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Foot and nail care specialists spend a great portion of their day using nail drills to reduce nail thickness and smooth foot calluses. This process generates a large amount of dust, some of which is small enough to breathe in and deposit into the deepest regions of the respiratory tract, potentially causing health problems. Foot and nail dust often contains fungi, from both fungus-infected and healthy-appearing nails. Although the majority of healthy individuals can tolerate inhaled fungi, the immune systems of older, immunocompromised, and allergy-prone individuals often react using the inflammatory T helper cell type 2 pathway, leading to mucus overproduction, bronchoconstriction, and, in severe cases, lung tissue damage. To protect vulnerable podiatry professionals, wearing a surgical mask, using a water spray suppression system on nail drills, installing air filtration systems, and considering drilling technique can help reduce exposure to nail dust.

Suppression structure is widely used to inhibit the water spray generated by aircraft tires during aircraft takeoff from or landing on a contaminated runway. The full-scale aircraft test of water s...

Chickpea is one of the major pulse crop affected by various diseases, the rust caused by (Uromyces ciceris-arietini) (Grogon) Jacz. & Boyer is considered as one of the most distructive disease of chickpea. Rust pathogen affects in all growth stages results in substantial losses in terms of both quality and quantity parameters of grain and this reinforces the need to exploit several management strategies including chemical control. Therefore, present investigation was carried out to examine the efficacy of total of twelve chemicals fungicides alone and/or in combination against rust disease of chickpea in two independent locations viz., Arabhavi and Dharwad during 2017-18. The field experiment consisting of three replication and thirteen treatments. The results of the experiment revealed that all the twelve fungicides tested were found effective for the management of chickpea rust disease as compare to control (water spray). However spray combination of Tebuconazole 50% + Trifloxystrobin 25% w/w 75 WG @ 1.0 g/l twice at onset of disease significantly reduced rust incidence with record of 14.28 PDI with high total yield of 12.36 qtl/ha followed by Tebuconazole 25 EC @1 ml/l recorded 15.72 PDI with yield of 12.22qtl/ha, Propioconazole 25EC @1.0 ml/lit (Tilt) recorded 16.41 PDI with higher yield of 11.17 qtl/ha) found effective in reducing the disease. While, Difenoconazole 25 EC@1 ml/l showed 17.45 PDI and yield of 10.56qtl/ha, Tebuconazole 50% + Trifloxystrobin 25% w/w 75WG @ 0.5 g/l recorded 18.25 PDI and 10.36qtl/ha of yield and Pyraclostrobin 25 EC @1 ml/l observed with 20.02 rust PDI with yield of 10.32qtl/ha showing equally effective in reducing rust percent disease incidence and increased yield when compared to control that recorded highest rust disease incidence (53.71 PDI) and lower yield (6.16 qtl/ha).

This research work was endeavored to improve tensile strength of viscose woven fabric by using chemical finishes like water repellent finishes with cross linking agent and softener. In this work, 100% viscose woven fabric was used and different types of samples were prepared by treating water repellent finishes, cross linking agent and softeners. The sample was investigated by tensile strength test (ASTM D5034), spray test (AATCC–22), water vapor test (cup method) and moisture regain test (ASTM D2495 oven dry method). Eight types of recipes were used in this research. For the variation of C6-fluorocarbon the sample code-B (C6-fluorocarbon 60g/l, cross-linking agent 15 g/l and softener 10g/l) showed better result in tensile strength and water spray test. Taking the amount of C6-fluorocarbon (60g/l) as constant and making variation cross linking agent which reached a conclusion that, sample-B1 (C6-fluorocarbon 60g/l, cross-linking agent 05g/l and softener 10g/l) showed better result for wet tensile strength, water spray test and moisture regain but showed less water vapor permeability. From this experiment it was evident that recipe which belongs to sample code B1 is suitable for improving the tensile strength of viscose fabric.

This experiment determined the efficacy of using a novel aqueous ozone treatment as a spray chill intervention to reduce Escherichia coli O157:H7 on surfaces of fresh beef compared with traditional water spray chill. Cutaneous trunci muscles were obtained from a local beef cattle processing plant. Muscles were divided into sixteen 25-cm2 sections, and each section was individually inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 to the final concentration of approximately 105 CFU/cm2. Muscle sections were collected and tested before and after simulated spray chill treatments of water or the novel aqueous ozone solution. Enumeration of survivors of each treatment was compared with that of the untreated muscle sections. Water spray chill reduced (P ≤ 0.05) E. coli O157:H7 0.60 log, whereas the aqueous ozone spray chill reduction (P ≤ 0.05) was 1.46 log on surfaces of fresh beef. Aqueous ozone spray chill reduced (P ≤ 0.05) aerobic bacteria 0.99 log, but water spray chill did not significantly (P > 0.05) reduce aerobic bacteria on surfaces of fresh beef. The findings indicate that aqueous ozone can be used as a spray chill intervention to enhance the safety of beef.

The present study was carried out at the experimental Farm of Agriculture Research Station, Itay El-Baroud, EL-Behiera Governorate, Egypt, during the two summer seasons of 2017 and 2018 to study the effect of the three planting dates 1st , 20th May and 10th June and foilar application of silicon at the rate of (100, 200, 300 mg/L and water spray = control) on yield and quality of soybean cv. Giza 111. This experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications.The three planting dates were distributed in main plots, while the four silicon concentration were allocated in the sub plots. The obtained results showed that planting soybean during May 1st and 20th exceeded the late planting date (10th June) for all yield and yield components traits in both seasons. While, the late planting date in 10th June exceeded the early planting dates in May for Si contents and oil percentage in both seasons. Spraying high level of silicon on soybean plants led to a significant increase in 100-seed weight and seed yield/fed, while spraying 100 mg/L of silicon gave the highest percentage of oil in seeds in both seasons. The increase in the level of silicon from 100 to 200 and 300 mg/L resulted in a significant increase in the number of pods / plant in both planting dates (1st and 20th May), while the highest level of silicon 300 mg/L led to a significant increase in the 100-seed weight in the 1st and 2nd planting dates (1st May and 20th May) in both seasons. The results showed that the highest seed yield/fed was obtained by spraying 300 mg/L of silicon at the 1st planting date (1st May). Finally, the highest oil percentage was presented in the 3rd planting date was shown on 10th June by spraying 200 mg/L of silicon followed by spraying 200 mg/L at the first planting date in both seasons.

When designing process facilities, it is necessary to minimise the potential severity of vapour cloud explosions. Previous research into explosion safety gaps at large scale has shown that the introduction of gaps in congested regions can significantly reduce the magnitude of an explosion. Optimisation of this gap is critical when controlling costs on facilities where space is at a premium, for example on floating structures. The present DOWSES (Development Of Water Spray Explosion Suppression) research programme extends the existing optimisation knowledge for safety gaps to those with water curtains installed in the gap. Introduction of water curtains in to the safety gap has the potential to allow congested regions to be closer together due to interaction of the water droplets and the explosion through various physical and thermodynamic processes. To establish the levels of interaction, the DOWSES project involves large scale baseline explosion experiments generating high pressures, followed by similar experiments with a water curtain introduced. This current paper includes results from a baseline experiment and some discussion of the potential for such an event to be mitigated by the presence of a water curtain. Results and discussion on the effects of water curtains will be published when the experiments have been completed.

Coal dust is one of the most serious hazards on mine sites. Water spray with surfactant added is an effective way to control the coal dust. In this study, wind tunnel experiments were designed to e...

The effect of temperature on the electrical parameters of photovoltaic cells is negative. The efficiency of photovoltaic cells can be enhanced by cooling which the temperature is considered as one of the main factors that affect negatively on the output power. This study was carried out to compare between three different cooling techniques and determine their effects on the output power. The first, cooling techniques is applied, the panel front surface cooled using the water spray on the surface. The second, the panel back surface cooled by extended fins. The third, the panel back surface cooled by extended fins with fans. As expected, the results of comparisons different methods using in cell cooling showed that, there is an increase in the efficiency of photovoltaic cells with the drop in cell temperature, which helps to increase the rate of photovoltaic cell performance and output power. In these experiments the output power increased 2.5%. At the first technique using water spray method the temperature dropped 7 degrees. At the other two methods the temperature dropped 3 degrees less than the panel without cooling. The used pump and fans were power consuming. So, the most effective method was cooling using the fins.

Water spray is the most widely used means of wet dust reduction, and its atomization parameters are directly related to the effect of dust reduction. In order to obtain the atomization properties of solid-cone spray for dust reduction, the paper used droplet velocity and particle size to characterize its atomization characteristics. The Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer (PDPA) was used to precisely measure droplet sizes and velocities of a solid-cone spray at distances of 15 cm, 25 cm and 45 cm horizontally from the nozzle outlet, using low and medium spray pressures. The results show that the droplet size was fluctuant before spray pressure increasing to 2.0 MPa and then decreased gradually with the increasing of spray pressure. The droplet velocity increased with the raising spray pressure and the velocity at 45 cm is the minimum. The droplet size measurements taken 45 cm from the nozzle exhibited more complex slope changes in particle size curve that were not existed at the closer distances spray of 15 cm or 25 cm, which implies that the near-field spray is more stable than far-field spray. This study is of important significance for further understanding the characteristics of solid-cone spray and guiding its application in dust reduction.

Adverse weather conditions challenge object detection neural networks, because they are mostly trained on clean data sets that were taken in good weather. But autonomous vehicles rely on accurate detection and classification of other road users for safe and reliable operation. Capturing new data sets in rough weather is time consuming and expensive. We therefore propose a method to augment existing image data sets with physically realistic water spray swirled up by vehicles—one of the most influential disturbances for even human drivers on wet roads in or after heavy rain. Using a wide range of newly augmented images, we evaluate the influence on an established convolutional neural network object detection and showcase the potential of training with these new augmented data sets.

Owing to the increasing worldwide demand for natural gas, the development of a large submerged combustion vaporizer is required. Its burner is equipped with a water spray nozzle to reduce nitrogen oxides, and a practical simulation method is required for the optimal design. The non-adiabatic flamelet approach can predict the combustion emissions and is useful for reducing simulation costs. However, as the number of control variables increases, the database requires larger memory and cannot be dealt with by general computers. In this study, an artificial neural network (ANN) model based on a five-dimensional flamelet database, which includes the effects of heat loss and vapor concentration by sprayed water evaporation, is developed. Furthermore, large eddy simulations (LESs) for turbulent combustion fields with and without water spray are conducted employing flamelet generated manifold (FGM) approach with this ANN model, and the validity is investigated. For comparison, a lab-scale burner equipped with a water spray nozzle is manufactured, and combustion experiments with and without water spray are conducted. The results show that CO, NO, temperature, and reaction rate of progress variable predicted by the present ANN model are in good agreement with those of a five-dimensional flamelet database. In the condition without water spray, the flame behavior predicted by the LES employing the FGM/ANN approach is in good agreement with that employing the conventional FGM approach, while indicating much lower memory, although there appeared some quantitative discrepancies in the temperature against the experiment probably partially because of the insufficiency of the FGM approach for the present complex flame structure. In the condition with water spray, the LES employing the FGM/ANN approach is able to capture the effect of the water spray on the flame behavior in the experiment, such that the water spray decreases the temperature, which causes the decrease in NO but increase in CO.

For past decades, various industries, such as oil and gas, have come to realisation that using water-based spraying systems, with fine very fine droplets should be the preferred option in mitigating and suppressing the thermal explosions. Previous studies have mainly focused on improving efficiency of flame mitigation by utilising existing water spray systems with droplets greater than 200 microns. This paper provide analysis in the utilisation of fine water sprays (between 10 to 30 microns) using Spill Return Atomisers (SRAs) to mitigate slow moving flames within the range of 5 to 30 m/s. The flame produced by a mixture of methane and air at four different Equivalent Ratios (ER, φ) between 0.61 to 1.06. Three different SRAs (Type A, B, and C) with variation in exit orifice are, also, placed in two different orientations (counter and parallel flow). The results indicate that by using single spray in both directions, atomisers Type-A and B are not capable of mitigating the flame at different equivalent ratio of methane/air mixture. However, atomiser Type-C shows full mitigation φ0.61. Therefore, to mitigate the flame with φ > 0.61, the density and volume flux of the water droplets within the flame path should be increased.

The fire of UHV transformer has the characteristics of rapid development, high oil temperature and high fire intensity. Firstly, the applicability of the existing dry burning test method to the fire pipe of the water spray fire extinguishing system under the fire scene of UHV transformer is analyzed. Secondly, five kinds of heating curves, such as hydrocarbon (HC) heating curve, outdoor fire heating curve, slow heating curve, electric fire heating curve, tunnel fire RABT-ZTV heating curve, are compared in the existing codes. Finally, some suggestions are put forward to Improvement requirements of the fire resistance of water spray fire extinguishing system in practical engineering and to improve the current test method.

Ammonia has a very wide range of applications. Its worldwide production exceeds 230 million tonnes per year. Due to its properties, ammonia causes a serious threat to human life and health when released uncontrolled into the environment. Research carried out in the word shows that this substance may be effectively neutralised by absorption in water. The aim of research described in this paper is to determine the influence of key parameters of the micro- and macrostructure of water streams on the course of the ammonia absorption process. During the studies, different types of water nozzles were used, with similar efficiency and supply pressure, but characterised by different parameters of the micro- and macrostructure of the produced stream. The experiments were divided into two stages. In the first one, the macro- and microparameters of the streams were measured, while in the second one, the changes in ammonia concentration were established during delivering spray jet generation by different nozzles. Among the basic parameters of the macrostructure, the spray angle and liquid distribution in the jet (spray intensity) were determined, while for the microstructure, the droplet size distribution and mean droplet diameters were measured. Ammonia concentration was measured by means of a photoionisation detector (PID). In order to evaluate the absorption efficiency of different water spray jets, the apparent absorption rate (kp) and the half-time of concentration reduction (t½) in the kinetic range were established. The study has confirmed that atomised water jets are an effective method for neutralising ammonia released into the environment. The research has a practical aspect and shows that the structure of atomised water streams influence the course of the absorption process. Increasing the spray angle in a conical stream leads to an improvement in the quality of water atomisation and helps increase ammonia absorption. Moreover, it was also observed that for the absorption of spatial ammonia clouds, use should be made of nozzles generating streams with full spray cones and high uniformity of spray and dispersion.

To control infectious diseases such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (Covid-19) that caused the current pandemic, disinfection measures are essential. Among building measures, disinfection chambers can help to decrease the transmission rate through the sanitizing capacity of the disinfectant used, which can thereby clean surfaces or humans. Out of existing biocides, ozone is considered one of the safest for humans, but one of the most powerful oxidizers, making the substance a better alternative as the biocidal solution in disinfection chambers. Analyses were carried out by using all patented documents related to disinfection chambers that used ozone as a disinfectant. A Derwent Innovation Index (DII) database search was undertaken to find these patents. Patent prospecting resulted in 620 patent documents that were divided into 134 patent families. There was no technology related to protective barriers for individuals, and the majority of patents in the retrieved data aimed at sterilizing medical devices and surfaces. Given that the specific Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) code for ozone dissolved in liquid was used in the methodology search, but not included among the 10 most used codes in the patents, the use of ozonized water may be an innovative approach in the technology landscape of sterilization chambers.

For specific indications in neurosurgery, such as the removal of brain tumors in eloquent locations and the deep brain stimulation, awake craniotomy offers multiple advantages. However, due to the severe discomfort experienced during burr-hole drilling, patients are hesitant to opt for awake craniotomy. Laser systems provide an alternative to surgical drills as a silent and vibration-free bone cutting method. Until now no laser system achieved adequate ablation rates (> 2:5mm3/s) at sufficiently high aspect ratio (>5) to fulfill the requirements for craniotomy. The aim of this study is to investigate the ablation of bone tissue under the needs for neurosurgery using three different Q-switched infrared laser sources assisted by a water spray system. One of the laser sources is a commercial Q-switched CO2 laser system operating at 10:6 μm with a pulse energy of 4 mJ. In addition, two in-house developed, short-pulsed IR-laser sources operating at 2:91 μm (Cr:ZnSe) with a pulse energy of 0:76mJ and at 1:9 μm (Tm:YLF) with a pulse energy of 2:2mJ are investigated. The results show that highly efficient bone ablation with the CO2 laser at rates of 6mm3/s is possible without carbonization. With an ablation strategy using the effect of multiple reflections inside the kerf an aspect ratio of 17 was achieved for narrow incisions at widths smaller than 100 μm. Another ablation strategy shows a twofold higher ablation depth shifting the laser focus stepwise into propagation direction. Even though a high ablation efficiency can be achieved with the Cr:ZnSe laser source and the CO2 laser source, the Cr:ZnSe laser cannot fulfill the required ablation rates. The CO2 laser shows a fast ablation in significant depth with a maximum depth of 7 mm. Further investigations will concentrate on increasing the ablation depth to 10 mm.

The experiment was carried out during the spring and summer seasons of the year 2017-18 and 2018-19 at the Horticultural Research Farm, AAU, Anand to study the “Effect of soil and foliar applications of micronutrients on flowering and yield of mango variety”. The experimentcomprised of 13 treatments of different micronutrients application viz. FeSO4 100 g, ZnSO4 100 g, Borax 100 g and multimicronutrients grade-V 400 g as a soil application; FeSO4 0.5 %, ZnSO4 0.5 %, borax 0.2 % and multimicronutrients grade-IV 1.0 % as a foliar application and its combinassions and control (water spray). Soil application was done at second fortnight of September and foliar sprays of treatments were done at flower bud initiation, full bloom stage and pea stage initiationon 18 years old mango tree cv. Mallika. Experiment was laid out in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three repetitions. Numbers of staminate, hermaphrodite and total number of flowers per panicle were found significant with respect to various micronutrients treatments during both the years of experiment. Maximum staminate flowers per panicle, hermaphrodite flowers per panicle and total number of flowers per panicle was found with soil application of multimicronutrients grade-V 400 g followed by foliar application of multimicronutrients grade-IV 1.0 % during both the years of study. The significantly higher number of fruits, average fruit weight and fruit yield per tree were recorded with soil application of multimicronutrients grade-V 400 g followed by foliar application of multimicronutrients grade-IV 1.0 % during the years 2017-18 and 2018-19.

In order to better meet the needs of home sprouts cultivation, and improve the convenience and appreciation of user management, a home ultrasonic sprouts cultivation device is designed, which consists of a base, an atomization system, a cultivation tank, a light supplement system, and a control system and other components. Simulation analysis was carried out using SolidWorks, and the results showed that the strength of each part can meet the force requirements, the water spray generated by the ultrasonic atomizer can flow into each cultivation trough smoothly, and the amount of spray in the trough is uniform. The prototype application test results show that: it can meet the cultivation requirements of sprouts, and the cultivation effect is better than ordinary three-dimensional cultivation devices, and the management convenience, ornamental, and comprehensive user satisfaction are also better than ordinary three-dimensional cultivation devices. This paper proposes the use of ultrasonic atomization to cultivate sprouts, which can provide a certain reference value for related design, and has broad promotion value in the field of home sprouts cultivation.

Metro rolling stock stagnation zones are quite long. This causes a number of difficulties in choosing and designing a water fire extinguishing system, as it directly affects the pressure loss in pipelines when water is supplied over such a long distance. That is why the task of this work is to design two different types of water fire extinguishing for metro dead ends and to perform hydraulic calculations, based on the results of which to choose the most suitable system for the object under study. The choice of a fire extinguishing system to ensure fire safety of dead ends of rolling stock sludge is made in the favor of the fire extinguishing system with high-pressure water spray.

In this study, a spray cooling system is experimentally investigated to increase the photovoltaic panel efficiency. Cooling of photovoltaic panels is one of the important parameters that affects the PV panel performance. In this experiment the effects of spray angle, nozzles to PV panel distance, number of nozzles, and pulsating water spray on the PV panel performance are investigated. For this purpose, an experimental setup was made. The spray angles varied from 15° to 50°. The comparison between the spray angles shows that by decreasing the spray angle to 15° increases the electrical efficiency of PV panel to 19.78% and simultaneously the average PV panel temperature decreases from 64 (for non-cooled PV) to 24 °C. Also, nozzle to PV panel distance was changed from 10 to 50 cm. The best result was obtained for the lowest distance by 25.86% increase in power output. Study of various frequency also show that due to the surface evaporation and the intensity of the radiation, increasing the water spraying frequency can increase or decrease the electrical efficiency. The On–Off water spray system results show that the maximum increase in efficiency was obtained with frequency of 0.2 Hz which it was 16.84%. Water consumption also decreased to half.

New technologies are revolutionizing the automotive market, with innovation reshaping what it means to drive or be driven, as new vehicles are being introduced in the last years. Smart vehicles are forced to integrate various sensors, usually cameras, capable of allowing autonomous functionalities. Cameras, 360° surround-view parking assist systems, and Intelligent Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) must be mandatorily installed on vehicles for rules issued by many countries. Those optical sensors can be partially or totally obscured by many environmental factors; thus, these sensors need to be adequately cleaned. The paper presents an experimental methodology to study water sprays used on vehicles under different injection pressure. A schlieren setup was realized and images were acquired with a high-speed C-Mos camera at a rate of 25,000 frames per second (fps) with an image window of 384 × 352 pixels. The camera was equipped with a 90 mm objective, f 1:2.8, resulting in a spatial resolution of 4.70 pixel/mm. The spray was analyzed for different injection pressure making interesting consideration about its behavior.

Objective: Electric toilet seats with water spray (bidets) are gaining in popularity all over the world. However, the extent of reduction in microbial contamination of hands with the use of bidets after defecation is not known. Methods: The microbe contamination of hands with and without the use of bidets after defecation with the participation of 32 nursing students was studied. Double gloves were worn on the dominant hand and four layers of toilet paper were used to wipe the buttocks after defecation and the microbe contamination of the second glove (outer glove) of the double gloves was examined. The volunteers were free to select flow volume, wash time of the bidet and even the type of bidet for use was left up the individual. Results: Without the use of a bidet, the average value ± standard deviation of the number of microbe attached to the gloves was 39,449.3 ± 77,768.3 colony forming units (cfu) / glove; however, it was 4,146.9 ± 11,427.7 cfu / glove when a bidet was used.The number of microbe adhering to gloves was significantly reduced when a bidet was used (p Conclusion: It was discovered that reduction of microbe contamination of hands was possible with the use of bidets after defecation.

Icing of water (moisture) at subzero temperatures with different length scales is harmful to a variety of applications spanning from large-scale aircraft to small camera lens. Existing strategies relying on controlling the surface structure and material are encumbered with shortcomings of short frost delay time, poor durability, and difficulty in large-scale production. Inspired from the mucus secretion of mollusks, we introduce organohydrogel dynamic interfaces that can perform dynamic and reversible exchange of the cryoprotectant and water at the interface, resulting in exceptional antifrosting, antiadhesion, and deicing properties with long-term durability. The replenishable coating shows superlubrication to the surface ice with a sliding angle up to 1.9 ± 0.4o and a frost delay time up to 970 ± 31 min in the presence of water spray (99% relative humidity) at subzero temperatures. The strategy offers a reliable and scalable solution to prevent engineering surfaces, i.e., aircraft, pavement, bridge, and other public facilities, from icing/frosting and ice adhesion, even under extreme cold environments.

A new analytical model is derived based on physical concepts and conservation laws, in order to evaluate the post-shock gas velocity, the gas density and the spray dispersion topology during the interaction of a shock wave and a water spray in a one-dimensional configuration. The model is validated against numerical simulations over a wide range of incident Mach numbers . The formation of the number-density peak is discussed and a necessary condition for its existence is proposed for the first time.

For the past fifty years, there has been a great deal of interest using water-based explosion suppression systems in mitigating/reducing the impact of thermal explosions and their consequential overpressures. Previous research focused on the suppression and mitigation with sprays containing droplets 200µm ≤ D32 ≤ 1000µm. The present study is focused on the mitigation of slow-moving deflagrations with speeds of less than or equal to 30 m/s. Consequently, the droplets within the spray must be small enough to extract heat in the short finite moments that the flame and droplets interact at about 0.03 ms for a 1 mm thick flame front. An apparatus was thus designed to simulate ‘partly confined and/or vented’ conditions, venting upstream of the propagating flame. Previous theoretical studies have suggested that droplets in the order of 10 µm to 20 µm will enable to mitigate combustion without relying on further droplet break up. This investigation, herewith, is presenting the full details of qualitative and quantitative analysis of using Spill Return Atomiser (SRA) to provide fine water spray. The spray cone angle was increased from 34.7˚ to 49.2˚and the exit orifice flow rate was raised from 0.295 l/min to 1.36 l/min. Increasing the flow rate provided a number of spray options ranging from 17µm ≤ D32 ≤ 29µm, with liquid volume flux of 0.011 cm³/s/cm² to 0.047 cm³/s/cm² and mean droplet velocity of 0 to 21.4 m/s, with the resulting of complete explosion mitigation qualities.

This paper provides a brief overview of cooling strategies for decreasing the operating temperature of photovoltaic (PV) panels. Temperatures of PV panels during operation can reach up to 60 °C, thus decreasing the operating efficiency at rates up to 0.5 %/°C. The paper describes different cooling strategies with an emphasis on active cooling of PV panels via water spraying since this method is beneficial due to (i) cleaning effect of the surface of the PV panel, (ii) decreasing the operating temperature significantly and (iii) lowering the refraction index, thus minimizing the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the PV cell. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to study the heat and mass transfer during regular operation of the PV cell without cooling and during operation with water spray cooling, and the results are compared with experimentally obtained data with good agreement. The guidelines for future studies are outlined.