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Molecular Medicine Ground zero for the Ebola epidemic in West Africa may have been a hollow tree where children played and bats roosted. A year ago, a toddler in the Guinean village of Meliandou died of a mysterious disease; his family became infected shortly after. Bats are leading suspects for how

To evaluate which qualities of dead wood have the highest conservational value for invertebrates, substrate requirements were recorded for all 542 saproxylic (wood-living) red-listed invertebrates in Sweden. Preferred qualities of dead trees were described for each species in seven category variables: tree species, stage of decay, type of main stem, coarseness of stem, part of tree, light preference and microhabitat. For each quality we quantified the number of red-listed insect species using it and the number that are specific to the quality. The number of species associated with different tree genera ranged from five to 202. Species-rich genera had a higher proportion of monophagous species. To what extent different tree genera have faunas complementary to each other was also analysed. As the wood decays, the host range broadens and the flora of decay fungi will probably take over as the most important factor determining the saproxylic fauna. Because there are many different types of rot required by different invertebrates, an abundance of similar looking dead trees, logs and snags are probably needed. Some 59% of the invertebrate species can live in sun-exposed sites. Most of these are favoured when the forest burns and at least 29 of them are more strongly associated with fires. For the former category, leaving dead wood on clear cuts should be an effective way to increase the amount of breeding substrate. However, some species, especially those living in the last successional stages, are dependent on shaded sites. Hollow tree trunks are another important microhabitat; 64 of the 107 species living there are specialists. To maintain all saproxylic species we need a diversity of substrate types and management methods. Our data can help to decide how to optimize the conservation measures taken during forest operations.

To study hollows of living trees as the natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans in an endemic area of cryptococcosis in the northeastern Brazilian region, samples of decaying wood were collected inside the hollows, plated on niger seed agar and inoculated into mice and hamsters. Identification of C. neoformans was based on morphological and physiological tests. Canavanine-glycine-bromothymol medium was used to screen the varieties and Crypto Check Iatron Kit to serotype the isolates. For a period of 29months C. neoformans var. gattii serotype B was isolated repeatedly from the hollow of a pottery tree (Moquilea tomentosa), pointing to the natural occurrence of C. neoformans var. gatti in decaying wood forming hollows in living trees. Evidence for anatural habitat of the variety gattii other than that related to Eucalyptus camaldulensis are discussed.

Habitat requirements of arboreal reptiles may determine their vulnerability to anthropogenic disturbance, but have attracted little research. We studied habitat use by the broad-headed snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides, a threatened species from southeastern Australia. Intensive radio-tracking of 22 broad-headed snakes (from 1992 to 1995 in Morton National Park, 160 km south of Sydney) provided detailed information on the habitat requirements of these animals. During spring, broad-headed snakes were sedentary and used rocks and crevices on exposed cliff edges as diurnal retreat sites. These results are consistent with the widespread view that this species is restricted to rocky outcrops. However, > 80% of our telemetered snakes moved away from the rock outcrops to open woodland during the summer. Radio-tracked snakes used one to nine trees each summer and spent long periods (up to 48 days) sequestered inside tree-hollows. Tree use was highly non-random; the snakes actively selected dead rather than live trees, large rather than small trees and trees with many branches and hollows. The selection of trees with hollow branches may reflect the thermo-regulatory opportunities provided by this microhabitat, and/or the abundance of potential prey (arboreal mammals) in tree-hollows. Our radio-tracked snakes actively selected grey gums Eucalyptus punctata and Sydney peppermints E. piperita, but avoided the most common tree species on our study sites (turpentine Syncarpia glomulifera). Our study shows that persistence of broad-headed snakes in an area may depend crucially not only on suitable rocky habitat, but on adjacent forests. Hence, forestry practices should be designed to ensure that suitable ‘habitat trees’ are retained in forested areas near rocky cliffs.

Summary Little is known about the ecology of agents of cryptococcosis in Mato Grosso, without any data regarding to the sources of both agents in the environment. This study aimed to investigate Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans associated with decay in tree hollows within the urban area of three different cities of Mato Grosso. Seventy-two environmental samples collected from 72 living trees in the cities of Cuiaba, Varzea Grande and Chapada dos Guimaraes were sampled and analysed. One tree (Plathymenia reticulata, Leguminosae) in the city of Cuiaba yielded 19 colonies identified as C. gattii molecular type VGII. The isolation of C. gattii VGII in the downtown city of Cuiaba is important because it fits in the Northern Macroregion, suggesting expanding and urbanisation of this genotype in different Brazilian cities.

""Measuring population size is riddled with difficulties. for wildlife biologists and managers, and in the. case of rare species, it is sometimes practically impossible. to estimate abundance, whereas estimation of occupancy is. possible. Furthermore, obtaining reliable population size. estimates is not straightforward, as different sampling. techniques can give misleading results. A mark-recapture. study of the endangered saproxylic beetle Osmoderma. eremita was performed in central Italy by applying four. independent capture methods within a study area where. 116 hollow trees were randomly selected to set traps.. Detection probability and population size estimates were. drawn from each of these four capture methods. There were. strong differences in detection probability among methods.. Despite using pheromone and beetle manipulation, capture. histories were not affected by trap-happiness or trapshyness.. Population size estimates varied considerably in. both abundance and precision by capture method. A number. of 0.5 and 0.2 adult beetles per tree was estimated using the. whole data set by closed and open population models,. respectively. Pitfall trap appeared the optimal method to. detect the occurrence of this species. Since in the southern. part of its distribution range, a single population of. O. eremita is widespread in the landscape, and includes. beetles from more than one hollow tree, conservation. efforts should focus not only on preserving few and isolated. monumental hollow trees, but should be extended to. large stands.. Keywords Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Conservation . Dead wood Occupancy Population size estimates . Sex pheromone""

Observations of the potto (Perodicticus potto),a nocturnal prosimian primate,indicated a limited behavioral repertoire and prompted renovation of their exhibit at the Frankin Park Zoo (Boston, MA). We used the natural history of this species to direct the exhibit modifications, which used only nonsynthetic items. We added live plants, soil, bamboo, shelf fungi, grapevines, a hollow tree, and a log containing an insect dispenser to the exhibit at little expense. They provided new textures, odors, pathways, stimulation and cover for this secretive species. The changes produced a heightened aesthetic appeal to the nocturnal exhibit and improved its educational value by representing the animals’ habitat more accurately. The exhibit modifications also resulted in a significant increase in activity, an expansion of the pottos’ behavioral repertoire,the emergence of sexual behaviors, and an increased visibility to the public.

In contrast to our knowledge on meliponiculture practiced by the Aztecs and Mayans, there is no authentic report concerning Brazilians during pre-Colombian times. A short note in Hans Staden’s book published in 1557 is the first written information on honey collection by the indigenous people, illustrated here with copies from online facsimiles prepared by the University of Sao Paulo.

This is the first comprehensive camera trap study to examine hollow usage by wildlife in the canopy of trees. Eighty cameras directed at tree hollows were deployed across eight sites in nine species of eucalypt in north-east New South Wales. In total, 38 species (including 21 birds, 9 mammals and 8 reptiles) were recorded at hollow entrances over a three-month period. There was a significant difference between wildlife hollow usage associated with site disturbance and tree growth stage (ANOSIM, P > 0.05); however, there was no significant difference associated with tree hollow diameter (ANOSIM, P > 0.05). The level of anthropogenic disturbance at each site, including vegetation modification of the understorey, was a significant predictor of species presence. Despite the limitations of using camera traps in the canopy of trees this study demonstrates the potential to garner useful insights into the ecology and behaviour of arboreal wildlife.

Dead wood and saproxylic species do not occur only in forests. A rich saproxylic community also inhabits dead wood in habitats created by people, both in agricultural and urban landscapes, such as pasture woodlands and parks. Human-maintained habitats can provide important sites, or even the last footholds, for surprisingly many rare saproxylic species. Until recently, the biodiversity value and management of trees in agricultural and urban settings have not received the attention they deserve, despite the fact that these environments often contain greater concentrations of ancient and valuable trees than managed forests. In fact, most readers of this book are likely to find not only the closest populations of saproxylic species, but also the closest populations of threatened saproxylic species, only a few kilometres away, in the nearest park where old, hollow trees occur. In this chapter, we deal with the occurrence, conservation and management of saproxylic species in different kinds of cultural environments, excluding forests managed primarily for wood production, which were treated in Chapter 13.

Saproxylic insect communities inhabiting tree hollow microhabitats correspond with large food webs which simultaneously are constituted by multiple types of plant-animal and animal-animal interactions, according to the use of trophic resources (wood- and insect-dependent sub-networks), or to trophic habits or interaction types (xylophagous, saprophagous, xylomycetophagous, predators and commensals). We quantitatively assessed which properties of specialised networks were present in a complex networks involving different interacting types such as saproxylic community, and how they can be organised in trophic food webs. The architecture, interacting patterns and food web composition were evaluated along sub-networks, analysing their implications to network robustness from random and directed extinction simulations. A structure of large and cohesive modules with weakly connected nodes was observed throughout saproxylic sub-networks, composing the main food webs constituting this community. Insect-dependent sub-networks were more modular than wood-dependent sub-networks. Wood-dependent sub-networks presented higher species degree, connectance, links, linkage density, interaction strength, and were less specialised and more aggregated than insect-dependent sub-networks. These attributes defined high network robustness in wood-dependent sub-networks. Finally, our results emphasise the relevance of modularity, differences among interacting types and interrelations among them in modelling the structure of saproxylic communities and in determining their stability. This work was supported by Secretaria de Estado de Investigación, Desarrollo Innovación (CGL2008-04472, CGL2009-09656, CGL2011-23658) (http://www.micinn.es/portal/site/MICINN); Proyecto LIFE+Nature (LIFE07/NAT/E/000762) (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/ind​ex.htm); and D.G. Política Científica, Generalitat Valenciana (ACOMP/2011/225) (http://www.edu.gva.es/poci/es/dgpoci_bec​as.htm).

Wetlands provide structurally diverse habitats attractive to varied wildlife, both generalist and wetland specialist species. Wetlands in western North Carolina occupy a minor portion of the landscape, yet provide essential habitat for rare wildlife species. Structural features of western North Carolina wetlands that influence wildlife occurrence include meadows interspersed with shrub thickets, snags and hollow trees, fallen logs, deep mud and rivulets, and pools. Species lists keyed to structural features are presented.

Use of leaves for drinking water by wild chimpanzees was studied through a field experiment. Previous observations have revealed that the chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, drank water by using a leaf as a spoon or a sponge. In addition to recording the leaves used in a tree hollow under natural conditions, we set up an outdoor laboratory for observing and video-recording the behavioral processes of the tool-use behavior. A water container which was utilized by local people was buried in the ground of the outdoor laboratory. We observed 5 examples by 3 chimpanzees in which leaves were used as a drinking tool. The observation revealed a third method of using leaves: The chimpanzees folded a leaf in the mouth as in paper-folding and put it into the container for capturing water. The chimpanzees preferred to use a particular leaf (Hybophrynium braunianum), a wide, soft, and hairless leaf, as a tool (21 out of 28 episodes in total). The high selectivity of leaves and the newly-found folding method shows chimpanzees' ability to find a suitable material and modifying it into a useful tool.

The breeding densities of many bird-species which nest in tree cavities are in some areas limited by shortage of sites. This is evident from circumstantial evidence in which the numbers of breeding pairs in different areas correlate with the numbers of local nest sites, or where changes in the numbers of nest sites resulting from natural processes or human action are followed by changes in the numbers of pairs. It is also shown experimentally, where nest site provision or removal has been followed by a corresponding change in breeding density. When nest boxes were provided, they were often occupied in the same year, leading to an immediate rise in breeding density. This implied that surplus birds were available in the vicinity and able to take them up. In future years, pair numbers often increased further but eventually they levelled off. This implied that, at this higher level, other limiting factors came into play. Experiments on nest site provision thus provide examples of different factors acting successively to limit breeding density at different levels. By constraining breeding density, shortage of nest sites not only prevents some birds from breeding, but must also limit the total numbers of breeders and non-breeders, because no population can increase beyond a certain point, when the production of young is limited. Once all available nest sites are occupied, reproduction is inevitably density-dependent with respect to the total population of breeders and non-breeders. Because several bird species can use the same type of site, competition is frequent, and the numbers of dominant species can affect the numbers and distribution of others. In extreme situations, a species may be totally absent from areas where all suitable nest sites are occupied by dominant competitors. In less extreme situations, the numbers of a subordinate species may vary from year to year or from place to place in inverse relation to the numbers of a dominant species. Both these situations can be changed by the provision of extra sites. In managed woods and modern tree plantations, most hole-nesting bird species are excluded or kept at extremely low levels by shortage of nest sites. This is a direct result of forestry practice, which usually entails removal of the old and dying trees that normally provide the sites. The problem can be rectified by allowing a number of old and dead trees to remain in managed forests, or (on a more local scale) by the provision of nest boxes. By appropriate design and positioning of the boxes, the most desired species can be favoured.

Green tree frogs, Litoria caerulea, in the wet-dry tropics of northern Australia remain active during the dry season with apparently no available water and temperatures that approach their lower critical temperature. We hypothesized that this surprising activity might be because frogs that are cooled during nighttime activity gain water from condensation by returning to a warm, humid tree hollow. We measured the mass gained when a cool frog moved into either a natural or an artificial hollow. In both hollows, water condensed on cool L. caerulea, resulting in water gains of up to 0.93% of body mass. We estimated that the water gained was more than the water that would be lost to evaporation during activity. The use of condensation as a means for water gain may be a significant source of water uptake for species like L. caerulea that occur in areas where free water is unavailable over extended periods.

Parrots and cockatoos are highly prized aviary birds and the demands for such species has fuelled their illegal trade and harvest from the wild. Here we report on three forensic case studies involving black-cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus spp.) endemic to Australia. These cases involve suspected poaching and illegal killing of endangered red- and white-tailed black-cockatoos. Through the prior development of 20 polymorphic microsatellite loci and population databases for white- and red-tailed black-cockatoos, the tools are available to conduct high-resolution paternity and individual identity testing. In one case, we matched a red-tailed black-cockatoo nestling to a tree hollow from which it was poached through the use of DNA from eggshell recovered from the nest. For the second case, we utilized our provenance population database (nest sites), and identified the kinship and geographic origin of a white-tailed black-cockatoo, which was illegally harvested from the wild. The third case determined the number individual white-tailed black-cockatoos allegedly shot at a fruit grower's orchard from body part remains. These genetic investigations highlight the significance and statistical confidence of DNA profiling and associated databases for endangered taxa, such as exotic birds. Our cockatoo population databases are the first of their kind in Australia, and demonstrate the efficacy of such approaches to identify such illegal activity. With a robust set of genetic markers and methodologies in place, we aim to broaden our population databases to include other cockatoo species of conservation concern.

Two main types of hollow tree are frequently found in savannas: trees with external splits (externally damaged trees), and trees with no or little visible external damage, but with their entire core removed (internally damaged or ‘piped’ trees). As this may affect trunk mechanical resistance and tree survivorship, we studied the incidence of these two types of cavity in relation to two possible causal agents, fire and termites, in a West African savanna. Overall, the proportion of damaged adult trees (height >2 m) reached 36%, and up to 84% forCrossopteryx febrifuga. In this species, almost all (93%) damaged individuals showed signs of digging by fungus-grower and wood-feeder termites. External damage was more frequent in the more fire-prone shrubby savanna, suggesting that while termites are responsible for the piping, fire is responsible for the later opening of the trunk. Trees growing in the more fire-prone savanna tended to reach significantly smaller sizes, both in height and basal diameter, than in the less intensely burnt woody savanna. There was also evidence that piped trees were taller than externally damaged trees. This strongly suggests that fire causes an increased mortality of adult trees through lateral opening of the trunks causing later breakage.

Using the method of intraperitoneal inoculation into mice, 11 (13·2%) out of 83 different samples from urban environments in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, were positive for Cryptococcus neoformans. Isolation of C. neoformans var. neoformans from wood and plant debris within a tree hollow of Syzygium jambolana (jambolana, Java plum) and the finding of C. neoformans var. gattii in bat guano collected in an old house are discussed with reference to our current knowledge on the ecology of C. neoformans.

Apis cerana indica, the common Indian honeybee, constructs nests in dark places, like hollow tree trunks, soil crevices, shaded roofs, subterranean holes, etc. In contrast to these concealed nests, also some open nests were found in the area of Malabar. Here, parallel structures of 6-8 combs were observed hanging from branches of Anacardium occidentale and Bambusa gigantea trees. An open nest may have advantages to the bees in that they suffer less disturbance from ectoparasitic and phoretic mites. Moreover, they are less resticted in nesting space than when their nests are concealed in hollow trees, termitaria, soil cracks, etc. It may also have advantages for apiculture. Beekeepers and apicultural researchers can regularly observe colony organization, mobilization, propagation, parasitic invasion, and parasite resistance. Moreover, open nests, being larger, may produce more honey and facilitate extraction of honey without much destruction of bees and brood cells. A survey of mites was carried out on natural colonies of A. cerana indica, covering various districts of Kerala.

Summary 1. The huge diversity of symbiotic associations among animals and/or plants comprises both mutualisms and parasitisms. Most symbioses between social insect species, however, involve social parasites, while mutual benefits have been only suspected for some parabiotic associations – two colonies that share a nest. 2. In the rainforest of Borneo, we studied parabiotic associations between the ants Crematogaster modiglianii and Camponotus rufifemur. Parabiotic nests were regularly found inside hollow tree trunks, most likely initiated by Cr. modiglianii. This species frequently nested without its partner, whereas we never found non-parabiotic Ca. rufifemur nests. We experimentally investigated potential benefits, potential interference competition for food (as a probable cost), and foraging niches of both species. 3. The two species never showed aggressive interactions and amicably shared food resources. However, Cr. modiglianii had a wider temporal and spatial foraging range than Ca. rufifemur, always found baits before Ca. rufifemur and recruited more efficiently. Camponotus rufifemur probably benefited from following pheromone trails of Cr. modiglianii. In turn, Ca. rufifemur was significantly more successful in defending the nest against alien ants. Crematogaster modiglianii hence may profit from its partner’s defensive abilities. 4. In neotropical parabioses, epiphytes grown in ‘ant-gardens’ play a crucial role in the association, e.g. by stabilization of nests. Hemiepiphytic Poikilospermum cordifolium (Cecropiaceae) seedlings and saplings frequently grew in the entrances of parabiotic nests in Borneo, obviously dispersed by the ants. In cafeteria experiments, both parabiotic ants carried its elaiosome-bearing seeds into the nest. However, P. cordifolium does not provide additional nest space, contrasting with neotropical ant-gardens. 5. The parabiotic association appears beneficial for both ant species, the main benefits being nest initiation by Cr. modiglianii and interspecific trail-following (for Ca. rufifemur), and, in turn, nest defence by Ca. rufifemur (for Cr. modiglianii). However, Ca. rufifemur seems to be more dependent on its partner than vice versa.

In many approaches to landscape visualisation and reconstruction for biodiversity management, vegetation is represented as being either present or absent. Revegetation is assumed to be possible, and new vegetation appears ‘immediately’ in a mature state, which is likely to drastically overestimate habitat suitability in the short-term. We constructed a simple temporal model of resource provision from revegetated agricultural land to estimate habitat suitability indices for woodland birds in south-eastern Australia. We used this model to illustrate the trajectory of change in biodiversity benefits of revegetation. As vegetation matures, its suitability for a given species changes, so a time-integrated assessment of habitat value is needed. Spatial allocation strategies, such as offsets, that may provide high value habitat in the long-term but imply shorter term population bottlenecks from a paucity of key resources (e.g. tree hollows) must be avoided. Given that vegetation may not meet both foraging and breeding requirements of a given species, populations may be limited continuously — by foraging constraints at some times, and by breeding constraints at other times. Animal species differ in their resource requirements so that optimisation involves compromises among species. Temporal processes associated with revegetation and differences in resource requirements of species complicate landscape reconstruction. Nevertheless, our analyses suggest that the time-course of vegetation development must be incorporated in models for optimising landscape reconstruction and for calculating revegetation offsets.

Many insects living in ancient trees are assumed to be threatened as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. It is generally expected that species in habitats with low temporal variability in carrying capacity have lower degree of dispersal in comparison to those in more ephemeral habitats. As hollow trees are long-lived, species in that habitat are expected to be sensitive to habitat fragmentation, due to a low capacity to establish new populations far from present ones. Using radio telemetry, we studied the dispersal for a beetle, Osmoderma eremita, living in hollow trees. O. eremita exhibited philopatry and only dispersed over short ranges. About 82–88% of the adults remained in the tree where they were caught. All observed dispersal movements ended up in nearby hollow trees and 62% in the neighbouring hollow tree. These results corroborate the suggestion that habitat fragmentation may be detrimental to insects living in temporally stable but spatially variable habitats. In order to preserve such species, we propose that conservation efforts should be focused on maintaining or increasing the number of suitable trees in and near presently occupied stands.

The Rufous Hornero (Furnarius rufus) is one of the most common bird species in Brazil. Anecdotal information indicates that nest opening orientation in this species is contrary to wind or rainfall direction. To check for the existence of such a pattern, F. rufus nests were randomly sampled within an urban area in central Brazil to assess whether factors such as wind and vegetation cover influence nest opening orientation. Using circular statistics, no evidence was found that nest-opening orientation was important for the species. These results refuse the expected pattern for tree hollow or enclosed nests. The results suggest that factors such as nesting architecture, nest material, nest microclimate or a combination of these, instead of local climate, must be conditioning nesting behavior in this species. O joão-de-barro (Furnarius rufus) é uma das espécies de aves mais comuns do Brasil. Informações sugerem que a orientação da abertura dos ninhos desse furnarídeo seria direcionada em posição contrária das direções de incidência dos ventos e das chuvas. Para averiguar tal padrão de nidificação, ninhos de F. rufus foram aleatoriamente amostrados em uma área urbana da região Centro-Oeste do Brasil para verificar se fatores como vento e cobertura vegetal exerciam influência sobre a orientação de suas aberturas. Testes envolvendo estatística circular revelaram que a abertura dos ninhos refletiu um padrão aleatório de orientação, algo não esperado para aquelas espécies que nidificam em ocos de árvores ou que constroem seus ninhos de maneira a proteger a câmara de incubação. Ao invés do clima da região, os resultados sugerem que a arquitetura e o material de construção do ninho, o microclima dentro do ninho ou uma combinação desses fatores possam estar condicionando o comportamento de nidificação dessa espécie.

The Gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyhemus) and the Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalist) are species found on many military installations. The Indiana bat is endangered throughout its range, and the Gopher tortoise is threatened in its westernmost distributions and at risk everywhere else. On installations where troop readiness training is conducted, an important component of realistic troop readiness training is the generation of obscurant material and the conduct of maneuvers under obscurant cover. Fog oil (FO) has long been deployed for visual obscuration training, and the effects of such obscurants on these species are unknown. As a preliminary step prior to instituting toxicological studies, a laboratory simulation was performed on the capability of FO to penetrate the living space of these species: the tortoise burrow and the hollow-tree location of a bat maternity colony. The FO smoke did not enter the simulated tortoise burrow in significant concentrations, but the smoke concentrations in the simulated tree cavity approached ambient levels under some test conditions. This suggests that tortoise burrows do not need to be studied in-situ, and that the tortoise may be considered protected while in the burrow. Bat maternal colony sites, however, should not be considered protected from smoke entry to any significant degree.

The assessment of the relationship between species diversity, species interactions and environmental characteristics is indispensable for understanding network architecture and ecological distribution in complex networks. Saproxylic insect communities inhabiting tree hollow microhabitats within Mediterranean woodlands are highly dependent on woodland configuration and on microhabitat supply they harbor, so can be studied under the network analysis perspective. We assessed the differences in interacting patterns according to woodland site, and analysed the importance of functional species in modelling network architecture. We then evaluated their implications for saproxylic assemblages’ persistence, through simulations of three possible scenarios of loss of tree hollow microhabitat. Tree hollow-saproxylic insect networks per woodland site presented a significant nested pattern. Those woodlands with higher complexity of tree individuals and tree hollow microhabitats also housed higher species/interactions diversity and complexity of saproxylic networks, and exhibited a higher degree of nestedness, suggesting that a higher woodland complexity positively influences saproxylic diversity and interaction complexity, thus determining higher degree of nestedness. Moreover, the number of insects acting as key interconnectors (nodes falling into the core region, using core/periphery tests) was similar among woodland sites, but the species identity varied on each. Such differences in insect core composition among woodland sites suggest the functional role they depict at woodland scale. Tree hollows acting as core corresponded with large tree hollows near the ground and simultaneously housing various breeding microsites, whereas core insects were species mediating relevant ecological interactions within saproxylic communities, e.g. predation, competitive or facilitation interactions. Differences in network patterns and tree hollow characteristics among woodland sites clearly defined different sensitivity to microhabitat loss, and higher saproxylic diversity and woodland complexity showed positive relation with robustness. These results highlight that woodland complexity goes hand in hand with biotic and ecological complexity of saproxylic networks, and together exhibited positive effects on network robustness. The research Projects I+D CGL2011-23658 y CGL2012-31669 of the Spanish Minister of Science provided economic support.

More than 300 species of Australian native animals — mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians — use tree hollows, but there has never been a complete inventory of them. Many of these species are threatened, or are in decline, because of land-use practices such as grazing, timber production and firewood collection. All forest management agencies in Australia attempt to reduce the impact of logging on hollow-dependent fauna, but the nature of our eucalypt forests presents a considerable challenge. In some cases, tree hollows suitable for vertebrate fauna may take up to 250 years to develop, which makes recruiting and perpetuating this resource very difficult within the typical cycle of human-induced disturbance regimes. Tree Hollows and Wildlife Conservation in Australia is the first comprehensive account of the hollow-dependent fauna of Australia and introduces a considerable amount of new data on this subject. It not only presents a review and analysis of the literature, but also provides practical approaches for land management.

To study hollows of living trees as natural habitats of Cryptococcus neoformans in an endemic area of cryptococcosis in the northeastern region of Brazil, samples of decaying wood were collected inside 32 hollows of living trees and plated on niger seed agar. Identification of C. neoformans was based upon morphological and physiological tests. Canavanine-glycine-bromothymol medium was used to screen the varieties and Crypto Check Iatron Kit to serotype the isolates. A total of 123 C. neoformans colonies were recovered from samples of six (18.5%) out of 32 hollow trees. C. neoformans var. neoformans and C. neoformans var. gattii were found occurring alone (pink shower tree, fig tree and pottery tree) or sharing the same hollow (pink shower tree). Long lasting positivity (19-36 months) and significant number of cfu of C. neoformans per gram of decaying wood (0.15-21.7 x 10(3) cfu g(-1)) inside hollows of pink shower tree, fig tree and pottery tree were observed, indicating colonization of these habitats by the fungus. For the first time, C. n. var. neoformans and C. n. var. gattii were found sharing the same natural biotope, thus establishing a possible link between them in their life cycle in nature and suggesting the primary natural niche for the species.

Recently high winds raged across central Europe felling trees with the inevitably consequence that some of the trees damaged property and in a number of cases caused personal injury or the tragic loss of life. The risk posed to property and life by wind-blow damage to a tree is assessed by a number of factors with the principal determinants being the location of the tree and its apparent health. Tree owners governed by English law have a legal responsibility to act in a prudent manner to ensure that their trees are not a liability to persons or property and should, if necessary, inspect their trees at regular intervals. Typically an arboricultural consultant is called upon to assess the health of a tree, as an expert visual appraisal is critical in any tree inspection. Although the extent of a defect within a tree cannot normally be assessed by a visual assessment alone and various proprietary mechanical and sound wave instruments may be used to gauge the risk presented by the tree. Decay in mature trees generally manifests itself as a central column of rot that tapers from the roots within the trunk of the tree. The aim of an internal inspection is to ensure that the trunk has a minimum of 30% of sound wood surrounding the rot. Whereby a tree can heal itself by surrounding the rot with a defensive layer that isolates the decay and allows the tree to regenerate. Moreover, a hollow tree that had decay may present little risk and withstand greater wind force than a solid tree of similar size. Unfortunately the mechanical removal of a core sample for inspection or probing a tree with a rot detecting drill can breach the natural defence mechanisms of a tree and cause an infection to spread into the surrounding sound wood. This paper describes the progress of a joint research programme that is developing a practical method to non-invasively detect decay in trees by propagating stress-waves across the trees and analysing the resultant time-frequency components in the waves.

Abandoned management has caused many sites with free-standing, large oaks (Quercus robur) to become more shaded. This study shows how forest regrowth affects beetle species associated with old oaks in south-eastern Sweden. Beetles were trapped by pitfall traps placed in hollows and window traps placed near hollows in oak trunks in pasture woodlands. We assessed the influence of forest regrowth, tree size and original canopy cover on the species richness of saproxylic beetles (a total of 120 species identified) and the occurrence of 68 saproxylic beetle species in particular. Species richness was greatest in stands with large, free-standing trees. Large girth as well as low canopy cover increased frequency of occurrence for several species. Forest regrowth was found to be detrimental for many beetle species. As most localities with endangered beetles living in old oaks are small and isolated, ongoing management and the restoration of abandoned pasture woodlands should have a high priority in nature conservation.

A series of inter-related research projects in the past decade has focussed on the ecology of forest environments in central Victoria, south-eastern Australia. A major component of this research has included studies of the conservation biology of several species of arboreal marsupials that occur in these forests, particularly the endangered Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri MCCOY, 1867), the more common and widespread greater glider (Petauroides volans (KERR, 1792)), and the mountain brushtail possum (Trichosurus caninus (OGILBY, 1836)). The work has encompassed projects on life history and population dynamics, habitat requirements, nesting and denning behaviour within large hollow trees, the use of wildlife corridors as habitat and as a conduit for movement by animals, the spatial distribution of wildlife, spatial and temporal changes in habitat quality, and predictions of extinction risk in response to forest management regimes (Lindenmayer 1994). In this paper, a brief synthesis is presented of some of the key findings of some of the studies completed to date.

Duas novas ocorrências do morcego Phyllostomidae, Micronycteris hirsuta (Peters, 1869) são registradas na Mata Atlântica, ambas no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, sudeste do Brasil. Um casal foi capturado com rede ao entrar em um refúgio de alimentação em um oco de árvore, na Estação Ecológica Estadual Paraíso, Guapimirim. Uma outra fêmea foi capturada com redes de neblina em Paraíso do Tobias, Miracema, junto a um riacho, entre árvores frutíferas.

Stems of trees hollowed by agents such as fungal decay, fire or termites have reduced strength and increased likelihood of breakage. This may pose a serious hazard when hollow trees are growing near public places. Previous theoretical studies and field studies of hollow trees, of both hardwood and softwood species, in Europe and America have suggested rules to quantify the risk of breakage of hollow trees. These rules are confirmed and expanded here, using data collected from hollow trees of several species of the hardwood genus Eucalyptus in Australia. It is concluded that where the ratio of the minimum wall thickness of a stem hollow to the total radius of the hollow exceeds 0.3–0.35 and at least one-half of the girth of the tree stem is intact, it is extremely unlikely that the stem of the hollow tree will break. These rules appear to apply for a wide range of tree species throughout the world.

Many species of non-flying mammal depend on tree hollows (cavities or holes) for shelter and survival. I reviewed the published literature on tree hollow use by Australian non-flying arboreal and scansorial mammals to provide a synthesis of tree hollow requirements, to identify gaps in knowledge and to stimulate future research that may improve the management of these species. The use of hollows was described in some detail for 18 of 42 hollow-using species. Most information was for possums and gliding possums, whereas dasyurid marsupials and rodents were largely neglected. The paucity of data for many species must be addressed because it represents an impediment to their conservation. Hollow abundance appears to be the primary determinant of tree preferences. This accounts for the frequent use of standing dead trees by most species. Most hollow-bearing trees used as dens were at least 100 years of age. Further studies that describe the dynamic processes that govern the availability of tree hollows are needed. The few studies that document attrition of hollow-bearing trees suggest that land managers need to improve strategies for the effective retention and long-term replacement of these trees.

The squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) is an arboreal marsupial potentially impacted throughout its geographic range by the loss of hollow-bearing trees. We investigated the use of den trees and the availability of hollow-bearing trees near Mackay in the tropical north of the squirrel glider range where information was deficient. Mean den tree size (41.1 ± 2.9 cm (s.e.), diameter at breast height (dbh)) was significantly larger than that of available trees (27.5 ± 0.9 cm). Dead trees (stags) comprised 52% of 27 dens but comprised only 12% of available trees. This likely reflects the greater frequency of hollows in dead trees compared with other trees. Surveys found that 59% of 720 available trees contained hollows. A much lower percentage of trees in the 10–30-cm dbh size class were hollow-bearing (22%) compared with trees >30 cm (77%), and we view these smaller trees as those providing future den trees. Their density varied from 17 to 95 ha–1 among sites, which suggests that most sites have an adequate supply of future hollows. We installed 56 nest boxes to determine use by squirrel gliders. Only 20% were used after 3 years, but use was not influenced by the availability of tree hollows. Tree hollow availability appears adequate for the squirrel glider in these tropical woodlands but further studies are needed to understand the dynamic processes that govern this resource.

Context With increasing pressure worldwide on forest habitat, it is crucial to understand faunal ecology to effectively manage and minimise impacts of anthropogenic habitat disturbance. Aims This study assessed whether differences in forest type and disturbance history were reflected in small to medium mammal communities found in Tasmania’s production forests. Methods Trapping was conducted in spring and summer, and autumn and winter during 2007–08 at four dry Eucalyptus forest sites (two regenerating after harvest and two in relatively undisturbed forest) in south-east Tasmania, and four wet Eucalyptus forest sites (two regenerating after harvest and two in relatively undisturbed forest) in north-east Tasmania. All sites were embedded within a matrix of mature or older aged regenerating forest. Key results Thirteen mammal species were recorded across all sites. There was no difference in species diversity or richness between forest type or disturbance regime, but species composition differed. Total number of individual animals and captures was influenced strongly by forest type and disturbance history, with most animals captured in the dry disturbed forest sites. Abundance of some species (e.g. bettongs and potoroos) was higher in disturbed sites than undisturbed sites. Brushtail possum numbers (adults and offspring), however, were lower in disturbed sites and populations displayed a male biased adult sex ratio and lower breeding frequency. Habitat structural complexity and vegetation diversity within core sites, and age structure of the forest in the surrounding landscape did not vary significantly, indicating that broad resource (food and refuge) availability was equivalent across sites. Conclusions In general, the small to medium mammals in this study did not appear to be significantly affected by forest harvesting in the medium term. Implications Although past harvesting altered the abundance of some habitat features (e.g. canopy cover, basal area of trees, and tree hollow availability), we suggest that the availability of such features in the surrounding landscape may mitigate the potential effects of disturbance on the species for which such habitat features are important.

Context. Nest boxes are a useful tool in the reintroduction, conservation and monitoring of many hollow-using species. Aims. All forms of nest-box monitoring involve some form of invasion, often upsetting their continued use by occupants. We conducted a pilot study to investigate and validate the innovative use of temperature dataloggers (iButtons®) to remotely monitor nest-box use, leaving the nest-box occupants untouched. Methods. In captivity, iButton recordings revealed the duration and time of day when each of the three nest-box designs was occupied by Pseudocheirus occidentalis (western ringtail possums); the accuracy of occupancy data was validated by unobtrusive infrared video recording. In the field, where translocated P. occidentalis and naturally occurring Trichosurus vulpecula (common brushtail possum) populations are present, hair sampling at the nest-box entrances (in addition to iButton recording) was used to identify the mammal species present. Key results. Nest-box use by captive P. occidentalis validated iButtons as a useful remote-monitoring tool, with 10 h) periods of continuous occupancy (T. vulpecula only). In addition to the convenience (to researcher and animal) of continuous (24-h) monitoring with minimal disturbance, a major advantage from using iButtons is that occupancy can be matched with environmental temperature or rainfall records, as well as other events (e.g. storms or frost). Conclusions. iButtons are a useful remote-monitoring tool of nest boxes, and it is possible that their use in this manner may be extended to tree-hollow occupation. Most importantly, this approach can inform us as to the conditions under which the nest boxes are used by fauna, as well as preferences for different nest-box designs. Implications. It is important to note that the criteria used for determining the presence or absence in the nest box (i.e. temperature difference, Tin– Tout, of 2°C) in the present study will not be relevant for all nest-box designs and before using these methods, the thermal properties of the nest box or tree hollow will require investigation.

Tree hollows are a key habitat component for a large number of Australian vertebrates and understanding how these resources are used is critical for developing successful management and conservation strategies for particular species or sets of species. Some hollow-using vertebrates are capable of using other kinds of nest sites. The common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) is one of these species and it is known to use tree hollows and also to construct nests (dreys) made from sticks and leaves. Nest site selection by P. peregrinus may be a function of hollow availability. This proposition and several related questions were tested in a radio-tracking study that examined patterns of tree hollow and drey use by P. peregrinus in a range of vegetation types in Booderee National Park in Jervis Bay Territory. In addition, this study explored whether hollow and drey use was influenced by a wildfire that occurred in the study region in late 2003. It was found that use of hollows or dreys appeared to be a function of the availability of these resources. Most individuals were either primarily hollow users or primarily drey users. These patterns conformed to differences we recorded in hollow abundance between vegetation types: drey use was most pronounced in shrubland where hollows were rare and hollow use was most prevalent in forest where hollows were abundant. We found no evidence to suggest that hollow or drey use was influenced by fire. There was a trend pattern in our data suggesting that home-range size of P. peregrinus was larger in burnt versus unburnt sites but this effect was not statistically significant. Evidence was found that P. peregrinus selected particular kinds of trees as nest sites. Hollows in dead trees were more often used than those in living trees. Smaller dreys were most likely to be used. Several kinds of nest-selection effects that were contrary to the findings of studies of other arboreal marsupials were identified. These included more frequent use of smaller diameter trees with fewer cavities. The reasons for these unexpected results remain unclear. Findings such as those quantifying gender differences in the frequency of drey use, as well as marked between-vegetation-type differences in nest-type selection, indicate that nest use and nesting behaviour in P. peregrinus may be more complex than previously recognised. These findings also indicate that a deep understanding of the nesting biology of a species may require careful studies of both sexes, across a range of environments, and where disturbances have and have not occurred.

We conducted a 7-month behavioural study of a captive colony of vampire bats and documented that reciprocal altruism between adult males of low relatedness did occur, was relatively common, and was associated with a very low-intensity, non-linear dominance relationship between males. The experimental group consisted of two male and four female adult vampire bats of four independent maternal lines. We calculated relatedness between members of the colony from genealogies (Krebs & Davies 1978) using data extending back three generations. We determined maternal contributions directly, and determined paternal contributions probabilistically using the number of available potential sires at the times of conception. Relatedness between the two males (32L and 35R) was 0.26 (x41 s~=O.l5 & 0.06 for the whole colony). The males were 51 and 42 months of age, respectively, at the conclusion of the study. Bats were housed in a 0.4-m3 plywood roost box designed to simulate a hollow tree and provide a variety of roosting options in all three dimensions. We subjected the colony to experimental manipulations (unpublished data) intended to promote blood-sharing behaviour and test the extent of reciprocity and effects of ‘cheating’ (i.e. nonreciprocation).

We examined factors associated with the occurrence of tree hollows in four eucalypt species from temperate forest in southeastern New South Wales and East Gippsland. A total of 1 256 standing trees and 328 felled trees was examined. The proportion of trees containing hollows with small entrances (2-5 cm) was significantly negatively associated with dbh, while the proportion of trees containing hollows with medium (5-10 cm) and large (>10 cm) entrances was positively associated with dbh. There was a significant, but weak, relationship between hollow depth and minimum entrance width that was improved with the addition to the model of the variables branch diameter and branch health. Trees of all sizes and ages contained hollows, although larger and older trees had a higher probability of doing so. For two tree species (Brown Barrel or Cuttail Eucalyptus fastigata and Messmate E. obliqua), the probability of live trees containing hollows remained below 0.5 for stems less than 180 years of age. Un logged forest supported, on average, 22.0 hollowbearing trees per ha ? 18.5% of which were dead trees. For all values of dbh, trees were more likely to contain hollows if either dead or in poor physiological condition, indicating the potential for hollow development to be accelerated in eucalypts by killing or injuring suitably-sized trees.

In the course of monitoring movements and behavior of gravid green snakes (Opheodrys aestivus) by radiotelemetry, I observed predation by kingsnakes (Lampropeltis getulus) and racers (Coluber constrictor). The high frequency of the observed predation warrants this report. Miniature radio transmitters (220 MHz, Model SOPI1038-LD; Wildlife Materials, Inc.) were implanted into nine large (>500 mm snout-vent length, SVL), gravid 0. aestivus. The snakes were released on 19 June 1988 at the sites of captures made during the previous week in the shoreline vegetation of a small lake 2 km W of Denmark, White County, Arkansas. Snakes were relocated several times each day until oviposition, and at least once each day thereafter. After relocating Opheodrys nos. 255 and 584 several times on 24 June, weak signals were received in the afternoon from each snake indicating extensive movements atypical for the sedentary 0. aestivus. Both signals were emanating from L. getulus (670 mm SVL male; 860 mm SVL female) from which Opheodrys nos. 255 and 584 with implanted transmitters were subsequently palped. On 6 August, signals from Opheodrys no. 5 were received from underground, atypical for the arboreal 0. aestivus. Underground signals continued to be received from no. 5 at various locations within an approximate 30 m2 area over the next 14 days. On 20 August, I dug into a system of rodent burrows at the signal source and eventually found a 720 mm SVL female L. getulus. The Lampropeltis was taken to the laboratory where on 23 August it passed the transmitter originally implanted in Opheodrys no. 5. ' S EY, R. T., AND K. A. BAI . 1987. Asse ment petitive interactions between two iguanid species. Oikos 48(2):206-210. At dusk on 9 July, Opheodrys no. 37 was ovipositing in a hollow tree. The next morning three Opheodrys eggs were found scattered on the ground at the base of the tree and a signal could not be detected. After extensive searching, a signal was detected, eventually leading to a 960 mm SVL female Coluber constrictor. Dissection revealed that the Coluber had first ingested an Opheodrys egg and then ingested Opheodrys no. 37. The posterior gut of the Coluber was full of grasshoppers. Additional observations implicate Coluber as a predator of 0. aestivus during this study. On 24 June, signals from Opheodrys no. 605 were lost. The last contact with the snake had been made the previous day at a ocation within 3 m of an active Coluber. A subsequent search for the Opheodrys was unsuccessful. On two other occasions (22 and 23 July), two different Coluber were observed actively foraging arboreally in the narrow band of alder at the shoreline, the preferred habitat of 0. aestivus (Plummer, 1981). Studies of telemetered Coluber support strong arboreal tendencies (Fitch and Shirer, 1971). At dusk on 7 July, Opheodrys no. 110 retreated into a rotted stump as she moved back toward her activity range after ovipositing in a hollow tree. The next morning, her transmitter was found on the ground next to a large oak tree, but she could not be located. The sutures at the site of implantation were intact on 7 July suggesting that the transmitter was lost as a result of predation, perhaps by a bird or mammal. On several occasions, I and my assistants have observed predation by bluejays (Cyanocitta cristata) on 0. aestivus in an outdoor enclosure (Plummer, unpubl. obs.). Typically, bluejays carried snakes to a tree, pecked them to death, and eviscerated them as they ate. Parts not eaten, including most of the carcass, were allowed t fall to the ground (see also Sledge, 1969; Hammerson, 1988). Mammalian predation would also free the transmitter, but no tooth marks were found on the transmitter.

Two new species of phlebotomine sandflies from the Los Yungas region of Bolivia are described and illustrated: Lutzomyia boliviano , n. sp. based on a single male and female taken together in a tree hollow at an elevation of 1500 m, and Warileya yungasi , n. sp. based on 3 males from an abandoned mine shaft at an elevation of 2200 m.

From field observations and laboratory rearings, the biology of Forcipomyia squamipennis I. & M. in cocoa plantations in Ghana was established as follows. Adult midges are found between buttresses of large shade trees, in crevices of decayed old logs, in hollow tree stumps and cocoa husk heaps. Swarming takes place at any time during the day in or around the resting place, while dispersal occurs in the early morning and in the late afternoon, the normal flight range being 5–6 m. The largest populations occur in the rainy season. Eggs are laid on moist decomposing wood, cocoa husks and other plant debris in batches of 40–90; the larvae hatch in 2–3 days and pupate after four moults, when about 12 days old; the pupal stage lasts 2–3 days. Adult females require liquid plant food for survival and oviposition, although the maturation of ova is independent of adult food intake or mating; unfertilised eggs do not develop. The maximum adult life span for both sexes is eight days in captivity. F. squamipennis undergoes at least 12 generations a year. Due to its abundance and continuous breeding in cocoa plantations, F. squamipennis is probably the most important Ceratopogonid cocoa pollinator in Ghana. Both sexes are efficient pollinators, but four times more males than females visit cocoa flowers.