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Here, we describe the dramatic response of a patient with an ETV6-NTRK3-driven mammary analogue secretory carcinoma to treatment with a pan-Trk inhibitor, and the development of acquired resistance linked to a novel NTRK3 mutation that interferes with drug binding. This case emphasizes how molecular profiling can identify therapies for rare diseases and dissect mechanisms of drug resistance., Background Mammary analogue secretory carcinoma (MASC) is a recently described pathologic entity. We report the case of a patient with an initial diagnosis of salivary acinic cell carcinoma later reclassified as MASC after next-generation sequencing revealed an ETV6-NTRK3 fusion. Patients and methods This alteration was targeted with the pan-Trk inhibitor entrectinib (Ignyta), which possesses potent in vitro activity against cell lines containing various NTRK1/2/3 fusions. Results A dramatic and durable response was achieved with entrectinib in this patient, followed by acquired resistance that correlated with the appearance of a novel NTRK3 G623R mutation. Structural modeling predicts that this alteration sterically interferes with drug binding, correlating to decreased sensitivity to drug inhibition observed in cell-based assays. Conclusions This first report of clinical activity with TrkC inhibition and the development of acquired resistance in an NTRK3-rearranged cancer emphasize the utility of comprehensive molecular profiling and targeted therapy for rare malignancies (NCT02097810).

Background: There are limited data on the histopathology of papillary thyroid carcinomas (PTCs) diagnosed in irradiated populations. We evaluated the associations between iodine-131 dose and the histopathological characteristics of post-Chernobyl PTCs, the changes in these characteristics over time, and their associations with selected somatic mutations. Methods: This study included 115 PTCs diagnosed in a Ukrainian-American cohort (n=13 243) during prescreening and four successive thyroid screenings. Of these PTCs, 65 were subjected to somatic mutation profiling. All individuals were

Glioblastoma multiform (GBM), a primary brain tumor that is the most common and the most aggressive. It’s characterized by a high degree of hypoxia and a resistance to therapy because of its adaptation capacities including autophagy. This degradation process allows recycling of cellular components to produce precursors for anabolism and ATP. We have studied the hypoxia-induced autophagy in three human GBM cell lines, the U87MG, M059K and M059J. We have found a survival hypoxia-induced autophagy that was efficient in all cell lines. Indeed, we observed an accumulation of autophagosomes when we inhibited the autophagic flux with chloroquine (CQ). Treatment with CQ or interference of Beclin1 or Atg5 expression by specific siRNA in GBM cells significantly decreased their metabolic activity and growth. However, we did not detect PARP cleavage by western blotting. Thus, we verified the neurotrophic signaling as another survival pathway by which GBM cells resist to hypoxia. After hypoxia, the transcription level of TrkC FL (full length), TrkC-T1 (truncated TrkC) and the NT-3 (the TrkC ligand) significantly increases in the U87MG cell lines, as far as the translation level of TrkC FL and TrkC-T1. When we explored the TrkC FL signaling pathway, there was an increase in the phosphorylation level of p38. After inhibition of this MAPK, we observed PARP cleavage, which was particularly important in hypoxia conditions. This cleavage was further enhanced upon CQ treatment. The autophagy inhibition using either CQ, siBeclin1 or siAtg5, increases TrkC FL and T1 expression, suggesting that in the absence of autophagy, cells would adapt by increasing TrkC signaling.Finally, we have verified for hypoxic (BNIP3) and autophagic (LC3) markers on tumor sections from patients with GBM. We confirmed the hypoxic character of GBM, and showed important autophagy activation, after autophagosomes quantification. In comparison with cavernoma (benign brain tumor), patients with GBM showed a significant increase in TrkC and NT-3 expression, highlighting the importance of neurotrophic signaling in GBM tumor cell survival., Le glioblastome multiforme (GBM) est la tumeur cérébrale la plus fréquente et la plus agressive. Il s’agit d’une tumeur capable de survivre même dans des conditions d’oxygénation faible ou hypoxie. En effet, les cellules cancéreuses du GBM activent des voies de survie en réponse à cette privation de dioxygène, dont l’autophagie. Il s’agit d’un mécanisme catabolique conduisant à la dégradation des constituants cellulaires, générant ainsi des précurseurs pour l’anabolisme cellulaire ainsi que de l’ATP. Nous avons étudié l’activation de l’autophagie en réponse à l’hypoxie, dans trois lignées cellulaires de GBM humain, les U87MG, les M059K et les M059J. Une autophagie de survie est activée dans les trois lignées cellulaires, en réponse à l’hypoxie. L’inhibition du flux autophagique par la chloroquine (CQ), induit une accumulation des autophagosomes, soulignant ainsi l’efficacité du processus. L’inhibition de l’autophagie par la CQ ou par des siRNA spécifiques dirigés contre les transcrits de Beclin1 ou d’Atg5, entraîne une diminution significative de l’activité métabolique cellulaire, ainsi qu’un retard de prolifération. Toutefois, nous n’avons pas détecté de mort apoptotique dépendante des caspases. Nous avons donc étudié une deuxième voie de signalisation de survie cellulaire, la signalisation neurotrophique. Une augmentation significative des transcrits de TrkC FL et T1 (TrkC tronqué) ainsi que de leur ligand, la NT-3 a été observée dans les cellules U87MG cultivées en hypoxie. De même, le taux de production des protéines TrkC FL et T1 a significativement augmenté en hypoxie. L’augmentation de l’expression du TrkC FL était accompagnée par une augmentation de sa phosphorylation et de celle de la p38 MAPK. L’inhibition de cette dernière par siRNA induit un clivage de la PARP, qui est d’autant plus important suite à l’ajout de la CQ. Ces effets étaient plus marqués au niveau des cellules cultivées en hypoxie. L’inhibition de l’autophagie par la CQ, augmente l’expression de TrkC FL et la phosphorylation de la p38, ce qui suggère qu’en absence de l’autophagie, les cellules s’adapteraient en augmentant la signalisation du TrkC.La recherche des zones hypoxiques et autophagiques sur des coupes de tumeurs issues de patients atteints de GBM, confirme le caractère hypoxique de cette tumeur, et montre une induction du processus autophagique. En comparaison avec le cavernome (tumeur cérébrale bénigne), les patients atteints de GBM montrent une augmentation significative de l’expression de TrkC et de NT-3, ce qui renforce l’importance de la signalisation neurotrophique dans la survie des cellules de GBM.

Medulloblastoma is a cerebellar tumor that can arise through aberrant activation of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling, which normally regulates cerebellar granule cell proliferation. Mutations of the Shh receptor PATCHED (PTCH) are associated with medulloblastomas, which have not been found to have loss of PTCH heterozygosity. We address whether patched (Ptc) heterozygosity fundamentally alters granule cell differentiation and contributes to tumorigenesis by increasing proliferation and/or decreasing apoptosis in Ptc+/− mice. Our data show that postnatal Ptc+/− mouse granule cell precursor growth is not globally altered. However, many older Ptc+/− mice display abnormal cerebellar regions containing persistently proliferating granule cell precursors. Since fewer Ptc+/− mice form medulloblastomas, these granule cell rests represent a developmentally disrupted, but uncommitted stage of tumorigenesis. Although Ptc+/− mouse medulloblastomas express neurodevelopmental genes, they diverge from granule cell differentiation in their discordant coexpression of postmitotic markers despite their ongoing growth. Like human medulloblastomas, mouse tumors with reduced levels of the neurotrophin-3 receptor, trkC/Ntrk3, display decreased apoptosis in vivo, illustrating the role of TrkC in regulating tumor cell survival. These results indicate that Ptc heterozygosity contributes to tumorigenesis by predisposing a subset of granule cell precursors to the formation of proliferative rests and subsequent dysregulation of developmental gene expression.

Introduction: Medulloblastoma is a malignant embryonal tumor of the cerebellum with poor prognosis. The treatment is based only on clinical criteria, such as risk group that only considers age, extent of tumor resection, recurrence, and metastasis. Objective: To evaluate a possible relationship between the immunoexpression of biomarkers (Ki67, receptor neutrophin-3 [TRKC], epidermal growth factor receptor [EGFR], B-cell lymphoma 2 [Bcl-2], and cyclin-D1), and the classical clinical prognostic factors of medulloblastoma. Material and method: thirty-five samples of pediatric medulloblastoma free of neoadjuvant chemotherapy were separated and reviewed for their histopathological classification; two areas representative of tumor were used in the construction of tissue microarrays. The following clinical data from 29 patients were used for comparison with the biomarkers expression: patient's age, presence or absence of complete tumor resection, staging patient's risk group, presence or absence of metastases, presence or absence of postoperative chemotherapy, and presence or absence of recurrence. Clinical follow-up of the study ranged from two to thirteen years, and cases with fatal outcome were also analyzed. Results: Patients with upper age showed higher expression of TRKC (p = 0.033). There was inversely proportional and statistically significant correlation between TRKC and Ki67 (p = 0.027). There was no statistical significance in the analysis of EGFR, Bcl2, and cyclin-D1. Conclusion: The immunoexpression of TRKC might be considered a biomarker related to tumors with better prognosis in patients with medulloblastoma, contributing to better risk groups' stratification. Introdução: O meduloblastoma é o tumor maligno do cerebelo com prognóstico reservado. Seu tratamento baseia-se somente em critérios clínicos, como os grupos de risco que levam em consideração apenas idade, extensão de ressecção, recidiva e metástase. Objetivo: Avaliar uma possível relação entre a imunoexpressão de biomarcadores (Ki67, receptor de neurotrofina-3 [TRKC], epidermal growth factor receptor [EGFR], B-cell lymphoma 2 [Bcl-2] e ciclina-D1) e os fatores prognósticos clínicos clássicos dos meduloblastomas. Material e método: Trinta e cinco amostras de meduloblastomas pediátricos livres de tratamento quimioterápico neoadjuvante foram separadas e revisadas quanto a sua classificação histopatológica, sendo duas áreas representativas do tumor utilizadas na construção de arranjos teciduais em matriz. Os seguintes dados clínicos de 29 pacientes foram utilizados para comparação com a expressão dos biomarcadores: idade do paciente, presença ou não de ressecção tumoral completa, estadiamento do paciente em grupo de risco, presença ou não de metástases, presença ou não de tratamento quimioterápico pós-cirúrgico e presença ou não de recidivas. O tempo de seguimento clínico do estudo variou de dois a treze anos, e os casos com desfecho fatal foram também analisados. Resultados: Os pacientes com idade mais elevada apresentaram expressão maior de TRKC (p = 0,033). Houve correlação inversamente proporcional e estatisticamente significativa entre o TRKC e o Ki67 (p = 0,027). Não houve relevância estatística nas análises do EGFR, Bcl-2 e ciclina-D1. Conclusão: A imunoexpressão do TRKC pode vir a ser considerada um biomarcador relacionado com tumores de melhor prognóstico em pacientes com meduloblastoma, contribuindo para uma melhor estratificação dos grupos de risco.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder of unclear etiology. The strongest known genetic risk factor is the 22q11.2 microdeletion. Research has yet to confirm which genes within the deletion region are implicated in schizophrenia. The minimal 1.5 megabase deletion contains MIR185, which encodes microRNA 185.METHODS: We determined miR-185 expression in embryonic and adult mouse brains. Common and rare variants at this locus were then investigated using a human genetics approach. First, we performed gene-based analyses for MIR185 common variants and target genes using Psychiatric Genomics Consortium genome-wide association data. Second, MIR185 was resequenced in German patients (n = 1000) and controls (n = 500). We followed up promising variants by genotyping an additional European sample (patients, n = 3598; controls, n = 4082).RESULTS: In situ hybridization in mice revealed miR-185 expression in brain regions implicated in schizophrenia. Gene-based tests revealed association between common variants in 3 MIR185 target genes (ATAT1, SH3PXD2A, NTRK3) and schizophrenia. Further analyses in mice revealed overlapping expression patterns for these target genes and miR-185. Resequencing identified 2 rare patient-specific novel variants flanking MIR185. However, follow-up genotyping provided no further evidence of their involvement in schizophrenia.LIMITATIONS: Power to detect rare variant associations was limited.CONCLUSION: Human genetic analyses generated no evidence of the involvement of MIR185 in schizophrenia. However, the expression patterns of miR-185 and its target genes in mice, and the genetic association results for the 3 target genes, suggest that further research into the involvement of miR-185 and its downstream pathways in schizophrenia is warranted.

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is a well-characterized model of neural development, in which several regulatory signals have been identified. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) has been found to regulate diverse ontogenetic processes in sympathetics, though functional requirements for high peptide concentrations suggest that other ligands are involved. We now describe expression and functions of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) during SCG ontogeny, suggesting that the peptide plays critical roles in neurogenesis. PACAP and PACAP receptor (PAC1) mRNA's were detected at embryonic days 14.5 (E14.5) through E17.5 in vivo and virtually all precursors exhibited ligand and receptor, indicating that the system is expressed as neuroblasts proliferate. Exposure of cultured precursors to PACAP peptides, containing 27 or 38 residues, increased mitogenic activity 4-fold. Significantly, PACAP was 1000-fold more potent than VIP and a highly potent and selective antagonist entirely blocked effects of micromolar VIP, consistent with both peptides acting via PAC1 receptors. Moreover, PACAP potently enhanced precursor survival more than 2-fold, suggesting that previously defined VIP effects were mediated via PAC1 receptors and that PACAP is the more significant developmental signal. In addition to neurogenesis, PACAP promoted neuronal differentiation, increasing neurite outgrowth 4-fold and enhancing expression of neurotrophin receptors trkC and trkA. Since PACAP potently activated cAMP and PI pathways and increased intracellular Ca2+, the peptide may interact with other developmental signals. PACAP stimulation of precursor mitosis, survival, and trk receptor expression suggests that the signaling system plays a critical autocrine role during sympathetic neurogenesis.

There is little information about neurotrophic regulation in the developing rat hypothalamus. In the present study, we therefore examined the expression of neurotrophin receptor TrkC in the developing forebrain and hypothalamus. In situ hybridization of coronal sections revealed that on the 15th day of gestation, trkC messenger RNA expression is homogeneously distributed over the neocortex, septum, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, rhinencephalon and the amygdala. Exceptions were the anteroventral nucleus of the hypothalamus and the striatum, which showed higher levels of trkC messenger RNA expression, and the germinal zones which were devoid of trkC messenger RNA. After birth, the homogeneous staining pattern changes into a heterogeneous staining pattern like that found in adulthood. TrkC expression is observed in the area of the suprachiasmatic nucleus as early as E17 and continues until adulthood. The presence of the TrkC receptor in the E17 suprachiasmatic nucleus suggests that neurotrophin-3 plays a role in development of this structure and that application of neurotrophin-3 could stimulate neuronal survival and neuritic outgrowth in a suprachiasmatic nucleus transplantation model.

NEUROTROPHIN-3 (NT3) or TrkC null mutant mice were examined for the presence of muscle spindles. Muscles of mastication, but not limbs, contained spindles in newborn and adolescent mutants. The intramuscular distribution and morphological properties of spindles in mutant masticatory muscles were indistinguishable from those of wild-type spindles. Intrafusal fibers of NT3- or trkC-deficient spindles expressed the slow-tonic isoform of myosin heavy chains, characteristic of wild-type spindles. Sensory nerve endings were observed in spindles of mutants by electron microscopy. Thus, NT3 or trkC, which is expressed in wild-type spindles, may serve functions other than those related to spindle assembly. Presumably, proprioceptive neurons innervating jaw muscles are dependent on factors other than NT3 for survival and maintenance. (C) 1998 Rapid Science Ltd.

The neurotrophin receptor TrkC was recently identified as a dependence receptor, and, as such, it triggers apoptosis in the absence of its ligand, NT-3. Indeed cells that express these receptors are thought to be dependent on ligand availability for their survival, a mechanism that inhibits uncontrolled tumor cell proliferation and migration. TrkC, as a classic tyrosine kinase receptor, is generally considered to be a proto-oncogene. We show that TrkC expression is down-regulated in a large fraction of human colorectal cancers, mainly through promoter methylation. Moreover, we show that TrkC silencing by promoter methylation is a selective advantage for colorectal cell lines to limit tumor cell death. Furthermore, reestablished TrkC expression in colorectal cancer cell lines is associated with tumor cell death and inhibition of in vitro characteristics of cell transformation, as well as in vivo tumor growth. Together, these data support the conclusion that TrkC is a colorectal cancer tumor suppressor. TrkC triggers apoptosis in the absence of its ligand NT-3 : the molecular mechanism for apoptotic engagement involves the double cleavage of the receptor's intracellular domain, leading to the formation of a proapoptotic fragment (TrkC KF). We show that TrkC KF interfacts with Cobra1, a putative cofactor of BRCA1, and that Cobra1 is required for TrkC-induced apoptosis. Cobra1 shuttles TrkC KF to the mitochondria, where it promotes apoptosome-dependent apoptosis. Thus, we propose that, in the absence of NT-3, the proteolytic cleavage of TrkC leads to the release of a killer fragment that triggers mitochondria-dependent apoptosis via the recruitment of Cobra1, Le récepteur à neurotrophine TrkC a été identifié comme étant un récepteur à dépendance : en l'absence de son ligand NT-3, il déclenche l'apoptose. En effet, la survie des cellules qui expriment ces récepteurs dépend de la disponibilité en ligand, un mécanisme qui inhibe la prolifération incontrôlée et la migration des cellules tumorales. TrkC, en tant que récepteur à tyrosine kinase, est généralement considéré comme un proto-oncogène. Or nous montrons que l'expression TrkC est diminuée dans une grande fraction des cancers colorectaux humains, principalement par méthylation du promoteur de TrkC. En outre, ce mécanisme confère un avantage sélectif aux lignées cellulaires colorectales pour inhiber la mort des cellules tumorales. De plus, la réexpression de TrkC dans les lignées tumorales colorectales est associée à la mort des cellules tumorales et à l'inhibition in vitro des caractéristiques de transformation cellulaire, et in vivo de la croissance tumorale. Ensemble, ces données permettent de conclure que TrkC est un gène suppresseur de tumeur dans le cancer colorectal. Le mécanisme moléculaire par lequel TrkC déclenche l'apoptose implique le clivage de son domaine intracellulaire, ce qui libère un fragment pro-apoptotique (TrkC KF). Nous montrons que TrkC KF interagit avec Cobra1, un cofacteur de BRCA1, et que Cobra1 est nécessaire à l'apoptose induite par TrkC. Cobra1 conduit TrkC KF à la mitochondrie, où il favorise l'apoptose apoptosome-dépendante. Ainsi, nous proposons qu'en l'absence de NT-3, le clivage protéolytique de TrkC conduit à la libération d'un fragment tueur qui déclenche l'apoptose mitochondriale, via le recrutement de Cobra1

Estudios genéticos en pacientes sugieren que el gen del receptor tirosina quinasa de la neurotrofina de tipo 3 (NTRK3) podría contribuir en la patología del trastorno de pánico (PAND), un trastorno de ansiedad caracterizado por alteración y exageración del miedo. En esta tesis, proponemos que PAND podría estar relacionado con procesos anormales de aprendizaje asociativo, subyacentes a una alteración en la regulación del funcionamiento del circuito del miedo hipocampo - amígdala – corteza prefrontal media. Hemos estudiado esta hipótesis utilizando el único modelo genético de ratón validado de PAND, el TgNTRK3, que sobreexpresa el gen humano NTRK3 codificante para el receptor TrkC. Hemos demostrado que la sobreexpresión de NTRK3 en ratones produce: i) un incremento en la memoria de miedo dependiente de hipocampo que es además resistente a extinción; ii) la activación alterada del circuito del miedo durante el aprendizaje y almacenamiento de experiencias emocionales intensas negativas. Nuestros resultados sugieren que los mecanismos responsables están relacionados con una sobre excitabilidad en el hipocampo. Nuestro estudio confirma el papel del gen NTRK3 en la memoria de miedo patológico y sugiere posibles estrategias terapéuticas para bloquear el miedo exagerado en PAND dirigidas al sistema de excitación / inhibición y a la vía de señalización NT3-TrkC., The neurotrophin tyrosine kinase receptor type 3 (NTRK3) gene has been proposed to contribute to the pathological phenotype of panic disorder (PAND), an anxiety disorder characterized by perturbed and exaggerated fear. In this thesis we hypothesized that PAND could be related to abnormal associative fear learning processes, underlined by a deregulated functioning of the hippocampus – amygdala – medial prefrontal cortex fear circuit. We addressed this hypothesis, by using the unique validated genetic mouse model of PAND, the TgNTRK3, overexpressing the human NTRK3 gene, encoding for TrkC. We found that overexpression of NTRK3 in mice leads to: i) enhanced and extinction resistant hippocampal-dependent fear memories; ii) an aberrant activation of the fear circuit during learning and storage of fear-related information. The underlying mechanisms are possibly related to hippocampal overexcitability. Our study confirmed the role of the NTRK3 gene on pathological fear memories and suggests potential effective therapeutical strategies targeting the excitatory/ inhibitory system and the NT3-TrkC pathway to block exaggerated fear in PAND.

The neurotrophin receptor TRKC was initially shown to induce apoptosis in settings of lackof its ligand, NT-3. This cell death was described to be important in the regulation of neuronalsurvival during sympathetic nervous system formation and finally it was linked with severaltypes of cancer. During my thesis I focused on the molecular characterization of the signaling cascade leadingto TRKC-induced apoptosis. Importantly, in order to kill, TRKC is double-cleaved bycaspases in its intracellular domain releasing a pro-apoptotic fragment, named TRKC KF(Killer Fragment). Using a yeast two-hybrid screen we identified several potential interactingpartners for TRKC KF. Initially, i focused on COBRA1, a cofactor of BRCA1.I show here that COBRA1 is requisite for TRKC-induced cell death both in vitro and in vivo,on primary neurons. COBRA1 seems to stabilize and accumulate TRKC KF at themitochondria, where TRKC KF induces the activation of BAX and therefore cytochrome crelease. Therefore, it looks that TRKC-induced cell death is dependent on the intrinsicpathway of apoptosis. During my thesis, I also took part in two projects characterizing the role of TRKC as aconditional tumor suppressor in neuroblastoma and colon cancer. We showed that inneuroblastoma tumors the pro-apoptotic function of TRKC is impaired due to an autocrineproduction loop of NT-3, which can be targeted as a therapeutic strategy. In colon cancer, wedescribed another mechanism by which tumor cells evade TRKC-induced apoptosis, morespecifically a loss of TRKC expression due to promoter hypermethylation, Le récepteur à neurotrophine TRKC a initialement été montré comme induisant la mortcellulaire par apoptose en l’absence de son ligand, NT-3. Cette mort cellulaire a tout d’abordété décrite comme étant importante dans la régulation de la survie neuronale, pendant laformation du système nerveux sympathique. Plus tard, elle a été montrée comme étantimpliquée dans différents types de cancer.Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis concentré sur la caractérisation moléculaire de la cascade designalisation conduisant à l’induction de l’apoptose par TRKC. Afin d’induire l’apoptose, ledomaine intracellulaire de TRKC est clivé par les caspases en deux sites, ce qui entraine lagénération d’un fragment pro-apoptotique, TRKC KF (Killer Fragment). Plusieurs partenairespotentiels de TRKC KF ont été identifiés lors d’un crible double-hybride. Initialement, je mesuis focalisé sur l’un d’eux, COBRA1, un cofacteur de BRCA1.Je montre ici que COBRA1 est requis pour la mort cellulaire induite par TRKC, à la fois invitro et in vivo, dans des neurones primaires. COBRA1 semble stabiliser et accumuler TRKCKF à la mitochondrie, où TRKC KF entraine l’activation de BAX et ensuite le relargage ducytochrome c. En conclusion, il semblerait que la mort cellulaire induite par TRKC estdépendante de la voie apoptotique intrinsèque. J’ai aussi pris part à deux autres projets décrivant le rôle de TRKC comme un suppresseur de tumeur potentiel dans le neuroblastome et le cancer colorectal. Nous avons montré dans leneuroblastome que la fonction pro-apoptotique de TRKC est invalidée par une boucleautocrine de production de NT3, qui peut être ciblée lors d’une approche thérapeutique. Dansle cancer colorectal, nous avons décrit un second mécanisme par lequel les cellules tumoraleséchappent à l’apoptose induite par TrkC. Il s’agit d’une perte de l’expression de TrkC due àune hypermethylation du promoteur.

The neurotrophin receptor TRKC was initially shown to induce apoptosis in settings of lackof its ligand, NT-3. This cell death was described to be important in the regulation of neuronalsurvival during sympathetic nervous system formation and finally it was linked with severaltypes of cancer. During my thesis I focused on the molecular characterization of the signaling cascade leadingto TRKC-induced apoptosis. Importantly, in order to kill, TRKC is double-cleaved bycaspases in its intracellular domain releasing a pro-apoptotic fragment, named TRKC KF(Killer Fragment). Using a yeast two-hybrid screen we identified several potential interactingpartners for TRKC KF. Initially, i focused on COBRA1, a cofactor of BRCA1.I show here that COBRA1 is requisite for TRKC-induced cell death both in vitro and in vivo,on primary neurons. COBRA1 seems to stabilize and accumulate TRKC KF at themitochondria, where TRKC KF induces the activation of BAX and therefore cytochrome crelease. Therefore, it looks that TRKC-induced cell death is dependent on the intrinsicpathway of apoptosis. During my thesis, I also took part in two projects characterizing the role of TRKC as aconditional tumor suppressor in neuroblastoma and colon cancer. We showed that inneuroblastoma tumors the pro-apoptotic function of TRKC is impaired due to an autocrineproduction loop of NT-3, which can be targeted as a therapeutic strategy. In colon cancer, wedescribed another mechanism by which tumor cells evade TRKC-induced apoptosis, morespecifically a loss of TRKC expression due to promoter hypermethylation, Le récepteur à neurotrophine TRKC a initialement été montré comme induisant la mortcellulaire par apoptose en l’absence de son ligand, NT-3. Cette mort cellulaire a tout d’abordété décrite comme étant importante dans la régulation de la survie neuronale, pendant laformation du système nerveux sympathique. Plus tard, elle a été montrée comme étantimpliquée dans différents types de cancer.Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis concentré sur la caractérisation moléculaire de la cascade designalisation conduisant à l’induction de l’apoptose par TRKC. Afin d’induire l’apoptose, ledomaine intracellulaire de TRKC est clivé par les caspases en deux sites, ce qui entraine lagénération d’un fragment pro-apoptotique, TRKC KF (Killer Fragment). Plusieurs partenairespotentiels de TRKC KF ont été identifiés lors d’un crible double-hybride. Initialement, je mesuis focalisé sur l’un d’eux, COBRA1, un cofacteur de BRCA1.Je montre ici que COBRA1 est requis pour la mort cellulaire induite par TRKC, à la fois invitro et in vivo, dans des neurones primaires. COBRA1 semble stabiliser et accumuler TRKCKF à la mitochondrie, où TRKC KF entraine l’activation de BAX et ensuite le relargage ducytochrome c. En conclusion, il semblerait que la mort cellulaire induite par TRKC estdépendante de la voie apoptotique intrinsèque. J’ai aussi pris part à deux autres projets décrivant le rôle de TRKC comme un suppresseur de tumeur potentiel dans le neuroblastome et le cancer colorectal. Nous avons montré dans leneuroblastome que la fonction pro-apoptotique de TRKC est invalidée par une boucleautocrine de production de NT3, qui peut être ciblée lors d’une approche thérapeutique. Dansle cancer colorectal, nous avons décrit un second mécanisme par lequel les cellules tumoraleséchappent à l’apoptose induite par TrkC. Il s’agit d’une perte de l’expression de TrkC due àune hypermethylation du promoteur.

The trk family of tyrosine protein kinase genes serves crucial roles for the development of the nervous system and the survival of neurons. The members of this gene family, trk, trkB and trkC, bind a distinct neurotrophin of the nerve growth factor (NGF) gene family, and trigger the intracellular signals which elicit trophic and differentiating effects on neurons. Adding to these neurotrophic receptor kinases, the truncated forms without the tyrosine kinase domain have been cloned and characterized. It has been thought that the existence of truncated forms is limited to trkB; however, very recently the truncated trkC has been cloned in rat [(1993) Neuron 10, 963-974; (1993) Neuron 10, 975-990]. We independently approached and molecularly cloned a truncated form which belongs to the chicken trkC. The truncated trkC possesses the binding and the transmembrane domains but not the tyrosine kinase domain. Northern blot analysis shows that the truncated form is preferentially expressed in the adult central nervous system. The truncated form is scarcely expressed during the embryonic stages. The conservation of the truncated trkC beyond species suggests they have specific functions.

Neurotrophine sind lösliche, nicht kovalent gebundene Homodimerpeptide, die initial im Zentralnervensystem von Vertebraten detektiert worden sind. Sie vermitteln dort in erster Linie anti-apoptotische Effekte wie Proliferation, Differenzierung, Überleben der Zelle und Schutz vor zytotoxischen Zellschaden; daneben sind auch nicht-topische Effekte wie Induktion von Chemotaxis zur regelrechten Axonsprossung bekannt. Hauptvertreter sind NGF, BDNF, NT-3 und NT-4/5. Dabei werden Neurotrophine nicht nur die Zielzelle umgebenen Zellen sezerniert, sondern auch durch die Zielzelle selbst im Sinne autokriner Mechanismen. Die Effekte der Neurotrophine werden durch zwei Familien von Neurotrophine-Rezeptoren vermittelt: die Tyrosinkinase-Glykoprotein-Rezeptoren binden nur bestimmte Neurotrophine mit hoher Affinität und vermitteln anti-apoptotische Effekte. Sie werden in 3 Klassen unterschieden: trkA, trkB und trkC. Dabei werden durch die Zielzelle durch alternatives Splicing verschiedene Isoformen dieser Rezeptoren exprimiert, darunter auch solche die keine katalytische Tyrosinkinase-Domäne beinhalten. Ein weiterer Rezeptor ist der Pan-Neurotrophin-p75-Rezeptor, der alle Neurotrophine mit gleicher Affinität bindet. Er vermittelt bivalente Funktionen: bei Anwesenheit von trk-Rezeptoren antia-apoptotische Effekte, bei Abwesenheit von trk-Rezeptoren pro-apoptototische Effekte. In den letzten 20 Jahren wurde etraneuronal insbesondere auf Immunzellen Neurotrophin-Synthese und Neurotrophin-Rezeptor-Expression detektiert. Hinsichtlich der B-Zellen zeigen sich jedoch divergente Angaben. Einige Autoren belegen, daß die B-Zelle alle Neurotrophine und deren Rezeptoren exprimiert, andere Autoren belegen lediglich eine Expression von trkA und p75. Dabei sind in diesen Arbeiten einige Limitationen offensichtlich: Verwendung von malignen B-Zellen bzw- EBV-transformierten B-Zellen und Verwendung immunhistochemischer Nachweisverfahren. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels molekularbiologischer Methodik eine umfassende Charakterisierung der unreifen B-Zellen des Knochenmarks und reifer B-Zellen (exemplarisch in der Milz) in einer Wildtyp-Maus verwirklicht. Dabei zeigt sich, daß reife wie unreife B-Zellen alle bekannten Neurotrophine und deren Rezeptoren exprimiert. Eine Ausnahme besteht jedoch hinsichtlich des trkB-Rezeptors; dieser wird nur in einer Isoform exprimiert, die keine katalytische Tyrosinkinase-Domäne besitzt (trkBgp95). In der quantitativen real-time-PCR zeigt sich, daß BDNF das dominante Neurotrophin der unreifen B-Zelle im Knochenmark und NT-3 und NGF das dominante Neurotrophin der reifen B-Zelle ist. Hinsichtlich der Neurotrophin-Rezeptoren gibt es keine quantitativen Unterschiede, lediglich der Neurotrophin-Rezeptor trkC wird geringradig mehr durch die unreifen B-Zellen des Knochenmarks exprimiert., Neurotrophins are essential for survival, proliferation and differentiation for neuronal cells. The neurotrophins are NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4/5. The effects are mediated by two families of neurotrophin-receptors: the Tyrosinkinase-receptors (trk-receptors) mediated survival, proliferation and differentiation. They only bind with highly affinity certain neurotrophins (for example: NGF is the natural ligand of trkA). It exists three classes of trk-receptors: trkA, trkB and trkC. The trk-receptors are exprimited in different isoforms, some of these isoforms contain no catalytic tyrosinkinase-domain. Another neurotrophin-receptor is the pan-neurotrophin-recetor p75. The p75-receptor mediates different functions: in presence of trk-receptors the p75-recetor causes survival, proliferation and differentiation; in absence of the trk-receptos p75 induces apoptosis. In the last twenty years neurotrophins and their receptors could detected in extraneuronal cells, forthermore in T- and B-lymphocytes. Regard to the b-cells they exist different messages: some authors show us, that b-cells exprimites all neurotrophins and all neurotrophin-receptos, other authors prove only an trkA- and p75 expression of b-cells. We could show with molecular methods (including real-time PCR), that immature and mature b-cells exprimites all neurotrophins and all neurotrophin-receptors. Only the trkB-receptor is exprimited as an isoform: the trkBgp95. This isofoms doesn´t contain a catalytic domain. The dominant neurotrophin of immature b-cells in bone marrow is BDNF. NT-3 and NGF are the dominant neurotrophins of mature b-cells in spleen.

This is an open-access article subject to an exclusive license agreement between the authors and the Frontiers Research Foundation., Panic disorder is a highly prevalent neuropsychiatric disorder that shows co-occurrence with substance abuse. Here, we demonstrate that TrkC, the high-affinity receptor for neurotrophin-3, is a key molecule involved in panic disorder and opiate dependence, using a transgenic mouse model (TgNTRK3). Constitutive TrkC overexpression in TgNTRK3 mice dramatically alters spontaneous firing rates of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons and the response of the noradrenergic system to chronic opiate exposure, possibly related to the altered regulation of neurotrophic peptides observed. Notably, TgNTRK3 LC neurons showed an increased firing rate in saline-treated conditions and profound abnormalities in their response to met5-enkephalin. Behaviorally, chronic morphine administration induced a significantly increased withdrawal syndrome in TgNTRK3 mice. In conclusion, we show here that the NT-3/TrkC system is an important regulator of neuronal firing in LC and could contribute to the adaptations of the noradrenergic system in response to chronic opiate exposure. Moreover, our results indicate that TrkC is involved in the molecular and cellular changes in noradrenergic neurons underlying both panic attacks and opiate dependence and support a functional endogenous opioid deficit in panic disorder patients., This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Sciences SAF2007-31093-E, SAF2007-60827, and SAF2008-03612, 2009SGR1313 and Health (PI082038), Fundación Areces, Marató TV3, Phecomp (EU LSHM-CT-2007-037669; 037627-AnEUploidy), Ministerio de Salud y Consumo (RTA G03/005 and PI05/0513, PI082038), University of the Basque Country (1/UPV 0026.327-E-15924/2004 and GIU07/46), Plan Nacional sobre Drogas (PNDMSC 2005) and CIBERER. Patricia Murtra is a scientific researcher supported by the Juan de la Cierva program of Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología. Teresa Zamalloa was supported by a predoctoral fellowship from the Basque Government.

The basic-helix-loop-helix transcription factor HeyL is expressed at high levels by neural crest progenitor cells (NCPs) that give rise to neurons and glia in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Since HeyL expression was observed in these NCPs during the period of neurogenesis, we generated HeyL null mutants to help examine the factor's role in ganglion neuronal specification. Homozygous null mutation of HeyL reduced the number of TrkC+ neurons in DRG at birth including the subpopulation that expresses the ETS transcription factor ER81. Conversely, null mutation of the Hey paralog, Hey1, increased the number of TrkC+ neurons. Null mutation of HeyL increased expression of the Hey paralogs Hey1 and Hey2, suggesting that HeyL normally inhibits their expression. Double null mutation of both Hey1 and HeyL rescued TrkC+ neuron numbers to control levels. Thus, the balance between HeyL and Hey1 expression regulates the differentiation of a subpopulation of TrkC+ neurons in the DRG.

Neurotrophins and their receptors are key molecules in the development of thenervous system. Neurotrophin-3 binds preferentially to its high-affinity receptorNTRK3, which exists in two major isoforms in humans, the full-length kinaseactiveform (150 kDa) and a truncated non-catalytic form (50 kDa). The twovariants show different 3'UTR regions, indicating that they might be differentiallyregulated at the post-transcriptional level. In this work we explore howmicroRNAs take part in the regulation of full-length and truncated NTRK3,demonstrating that the two isoforms are targeted by different sets of microRNAs.We analyze the physiological consequences of the overexpression of some of theregulating microRNAs in human neuroblastoma cells. Finally, we providepreliminary evidence for a possible involvement of miR-124 - a microRNA with noputative target site in either NTRK3 isoform - in the control of the alternativespicing of NTRK3 through the downregulation of the splicing repressor PTBP1., Las neurotrofinas y sus receptores constituyen una familia de factores crucialespara el desarrollo del sistema nervioso. La neurotrofina 3 ejerce su funciónprincipalmente a través de una unión de gran afinidad al receptor NTRK3, del cualse conocen dos isoformas principales, una larga de 150KDa con actividad de tipotirosina kinasa y una truncada de 50KDa sin dicha actividad. Estas dos isoformasno comparten la misma región 3'UTR, lo que sugiere la existencia de unaregulación postranscripcional diferente. En el presente trabajo se ha exploradocomo los microRNAs intervienen en la regulación de NTRK3, demostrando que lasdos isoformas son reguladas por diferentes miRNAs. Se han analizado lasconsecuencias fisiológicas de la sobrexpresión de dichos microRNAs utilizandocélulas de neuroblastoma. Finalmente, se ha estudiado la posible implicación delmicroRNA miR-124 en el control del splicing alternativo de NTRK3 a través de laregulación de represor de splicing PTBP1.

Die hier vorgelegten Ergebnisse verdeutlichen die weitreichenden Effekte von Neurotrophinen als integrale Moleküle des Immunsystems. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Neurotrophine durch Immunzellen (CD4+-T-Zellen) beziehungsweise Strukturzellen immunologischer Organe (Stromazellen des Knochenmarks) produziert werden und Wirkungen innerhalb des Immunsystems entfalten, die den „klassischen“ Cytokinen ähneln. Hervorzuheben sind hierbei anti-apoptotische Wirkungen von Neurotrophinen, als autokrine Überlebensfaktoren für CD4+-T-Zellen sowie als parakrine Wachstumsfaktoren innerhalb der Lymphopoese von B-Zellen., It has been shown that neurotrophic factors are integral molecules of the immune system. Neurotrophins are not only produced by immune cells (CD4+-T-cells) und bone marrow stromal cells, they also exhibit cytokine-like funktions. In this work it could be demonstrated that neurotrophins have anti-apoptotic effects on CD4+-T-Cells and function as paracrine growth factors in B-cell development.

The correct development and function of CNS is critical for brain health of the organism. Early or chronic stress causes prominent alterations in brain function, and affects the expression of neurotrophic factors in limbic brain regions involved in the regulation of mood and cognition. Recent evidences have opened the idea that in complex organisms, an altered expression of certain neurotrophins by stress could be involved in the onset and pathophysiology of most psychiatric disorders, such as depression, squizophrenia or anxiety disorders. It is hypothesized that altered levels of neurotrophic factors could contribute to the atrophy and cell death of these regions, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, which would produce a malfunction in limbic-related areas, and as a consequence, a precipitation or worsening of psychiatric illnesses. We were interested in panic disorder pathophysiology, which is a stress-related disorder and is characterized by an altered cognitive processing of emotional information. Although little evidence has been found supporting a neurotrophic role in PD, recent data has revealed that NT-3/TrkC signaling might play a key role in limbic system morphology and function. Therefore, we suggest that NT-3/TrkC system is involved in PD pathogenesis. The main objective in the work of this doctoral thesis lie to determine the role of NTRK3 gene, that codifies for TrKC, in emotional cognition and stress response processes that underlies PD. To this end, we used a genetically modified mouse model of NTRK3 overexpression, which was validated as a model of PD. Here, it is characterized the effects produced by the increase of NTRK3 expression in the CNS, focusing in neural alterations that might influence changes in cognitive processes involved in coping strategies. Moreover, it is studied the mechanisms that underlie in these processes by different approaches, 1/physiologically, measuring the HPA axis response, 2/brain activation, analyzing the activation pattern to a stress stimulus, 3/cellular and gene expression profiling, characterizing key brain regions in cognitive processes, and 4/pharmacologically, studying neurotransmitters function.

Sensitivity to pharmacological challenges has been reported in patients with panic disorder. We have previously validated transgenic mice overexpressing the neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) receptor, TrkC (TgNTRK3), as an engineered murine model of panic disorder. We could determine that TgNTRK3 mice presented increased cellularity in brain regions, such as the locus ceruleus, that are important neural substrates for the expression of anxiety in severe anxiety states. Here, we investigated the sensitivity to induce anxiety and panic-related symptoms by sodium lactate and the effects of various drugs (the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist, yohimbine and the adenosine antagonist, caffeine), in TgNTRK3 mice. We found enhanced panicogenic sensitivity to sodium lactate and an increased intensity and a differential pattern of Fos expression after the administration of yohimbine or caffeine in TgNTRK3. Our findings validate the relevance of the NT-3/TrkC system to pathological anxiety and raise the possibility that a specific set of fear-related pathways involved in the processing of anxiety-related information may be differentially activated in panic disorder. © 2006 Springer-Verlag., This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Sciences SAF2001-1231, SAF-2004-02808 and GEN2003-20651-C06-03. DURSISGR0500008, CIBER-CB06/07/0089. P.M. is a scientific researcher supported by the Juan de la Cierva program of Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología.

Neurotrophins (NTs) belong to a family of growth factors, which control the development, maintenance, and apoptotic death of neurons and also fulfill multiple regulatory functions outside the nervous system. Biological effects induced by NTs strongly depend on the pattern of NT receptor/co-receptors expression in target cells, as well as on the set of intracellular adaptor molecules that link NT signalling to distinct biochemical pathways. In this review, we summarize data on the molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of NTs in the control of non-neuronal functions in normal skin (e.g. keratinocyte proliferation, melanocyte development and apoptosis, hair growth). We also review the data on the role for NTs and their receptors in a number of pathological skin conditions (stress-induced hair loss, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis). Although additional efforts are required to fully understand mechanisms underlying the involvement of NTs and their receptors in controlling functions of normal and pathologically altered skin cells, substantial evidence suggests that modulation of NT signalling by NTs receptor agonists/antagonists may be developed as intervention modalities in distinct skin and hair growth pathologies.

The zinc finger protein Klf7 and POU homeodomain protein Brn3a are each required for efficient transcription of TrkA in primary sensory neurons. In this study, we examined whether these transcription factors act in concert to regulate TrkA expression. In vitro, Brn3a and Klf7 can synergistically activate the TrkA enhancer. In vivo, precursor cells that are destined to become TrkA(+) neurons are born. However, both Brn3a and Klf7 are dispensable for the initiation of TrkA expression. At E12.5, while TrkA expression is unaffected in Brn3a−/− trigeminal ganglia and only slightly decreased in Klf7−/− trigeminal ganglia, it is severely reduced in the double mutant Brn3a−/−;Klf7−/− trigeminal ganglia. At birth, all Trk(+) neurons are lost in Brn3a−/−;Klf7−/− trigeminal ganglia. We further demonstrate that the TrkA enhancer is inactive in Brn3a−/−;Klf7−/− trigeminal ganglia. Thus, cooperation between these two transcription factors is required for endogenous TrkA gene expression and the survival of nociceptive sensory neurons.