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This study examines the under-explored phenomenon in Vietnamese tertiary settings of code-switching practised by EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers in classroom instruction, as well as their awareness of this practice. Among the foreign languages taught and learned in Vietnamese universities, English is the most popular. The research design involved data-driven analysis of 12 teachers' code-switching behaviour in the EFL classroom from four different main sources of information: classroom observations, class recordings, interviews with the observed teachers, and field notes. The findings show that teachers practised code-switching very commonly in their English instruction, for both pedagogical and affective reasons. Code-switching, when done deliberately and selectively, can be a positive strategy to use in the EFL classroom, but not if done habitually and automatically. Since code-switching is a natural occurrence amongst bilingual speakers, teacher training programs may need to include code-switching as a deliberate teaching strategy. In addition, before any government policy or guidelines on code-switching are introduced, teachers need specific training on strategies for its effect use. The interviews with the Vietnamese university EFL teachers revealed key reasons for their code-switching in the EFL classroom, which are similar to those found in other studies. These are examined with a pedagogical and affective focus.

As the younger generation in Vietnam increasingly switches between the English and the Vietnamese languages, numerous linguistic and sociocultural strictures arise. Foregrounding the preservice English-language teachers of this generation, this article locates them in a dilemma between the discourse of globalization and their code-switching practices, on the one hand, and the moral-guide duty they are expected to fulfil within the discourse of linguistic nationalism on the other hand. Drawing on a case study conducted with survey questionnaires (N = 483) and focusing on interviews and focus groups (N = 15), this article reports the confusion, the decisions, and the negotiations made by different preservice teachers as they were faced with this dilemma. Particularly underlining the theme of negotiation, the article proposes certain changes to the English-language-teacher training curriculum in Vietnam.

Language brokering (LB) practices are a widespread phenomenon in transnational communities. This paper aims to add to the description and analysis of these practices within a community which has not been extensively studied--the Vietnamese in the Czech Republic, as well as show how LB is embedded in other sociolinguistic aspects of community life. Based on language biographies of 13 Vietnamese female brokers, we explore LB by focusing on the respondents' descriptions and summaries of their beginnings with it, the difficulties that occurred, and how they were overcome. The findings suggest that, among others, the brokers gradually perceive brokering as a normal practice and as one of their family responsibilities. A methodological innovation is the use of Language Management Theory (Nekvapil, Jirí & Tamah Sherman. 2015. "An introduction: Language Management Theory in Language Policy and Planning." "International Journal of the Sociology of Language" 232. 1-12.), through which we examine language brokering as a practice oriented toward language problems stemming from broader communication and sociocultural problems. This perspective, along with attention devoted to the activities, approaches and attitudes of all participants in the brokering (e.g. parents, public officials) enables us to demonstrate the relationship of the brokering to family language policy and also the fact that, for the brokers, the sociocultural dimension of LB can be more important than the linguistic one.

As neoliberal ideals of deregulation, accountability, quality and financial autonomy take hold of education worldwide, higher education institutions (HEIs) in developing economies are adopting strategies to improve educational quality; attract local and international students; enhance institutional ranking and global competitiveness; and, more critically, increase their income. These strategies include internationalising education and developing partnerships with high-ranking universities, particularly those in English-speaking countries. Introducing English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has been a key element of these strategies. Using language-in-education planning as an analytical framework, this study investigates how a Vietnamese public university deployed EMI as a strategy to navigate through the new regime of institutional autonomy (IA) mandated by the government in the context of neoliberal approaches to HE reform. We argue that this top-down policy reform challenged Vietnamese universities to find ways to become autonomous. Although the pursuit of autonomy may lead to financial success, it may also result in HEIs not giving due consideration to questions of educational quality. Furthermore, in the absence of adequate structural planning, IA may have a negative impact on HEIs and the HE system in the country.

This article examines the claim that a fully immersive English language learning experience can be ensured by universities engaged in transnational education through offshore campuses. Taking as a case study one South East Asian offshore campus of a Western university, the inquiry was designed to discover the extent to which students did, in reality, utilise their English language skills on campus outside the classroom. Drawing on the responses of 260 students, the findings suggest that, far from "full immersion", students tend to revert to their own language in most interactions, unless in the presence of a teacher. The article goes on to suggest a number of reasons for this and discusses the factors underlying both the students' reluctance and the failure of the institution's strategy.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to present emergent findings from an evaluation of the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden (SAKG) Program showing that the program promoted appreciation of cultural diversity and inclusion of culturally diverse groups. Design/methodology/approach: The findings reported here are from the qualitative component of a mixed-method, nonrandomized, pre- and post-comparison evaluation study. Focus groups and interviews were held with school principals, teachers, program specialist staff, parents, volunteers and children at the program schools. Findings: In a culturally diverse school, the program enhanced the school's capacity to engage and include children and families from migrant backgrounds. In less diverse settings, the program provided opportunities for schools to teach children about cultural diversity. Research limitations/implications: Assessing the program's impact on multicultural education was not a specific objective of this study, rather these findings emerged as an unanticipated outcome during interviews and focus groups that explored participants' views on important changes to schools associated with the program. Thus, the quantitative component of the evaluation did not assess the extent of this program impact and further research is recommended. Practical implications: The program may have particular value in culturally diverse schools, providing benefits in terms of engagement of children and families and potentially, in the longer term, associated improvements in learning outcomes. Social implications: These findings suggest that the program can help to promote social equity and inclusion for culturally diverse groups. Originality/value: This paper highlights critical equity implications associated with school-based programs' capacity to include culturally and linguistically diverse groups.

In 2011, the Taiwanese Government began a campaign to encourage new immigrants to teach their native languages (heritage languages) to their children. However, these heritage languages are seldom used in cross-national families and the effectiveness of formal heritage language courses in Taiwan has yet to be explored. The present study examines the influence of school and family support on children's attitudes towards heritage language learning. A structured questionnaire was developed and sent to 234 primary school pupils whose mothers are Vietnamese and fathers are Taiwanese. Results revealed that: (1) the immigrant mothers who speak Vietnamese at home with their children increased their children's motivation to learn Vietnamese as a heritage language; (2) the pupils reported that they received limited school support in their Vietnamese courses; and (3) the children who live with their immigrant parents are more motivated to learn Vietnamese than those who do not. The implications of these findings are discussed.

This longitudinal study modeled lexical development among children who spoke Vietnamese as a first language (L1) and English as a second language (L2). Participants (n = 33, initial mean age of 7.3 years) completed a total of eight tasks (four in each language) that measured vocabulary knowledge and lexical processing at four yearly time points. Multivariate hierarchical linear modeling was used to calculate L1 and L2 trajectories within the same model for each task. Main findings included (a) positive growth in each language, (b) greater gains in English resulting in shifts toward L2 dominance, and (c) different patterns for receptive and expressive domains. Timing of shifts to L2 dominance underscored L1 skills that are resilient and vulnerable to increases in L2 proficiency.

This paper is concerned with how refugee stories can be used as the means of exploring values and developing intercultural understanding in the English classroom. To illustrate this possibility, André Dao's (2005) "Vuot Bien--The Search for Freedom: Huong Thi Nguen's Story," about the impact of war and oppression on people's lives, together with the experience of seeking freedom and acceptance in Australia as a Vietnamese refugee, is selected as the text for a Year 9 English class. In examining the features of this short story, we also consider how recent efforts to foster intercultural understanding in the new national curriculum in Australia might be advanced in the English classroom. We argue that this text and others in the genre of refugee narratives written by young people, provide vicarious opportunities to analyse how valuing freedom and having the courage to seek it can be brought to light when an individual survives one life and begins the challenges of creating a new life in another country. Examining the values dimensions of such texts also allows young people to unpack and critique the ways in which cultural experiences, including their own, shape and form identities and how engaging with the experiences of others can be the vehicle for valuing difference. We hope our discussion might encourage teachers in other countries undergoing cultural shifts in response to the diaspora of people will be encouraged to consider this "double entendre" in which the refugee experience is shaped not only by "the journey" but also by "the arrival" and the degree to which newcomers, refugee or asylum seekers, are made welcome by the receiving community.

Evaluation is an important aspect in communication in any language as it not only functions to express language users' evaluative stance but also to construct and maintain relations between interactants. In the teaching of languages in addition to English, paying attention to evaluative language contributes to an understanding of the interrelationship between language, culture and learning, the foundation to the teaching and learning of languages in Australia. In the Vietnamese language, there are distinctive language resources that could be considered as marginal words in the English language but in fact are used to express the subtlety in people's feelings and attitudes. These resources include person reference terms, the modal particles "du?c", "m?t", "ph?i" and the final polite particle "?". This article discusses the extent to which the evaluative meanings of these resources are incorporated in the Draft F-10 Australian Curriculum: Languages (Vietnamese). It also makes suggestions for teaching the distinctive features of Vietnamese attitudinal language resources in an effective way.

Melbourne's linguistic and cultural diversity has continually changed in response to global economic forces and shifting patterns of war and conflict. Immigrant and refugee communities have arrived with different skills, educational and professional profiles, and cultural and religious values. The ecological niches of three contrasting linguistic communities in Melbourne are explored to reveal the diversity of the immigrant experience. Demographic changes over the 10-year span of the 1996, 2001 and 2006 censuses are outlined, in relation to groups which differ in migration vintage, size, socioeconomic factors, migration type, and linguistic and cultural distance from the mainstream. The study looks at speakers of Italian, Vietnamese and Sudanese languages, outlining some key demographic factors, and reflects on the lived experiences of members of these groups, as revealed in focus group interviews. The analysis attempts to tease out the commonalities of the urban migrant experience, and also identify ways in which ecological factors make each group unique. The focus is on elements of what Mufwene has called the external ecology of the varieties (i.e. socioeconomic and ethnographic environments, contact setting and power relations).

This study tested three hypotheses about the direct and indirect contributions of derivational morphological awareness to English reading comprehension in sixth-grade students from differing language backgrounds (n= 952). Students included Spanish-speaking, Filipino-speaking, and Vietnamese-speaking language minority learners as well as native English speakers. Multiple-group structural equation modeling indicated that morphological awareness made a significant direct contribution to reading comprehension, controlling for reading vocabulary and word reading fluency. Morphological awareness also made a significant indirect contribution to reading comprehension via reading vocabulary, but not via word reading fluency. Effects were similar across the four language groups. Findings suggest that morphological awareness may play multiple important roles in English reading comprehension for students from a variety of home language backgrounds. (Contains 8 notes, 1 table and 1 figure.)

This study examines the association between personal goal orientations and mathematics achievement within the trichotomous goal framework. Participants comprised approximately 2000 seventh and eighth grade White, Hispanic, and Vietnamese students in a low-income urban school district in California. Regression analysis with classroom fixed effects minimized biases arising from non-random assignment of teachers and students to schools and classrooms. While all three achievement goal orientations were correlated with mathematics achievement, only a mastery goal orientation consistently predicted achievement when a full set of prior achievement and demographic controls were included. Performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal orientations did not predict achievement in the full model. (Contains 4 tables.)

As Mandarin gains popularity in the whole world, Mandarin education becomes valued by the countries all over the world. The United Nations classifies Mandarin as one of the six major languages, and the number of people who learn Mandarin in the whole world grows with each passing day as the mainland China market grows. This study discusses the learning effects of using multimedia assisted instruction on Mandarin vocabulary for Vietnamese students, taking into account the difficulty that Vietnamese students encountered during the learning process of multimedia assisted instruction. (Contains 5 figures and 2 tables.)

Because Chinese character learning typically relies heavily on rote character copying, we tested independent copying skill in third- and fourth-grade Chinese children with and without dyslexia. In total, 21 Chinese third and fourth graders with dyslexia and 33 without dyslexia (matched on age, nonverbal IQ, and mother's education level) were given tasks of copying unfamiliar print in Vietnamese, Korean, and Hebrew as well as tests of word reading and writing, morphological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and orthographic processing. All three copying tasks distinguished dyslexic children from nondyslexic children with moderate effect sizes (0.67-0.80). Zero-order correlations of the three copying tasks with dictation and reading ranged from 0.37 to 0.58. With age, Raven's, group status, RAN, morphological awareness, and orthographic measures statistically controlled, the copying tasks uniquely explained 6% and 3% variance in word reading and dictation, respectively. Results suggest that copying skill itself may be useful in understanding the development and impairment of literacy skills in Chinese. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

Purpose: This project examined receptive vocabulary treatment outcomes in the two languages of a bilingual preschooler with moderate to severe language impairment. Method: A series of single-subject experimental designs was used to compare English-only (EO) and bilingual (BI) approaches to receptive vocabulary treatment. The participant, Nam, was a boy age 3;11 (years;months) who was learning Vietnamese as a first language at home and English in his early childhood education program. Treatment was implemented by an EO interventionist using a computer interface and prerecorded audio files in Vietnamese and English. The dependent measure was the percentage of items that were correctly identified in each language. Results: Combined studies revealed that the BI approach increased Nam's attention to task and was as effective as the EO approach for increasing his receptive vocabulary in English. Nam made vocabulary gains in both treatment conditions; receptive vocabulary gains were evident in both Vietnamese and English. Conclusion: This project showed that it is feasible for an EO clinician to promote gains in both the home and school languages of a BI child through creative collaborations with BI colleagues and the use of technology. Replication with additional participants and treatment activities is needed to make further generalizations.

This article identifies empirical evidence (Dao, 2007; in preparation) conflicting with Processability Theory's (PT) prediction that in acquisition of English as a second language (ESL), plural-marking emerges first in bare nouns and only later in numeric expressions. Specifically, it presents results from Dao's (2007) cross-sectional study of ESL in 36 Vietnamese learners, which was designed to test PT's predictions that inflections emerge in lexical contexts before agreement in phrasal contexts, but found that emergence occurred in the reverse order. The article explores whether Dao's findings invalidate PT's crosslinguistic principles or whether there is a problem in applying these to language-specific empirical contexts. The exploration reveals weaknesses in the description of PT's principles, as these are based on implicit assumptions, which may be invalid in specific first language/second language (L1/L2) typological contexts and thus lead to incorrect predictions. The findings are explained by reference to L1 transfer represented in the framework of one of PT's feeder theories: Levelt's (1989) Theory of Speaking as modelled in Weaver++ (Levelt et al., 1999). Our L1 transfer account is in line with PT's Developmentally Moderated Transfer Hypothesis. (Contains 11 figures, 1 table, and 17 notes.)

The main goal of this mixed-methods study was to examine the perceived effectiveness of a brief, community-based parenting intervention for Vietnamese American immigrant parents. A key component of the intervention involved participants listening to Vietnamese American adolescents' discussions about their relationships with their parents utilizing a fishbowl group format. After the parenting intervention, a focus group interview was conducted with eight participants to examine their reactions to the intervention. The following qualitative themes emerged from the focus group: (a) increased insight on parent-child relations, (b) need for improvement in communication skills, (c) parent-child cultural gaps, (d) issues of trust between parent and child, and (e) benefits from participation in the workshop. Quantitative findings revealed that after the intervention, participants reported greater intention to show expressive love to their children as well as increased parental empathy. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

This article describes the development and validation of a Vietnamese bilingual version of the Vocabulary Size Test--a test which measures written receptive vocabulary size. The test can be used to measure the English vocabulary size of Vietnamese learners of English. A learner's total vocabulary size is calculated by multiplying their test result by 100. The research adds to our knowledge of vocabulary size testing in the following ways. First, it shows that a bilingual version of a monolingual test performs in much the same way as the monolingual test, distinguishing learners of different proficiency levels and returning lower scores at later levels of the test. Second, it shows that every level of the test should be sat, otherwise there will be a considerable underestimation of learners' vocabulary sizes. This suggests limitations to the previously accepted assumption that learners' vocabulary growth can be largely related to word frequency. Third, it shows that bilingual tests are feasible alternatives to more challenging and time-consuming monolingual tests. (Contains 8 tables.)

This paper illustrates how a methodological tool called "drawing-voice" can be used to demonstrate qualitatively what statistical and policy data are not able to reveal regarding the educational realities of Hmong minority communities in northern Vietnam, particularly with regard to the role of local language and culture in school. This paper describes the approach of using drawing to stimulate authentic discussion, which is then analysed in light of the current conditions of educational services for Hmong speakers. This visual methodology was seen by the participants themselves as culturally appropriate. The drawing-voice activities conducted with teachers from Hmong community schools in northern Vietnam have demonstrated that teachers' identities and practices are influenced by certain linguistic, cultural, and environmental issues. According to the drawing-voice participants, the reasons for educational inequity include the use of Vietnamese as the language of instruction, a lack of cultural sensitivity in the curriculum and by some teachers, a lack of school materials, and difficult physical conditions such as geographic isolation, poor road conditions, and deterioration of schools. This combination of conditions explains why so few ethnic minority learners survive the school system long enough to become professionals and how the lack of Hmong teachers contributes to this vicious cycle. (Contains 1 table, 5 figures and 1 note.)