Perennial flower strips seem most effective to enhance wild bees in intensive agricultural landscapes. Additionally, flower-rich hedgerows should be promoted to complement flower strips by extending the flowering period and to increase connectivity of pollinator habitat in agricultural landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past decade, the broadcast-spray application of antibiotics in US crops has increased exponentially in response to bacterial crop pathogens, but little is known about the sublethal impacts on beneficial organisms in agroecosystems. This is concerning given the key roles that microbes play in modulating insect fitness. A growing body of evidence suggests that insect gut microbiomes may play a role in learning and behaviour, which are key for the survival of pollinators and for their pollination efficacy, and which in turn could be disrupted by dietary antibiotic exposure. In the laboratory, we tested the effects of an upper-limit dietary exposure to streptomycin (200 ppm)—an antibiotic widely used to treat bacterial pathogens in crops— on bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) associative learning, foraging and stimulus avoidance behaviour.We used two operant conditioning assays: a free movement proboscis extension reflex protocol focused on short-term memory formation, and an automated radio-frequency identification tracking system focused on foraging. We show that upper-limit dietary streptomycin exposure slowed training, decreased foraging choice accuracy, increased avoidance behaviour and was associated with reduced foraging on sucroserewarding artificial flowers flowers. Thiswork underscores the need to further study the impacts of antibiotic use on beneficial insects in agricultural systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many hummingbird‐pollinated plant species evolved from bee‐pollinated ancestors independently in many different habitats in North and South America. The mechanisms leading to these transitions are not completely understood. We conducted pollination and germination experiments and analyzed additional reproductive traits in three sister species pairs of which one species is bee‐ and the other hummingbird‐pollinated. All hummingbird‐pollinated species showed higher seed set and germination rates in cross‐pollinated than in self‐pollinated flowers. In the self‐compatible, bee‐pollinated sister species this difference did not exist. As expected, seed set and germination rate were higher after cross‐pollination in the largely self‐incompatible genus Penstemon independently of the pollination syndrome. However, the bird‐pollinated species produce only half of the amount of ovules and pollen grains per flower compared to the bee‐pollinated sister species. This indicates that hummingbird pollination is much more efficient in self‐incompatible populations because hummingbirds waste less pollen and provide higher outcrossing rates. Therefore, hummingbird pollination is less resource costly. Overall, we suggest that hummingbirds may increase the reproductive success compared to bees, influencing the evolution of hummingbird pollination in ecosystems with diverse bee assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthidiini, a large bee tribe characterized by light-colored maculations, represents nearly 1,000 pollinator species, but no genomes are yet available for this tribe. Here, we report a chromosome-level genome assembly of Anthidium xuezhongi collected from the Tibetan Plateau. Using PacBio long reads and Hi-C data, we assembled a genome of 189.14 Mb with 99.94% of the assembly located in 16 chromosomes. Our assembly contains 23 scaffolds, with the scaffold N50 length of 12.53 Mb, and BUSCO completeness of 98.70% (n  = 1,367). We masked 25.98 Mb (13.74%) of the assembly as repetitive elements, identified 385 noncoding RNAs, and predicted 10,820 protein-coding genes (99.20% BUSCO completeness). Gene family evolution analyses identified 9,251 gene families, of which 31 gene families experienced rapid evolution. Interspecific chromosomal variation among A. xuezhongi , Bombus terrestris , and Apis mellifera showed strong chromosomal syntenic relationships. This high-quality genome assembly is a valuable resource for evolutionary and comparative genomic analyses of bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bees experience differences in thermal tolerance based on their geographical range; however, there are virtually no studies that examine how overwintering temperatures may influence immature survival rates. Here, we conducted a transplant experiment along an elevation gradient to test for climate‐change effects on immature overwinter survival using movement along elevational gradient for a community of 26 cavity‐nesting bee species in the family Megachilidae along the San Francisco Peaks, Arizona elevational gradient. In each of three years, we placed nest blocks at three elevations, to be colonized by native Megachilidae. Colonized blocks were then (1) moved to lower (warmer) elevations; (2) moved to higher (cooler) elevations; or (3) left in their natal habitat (no change in temperature). Because Megachilidae occupy high elevations with colder temperatures more than any other family of bees, we predicted that emergence would decrease in nest blocks moved to lower elevations, but that we would find no differences in emergence when nest blocks were moved to higher elevations. We found three major results: (1) Bee species moved to lower (warmer) habitats exhibited a 30% decrease in emergence compared with species moved within their natal habitat. (2) Habitat generalists were more likely than habitat specialists to emerge when moved up or down in elevation regardless of their natal life zones. (3) At our highest elevation treatment, emergence increased when blocks were moved to higher elevations, indicating that at least some Megachilidae species can survive at colder temperatures. Our results suggest that direct effects of warming temperatures will have negative impacts on the overall survival of Megachilidae. Additionally, above the tree line, low availability of wood‐nesting resources is a probable limiting factor on bees moving up in elevation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beekeeping is an area open to development. There can be significant differences from region to region. Even within the same region, it is affected by many factors. In this study, the structural features and production problems of beekeeping enterprises in Malatya province were examined. The results of 77 surveys conducted between November 2020 and February 2021 for those engaged in beekeeping activities were evaluated. It was observed that the average honey yield per hive was 11.87 kg. This amount was found to be different in a statistically significant degree from Turkey's average. In this study, unlike other studies, a different result was found from the answers given to the question of the creatures known to be most harmful to the bee. Of the answers to this question, 68.8% were bee - eaters, 24.7% were wild bees, 3.9% were hedgehogs and 2.6% all of them. Consequently, considering the studies on beekeeping problems, it is noteworthy that a standard cannot be reached in general. The reason for the differences in the studies may be of regional origin. Or it may be that some distinctions are not fully made in the studies. Besides, for better results, first of all, accurate and reliable data should be obtained. For this purpose, more comprehensive data can be obtained by ensuring that beekeepers keep records about the sector. Due to regional differences, universities or provincial directorates of agriculture may take the lead in conducting surveys or field studies by the people of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An inventory and review of current pesticide regulatory risk assessment procedures for bees and other pollinators is presented. For North America, the European Union, Brazil, China, and Australia, the work is based on a review of the published literature, covering pesticide regulatory risk assessment approaches of high-income countries. For low- and middle income countries in the African, Pacific and Caribbean region, the work is based on an online questionnaire, conducted during the summer of 2021, followed by ad-hoc questions for further details and clarifications. In hindsight, the focus on the above-mentioned high-income countries is justified, as the expectations were met that it is a widespread practice for low- and middle-income countries to consult assessments by APVMA (Australia), USEPA (USA) and EFSA (European Union). Protection goals in the published approaches focus on bees, especially the honey bee as a prevailing model organism. Approaches incorporating further taxa, in particular with regard to local pollination services, may be adopted in the future, but are currently prevented by knowledge gaps. All established risk assessment procedures follow a tiered approach, and establishing a lower-tier system in regions currently lacking risk assessment procedures is a much more important step toward improved pollinator protection compared to risk refinement at higher tiers. Several established risk assessment approaches include toxicity classification, which are similar to each other in general, offering an opportunity to assess risks at a screening level without data on exposure. However, basic toxicity data on pesticides are currently not required at all in many low- and middle-income countries. Thus, establishment of a general requirement of data on acute toxicity for honey bees would markedly improve risk assessment in these countries, given that obtaining and assessing such data is a comparatively standardized endeavour and not particular resource demanding. Exposure is handled in different ways by the established risk assessment procedures, with similarities in considered application methods, but marked differences between further parameters of exposure scenarios, e.g. regarding spatial and temporal relation between pesticide application and exposure event, contaminated matrices considered etc. There is a general consensus in the established risk assessment procedures with regard to adopted guidelines and guidance documents used for effect assessment. Approaches established by EPPO, EFSA and USEPA all compare exposure-toxicity quotients to predefined levels of concern for identification of unresolved unacceptable risks to bees, while the calculative basis for these quotients and/or threshold values differs between these approaches, reflecting particular application or situation specific factors or models, accounting inter alia for background mortality, interspecific extrapolation, uncertainty, measured residue data. The other established risk assessment procedures largely follow the approaches of EPPO, EFSA or USEPA. Risk enveloping might offer a resource saving strategy to assess risks of pesticides with similar use patterns in similar cropping systems, and adopting an approach similar to a working example set by IBAMA in Brazil might be feasible, at least for similar geographic regions, given that there are some commonalities in pollinator depend crops among the surveyed low- and middle-income countries. Risk management and uncertainty analysis should always be linked to the risk assessment at all stages, and resulting risk mitigation measures should be practicable in the local agricultural context and comprehensible, while not compromising product efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As hybrid zones exhibit selective patterns of gene flow between otherwise distinct lineages, they can be especially valuable for informing processes of microevolution and speciation. The bumble bee, Bombus melanopygus, displays two distinct color forms generated by Müllerian mimicry: a northern "Rocky Mountain'' color form with ferruginous mid‐abdominal segments (B. m. melanopygus) and a southern "Pacific'' form with black mid‐abdominal segments (B. m. edwardsii). These morphs meet in a mimetic transition zone in northern California and southern Oregon that is more narrow and transitions further west than comimetic bumble bee species. To understand the historical formation of this mimicry zone, we assessed color distribution data for B. melanopygus from the last 100 years. We then examined gene flow among the color forms in the transition zone by comparing sequences from mitochondrial COI barcode sequences, color‐controlling loci, and the rest of the nuclear genome. These data support two geographically distinct mitochondrial haplogroups aligned to the ancestrally ferruginous and black forms that meet within the color transition zone. This clustering is also supported by the nuclear genome, which, while showing strong admixture across individuals, distinguishes individuals most by their mitochondrial haplotype, followed by geography. These data suggest the two lineages most likely were historically isolated, acquired fixed color differences, and then came into secondary contact with ongoing gene flow. The transition zone, however, exhibits asymmetries: mitochondrial haplotypes transition further south than color pattern, and both transition over shorter distances in the south. This system thus demonstrates alternative patterns of gene flow that occur in contact zones, presenting another example of mito‐nuclear discordance. Discordant gene flow is inferred to most likely be driven by a combination of mimetic selection, dominance effects, and assortative mating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epitranscriptomics is an emerging field of investigation dedicated to the study of post‐transcriptional RNA modifications. RNA methylations regulate RNA metabolism and processing, including changes in response to environmental cues. Although RNA modifications are conserved from bacteria to eukaryotes, there is little evidence of an epitranscriptomic pathway in insects. Here we identified genes related to RNA m6A (N6‐methyladenine) and m5C (5‐methylcytosine) methylation machinery in seven bee genomes (Apis mellifera, Melipona quadrifasciata, Frieseomelitta varia, Eufriesea mexicana, Bombus terrestris, Megachile rotundata and Dufourea novaeangliae). In A. mellifera, we validated the expression of methyltransferase genes and found that the global levels of m6A and m5C measured in the fat body and brain of adult workers differ significantly. Also, m6A levels were differed significantly mainly between the fourth larval instar of queens and workers. Moreover, we found a conserved m5C site in the honeybee 28S rRNA. Taken together, we confirm the existence of epitranscriptomic machinery acting in bees and open avenues for future investigations on RNA epigenetics in a wide spectrum of hymenopteran species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obecnie wymieranie owadów zapylających staje się problemem ogólnoświatowym. Jest to istotne nie tylko z punktu widzenie utraty bioróżnorodności, ale ma ogromne znaczenie dla rolnictwa i gospodarki żywnościowej świata. Tradycyjne sposoby ochrony owadów i innych zapylaczy postrzega się, albo w kategoriach ochrony gatunkowej, albo ochrony biotopowej, w ich naturalnych lub półnaturalnych siedliskach. Jednak coraz czyściej podejmuje się próby ochrony tej grupy owadów w środowiskach silnie zmienionych przez człowieka, jak na przykład aglomeracje miejskie i towarzysząca im infrastruktura. Istnieją też inne propozycje, jak na przykład zakładanie pewnego rodzaju upraw – „Ostoje Zapylaczy”, na niewielkich poletkach w sąsiedztwie pól uprawnych lub miejscach nie przydatnych gospodarczo. W obecnej sytuacji wszystkie propozycje ochrony, zarówno te starsze – klasyczne, jak i te nowe, powinny być stosowane w sposób kompleksowy, bo tylko to może przynieść poprawę sytuacji owadów zapylających.

Ana Luisa González, Fermin Silva, Robinson Barrientos Department of Ophthalmology, Research Department Clinica La Luz, Lima, PeruCorrespondence: Ana Luisa GonzálezDepartment of Ophthalmology, Research Department Clinica La Luz, Av. Arequipa 1148, Lima, PeruTel +51 947273992Email Dra.analuisagonzalez88@gmail.comAbstract: Wasp stings are considered an ophthalmological emergency as they can be complicated when they occur near the eyelids or especially on the cornea. Due to type I hypersensitivity response, such as epithelial defect, corneal edema, loss of endothelial cells, anterior uveitis, optic neuritis and, therefore, permanent loss of vision due to anterior segment ischemia. It warns that the wasp stinger has a saw-shaped texture, contains toxins that inflame the area where it stings. Due to the immunological and toxic effects of the stinger and its venom infiltrates the cornea. We present the case of a 32-year-old man who presented keratouveitis secondary to a wasp sting in a region of the jungle of Peru. He was treated emergency with intensive steroid therapy to reduce the toxic effects. His follow-up up to 2 months was successful, leaving only a 1 mm central leukoma where the bite occurred, which did not impair his vision.Keywords: hymenoptera, cornea, bee, wasp, sting, anterior chamber, acute keratouveitis

Objectives Venom immunotherapy (VIT) is an effective treatment method and is addressed to patients with a history of an anaphylactic reaction to Hymenoptera stings. However, the immunological mechanisms of protection have not been explained yet. The objective of this study was to analyze neutrophils, interleukin 8 (IL-8) and interleukin 17 (IL-17) before and after the initial phase of the immunotherapy. Material and Methods Overall, 40 individuals, including 20 wasp venom sensitized and 20 bee venom sensitized patients, were included in the study. The patients had had a history of severe allergic reactions type III and IV according to Mueller’s classification. An ultra-rush VIT protocol was used in this study. The concentration of serum IL-8 and IL-17A was determined using the ELISA enzymatic method. Results The authors demonstrated a significant rise in the IL-8 level after the immunotherapy, compared to baseline (14.9 vs. 24.7, p < 0.05). The rise in the neutrophils level was also noticeable but proved to be barely out of the range of statistical significance (4.3 vs. 5.0, p = 0.06). The shift in IL-17A was negligent and not statistically significant in the paired samples t-test (1.6 vs. 1.5, p = 0.34) Conclusions Venom immunotherapy induces neutrophils and IL-8 activity after 2 days. After the desensitization, the level of IL-17A did not change. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2020;33(6):811–7

Apart from the efficiency of coumaphos against Varroa mites, its impact on the oxidative status and survival of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) was assessed. The research was conducted on hives from the same apiary, equalised regarding the number of bees, brood area and food storage. Based on Varroa infestation the hives were allotted to two groups: non-infested (N) and infested (I). Both groups were either treated (T) – NT and IT, or untreated (U) – NU and IU. The treatment of infested bees was controlled with a follow-up treatment with amitraz. The efficiency of coumaphos was 96-97%. This organophosphate had a negligible effect on bee survival, but it significantly affected their oxidative status: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities, and the concentrations of malonyl dialdehyde (MDA). Coumaphos significantly (p˂0.0001) decreased SOD activity in non-infested bees, but increased it in those infested. By contrast, both CAT and GST activities, as well as MDA concentrations significantly increased (from p˂0.05 to p˂0.0001) after treatment in all groups, with the exception of IT, where it declined. Coumaphos in non-infested hives caused oxidative stress per se, not unlike varroa in infested colonies. However, in infested colonies it decreased oxidative stress, owing to its efficacy against Varroa mites and contributed to the recovery of bee colonies. In spite of its certain downsides, coumaphos remains an effective anti-varroa substance, but should be used with precaution, not to add to the effects of environmental factors which may cause red-ox misbalance.

Honey, which has many positive health effects, is fondly consumed in our country and in the world. Although honey is considered to be a micro-organism-free food because of its antimicrobial and bacteriostatic effects, studies refute this idea. In addition to primary contamination, personnel, tools and equipment used in beekeeping and honey production is a potential source of secondary contamination. In addition, honey, which can carry many microorganisms as a result of cross-contamination, is among the important foods and can threat public health. Therefore, it is thought that screening of pathogens that may be present in honey would contribute to the studies. Due to the geographical location, the diversity of climate and vegetation, Turkey is located in the upper row of honey producting countries. In this study, 900 samples examined in Kırklareli province in Northern Marmara Region. Kırklareli region has been chosen as the research area since it is considered as an important province in honey production and is a border province located in the industrial zone. The aim of the study was to investigate the presence of parasitological, bacterial, fungal and viral parameters which are important for the quality of the consumer, bee, larvae, colony and honey. According to the obtained data, positive results were found in many parameters and statistically significant results were obtained.

Insects are the most diverse group of organisms with one million species that account for 80% of the world’s species. Particularly in East Asia, edible insects serve as a source of nutrients. Among these, silkworms and honeybees are well-known sources of food and have been used for the treatment of a large number of human disorders. This review focuses on the utilization of insects as food (entomophagy) as well as for their pharmacological properties (entomotherapy) that have been tested in vitro as well as in vivo.

Carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) plays crucial physiological roles in many different organisms, such as in pH regulation, ion transport, and metabolic processes. CA was isolated from the European bee Apis mellifera (AmCA) spermatheca and inhibitory effects of pesticides belonging to various classes, such as carbamates, thiophosphates, and pyrethroids, were investigated herein. The inhibitory effects of methomyl, oxamyl, deltamethrin, cypermethrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and diazinon on AmCA were analysed. These pesticides showed effective in vitro inhibition of the enzyme, at sub-micromolar levels. The IC50 values for these pesticides ranged between of 0.0023 and 0.0385 μM. The CA inhibition mechanism with these compounds is unknown at the moment, but most of them contain ester functionalities which may be hydrolysed by the enzyme with the formation of intermediates that can either react with amino acid residues or bid to the zinc ion from the active site.

Abstract Many hummingbird‐pollinated plant species evolved from bee‐pollinated ancestors independently in many different habitats in North and South America. The mechanisms leading to these transitions are not completely understood. We conducted pollination and germination experiments and analyzed additional reproductive traits in three sister species pairs of which one species is bee‐ and the other hummingbird‐pollinated. All hummingbird‐pollinated species showed higher seed set and germination rates in cross‐pollinated than in self‐pollinated flowers. In the self‐compatible, bee‐pollinated sister species this difference did not exist. As expected, seed set and germination rate were higher after cross‐pollination in the largely self‐incompatible genus Penstemon independently of the pollination syndrome. However, the bird‐pollinated species produce only half of the amount of ovules and pollen grains per flower compared to the bee‐pollinated sister species. This indicates that hummingbird pollination is much more efficient in self‐incompatible populations because hummingbirds waste less pollen and provide higher outcrossing rates. Therefore, hummingbird pollination is less resource costly. Overall, we suggest that hummingbirds may increase the reproductive success compared to bees, influencing the evolution of hummingbird pollination in ecosystems with diverse bee assemblages.

The aim of this study was to describe Scaptotrigona nigrohirta sp. nov. and Scaptotrigona hylaeana sp. nov., in order to make their names valid, since at least one of these species has already been widely studied and cited, however, never been formally validated. Also, we have added some comparative notes among some species.

Two efficient feather-degrading bacteria were isolated from honeybee samples and identified as Bacillus sonorensis and Bacillus licheniformis based on 16S rRNA and genome sequencing. The strains were able to grow on chicken feathers as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources and degraded the feathers in a few days. The highest keratinase activity was detected by the B. licheniformis CG1 strain (3800 U × mL−1), followed by B. sonorensis AB7 (1450 U × mL−1). Keratinase from B. licheniformis CG1 was shown to be active across a wide range of pH, potentially making this strain advantageous for further industrial applications. All isolates displayed antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus luteus; however, only B. licheniformis CG1 was able to inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. In silico analysis using BAGEL and antiSMASH identified gene clusters associated with the synthesis of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS), polyketide synthases (PKSs) and/or ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) in most of the Bacillus isolates. B. licheniformis CG1, the only strain that inhibited the growth of the mycobacterial strain, contained sequences with 100% similarity to lichenysin (also present in the other isolates) and lichenicidin (only present in the CG1 strain). Both compounds have been described to display antimicrobial activity against distinct bacteria. In summary, in this work, we have isolated a strain (B. licheniformis CG1) with promising potential for use in different industrial applications, including animal nutrition, leather processing, detergent formulation and feather degradation.

Pollen transfer efficiency (PTE; the proportion of pollen removed from flowers that reaches conspecific stigmas) is expected to vary with the type of pollinator and flower morphology, and to influence male siring success. Many species in the genus Erica are pollinated by bees (which consume pollen and should thus lower PTE) but during its radiation in the Cape, several independent shifts to both sunbird and long-proboscid fly (LP fly) pollinators, which do not consume pollen have taken place. Improvements in PTE could be one of the factors driving these pollinator shifts. PTE data for 15 Erica species (five for each of the three pollinator types) were collected and compared in relation to type of pollinator and anther exsertion. LP fly- and bird-pollinated species had higher PTE in comparison with bee-pollinated species. Species with inserted anthers had higher PTE than those with exserted anthers. This suggests that sunbirds and LP flies are more efficient pollinators than bees. Additionally, the study suggests that insertion of anthers within the corolla tube can reduce pollen losses., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Sam McCarren, Jeremy J. Midgley, Anina Coetzee, Steven D. Johnson.)

The increase in invasive alien species is a concern for the environment. The establishment of some of these species may be changing the balance between pathogenicity and host factors, which could alter the defense strategies of native host species. Vespid species are among the most successful invasive animals, such as the genera Vespa, Vespula and Polistes. Bee viruses have been extensively studied as an important cause of honey bee population losses. However, knowledge about the transmission of honey bee viruses in Vespids is a relevant and under-researched aspect. The role of some mites such as Varroa in the transmission of honey bee viruses is clearer than in the case of Vespidae. This type of transmission by vectors has not yet been clarified in Vespidae, with interspecific relationships being the main hypotheses accepted for the transmission of bee viruses. A majority of studies describe the presence of viruses or their replicability, but aspects such as the symptomatology in Vespids or the ability to infect other hosts from Vespids are scarcely discussed. Highlighting the case of Vespa velutina as an invader, which is causing huge losses in European beekeeping, is of special interest. The pressure caused by V. velutina leads to weakened hives that become susceptible to pathogens. Gathering this information is necessary to promote further research on the spread of bee viruses in ecosystems invaded by invasive species of Vespids, as well as to prevent the decline of bee populations due to bee viruses.

Bees are major pollinators of angiosperms and have phylogenetically conserved colour vision but differ in how various key species use achromatic information that is vital for both flower detection and size processing.We modelled green contrast and colour contrast signals from flowers of different countries where there are well established differences in availability of model bee species along altitudinal gradients. We tested for consistency in visual signals as expected from generalization in pollination principles using phylogenetically informed linear models.Patterns of chromatic contrast, achromatic green contrast and flower size differed among the three floras we examined. In Nepal there is a significant positive correlation between flower size and colour contrast in the subalpine region, but a negative correlation at the lower altitudes. At high elevations in Norway, where pollinators other than bees are common, flower size was positively correlated with colour contrast. At low and medium altitudes in Norway and in Australia, we did not observe a significant relationship between size and colour contrast.We thus find that the relationship between size, green and colour contrast cannot be generalized across communities, thus suggesting that flower visual signal adaptations to local pollinators are not limited to chromatic contrast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]