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The Jeju horse is an indigenous Korean horse breed that is currently registered with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. However, there is severe lack of genomic studies on Jeju horse. This study was conducted to investigate genetic characteristics of horses including Jeju horse, Thoroughbred and Jeju crossbred (Jeju × Thoroughbred) populations. We compared the genomes of three horse populations using the Equine SNP70 Beadchip array. Short-range Linkage disequilibrium was the highest in Thoroughbred, whereas r2 values were lowest in Jeju horse. Expected heterozygosity was the highest in Jeju crossbred (0.351), followed by the Thoroughbred (0.337) and Jeju horse (0.311). The level of inbreeding was slightly higher in Thoroughbred (− 0.009) than in Jeju crossbred (− 0.035) and Jeju horse (− 0.038). FST value was the highest between Jeju horse and Thoroughbred (0.113), whereas Jeju crossbred and Thoroughbred showed the lowest value (0.031). The genetic relationship was further assessed by principal component analysis, suggesting that Jeju crossbred is more genetically similar to Thoroughbred than Jeju horse population. Additionally, we detected potential selection signatures, for example, in loci located on LCORL/NCAPG and PROP1 genes that are known to influence body. Genome-wide analyses of the three horse populations showed that all the breeds had somewhat a low level of inbreeding within each population. In the population structure analysis, we found that Jeju crossbred was genetically closer to Thoroughbred than Jeju horse. Furthermore, we identified several signatures of selection which might be associated with traits of interest. To our current knowledge, this study is the first genomic research, analyzing genetic relationships of Jeju horse, Thoroughbred and Jeju crossbred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: There is a need for investigation of associations between intrasynovial medication and fracture risk in racehorses. Objectives: To document the proportion and type of fracture occurring following intrasynovial medication. Study design: Retrospective longitudinal study. Methods: Review of clinical records from all Thoroughbred flat racehorses receiving intrasynovial medication under the care of a first‐opinion veterinary practice between 2006 and 2011. Fractures pre‐ and post‐medication were categorised by location, type, and severity; analysis of fractures sustained within 56‐days of medication was undertaken. Survival analyses using Cox proportional hazards models were conducted for associations between medication used (corticosteroid vs. non‐corticosteroid), age at first medication, sex and total number of medications and fracture. Results: A total of 1488 horses received intrasynovial medication during the period of study; 8692 synovial spaces were medicated in 3925 sessions. There were 96 fractures that occurred within 56‐days of medication, of which 44 were classified as ‘serious’ (44/1488; 3.0% total population, 95% CI 2.1, 3.8%) and 11 (11/1488, 0.7%, 95% CI 0.3, 1.2%) were euthanased due to severity of injury. Fifty‐four of 96 cases (56.4%, 95% CI 46.3, 66.2%) returned to racing. Targeted imaging of the subsequent injury site was undertaken prior to injury in only 7 (7/96, 7.3%) horses that injured post‐medication. Horses that had received ≥3 previous intrasynovial medication sessions had an increased hazard of sustaining a fracture within 56 days (HR 2.31, 95% CI 1.51, 3.54, P<0.001) compared with those receiving ≤3 medication sessions, adjusted for each increasing year of age (HR 0.67, 95% CI 0.53, 0.86, P = 0.001). Main limitations: Absence of an unexposed cohort of nonmedicated racehorses. Conclusions: Serious musculoskeletal injury following intrasynovial medication occurred in 3% (44/1488) horses. Reduction in injury rates may be possible through greater use of premedication diagnostic imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to examine the factors affecting longevity (as the number of years spent in race) in the Hungarian Thoroughbred horse population, and to investigate the total earnings won during lifetime and per start. The performance data was collected from 3,029 Thoroughbred horses (1,704 female, 1,674 male) born between 1996 and 2018 in Hungary with full known racing career. A multivariate generalized linear model was used to estimate the effect of sex of the horses, age at first start and the month of birth to longevity, expressed by the number of starts and years spent in race. Age of the horses at first start had a significant effect on the years spent in race, thereafter the model was dissected into age groups initiating a more accurate research. This showed that birth month also have a momentous effect on the examined traits in case of 2-year-old horses. Age of the horses at first start also affected the lifetime earnings. Sex of the horses had no effect on longevity in 2-year olds however, males are more likely to race because female horses tend to win less money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • First detection of Equine Hepacivirus (EqHV) in horses on the African continent. • Anti-EqHV antibodies are frequently detected in South African Thoroughbred foals. • EqHV seroprevalence in the study population is the highest reported to date. • EqHV strains circulating worldwide are closely related. Abstract Since the discovery of equine hepacivirus (EqHV) in 2011, the virus has been detected in horse populations from more than twelve countries across five continents. EqHV seroprevalence has been reported to be as high as 61.8% and EqHV ribonucleic acid (RNA) prevalence to range between 0.9% and 34.1%. Molecular and serological indications of EqHV infection have never been reported in equids on the African continent. Therefore, investigation of EqHV prevalence in South African horses and subsequent viral genetic characterization contribute to a better understanding of the global epidemiology of this virus. In a cross-sectional study, serum samples from 454 Thoroughbred foals (aged 58–183 days) were analysed for anti-EqHV non-structural protein 3 (NS3)-specific antibodies (abs) with a luciferase immunoprecipitation system (LIPS) and for EqHV RNA by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Farms of origin (n = 26) were situated in South Africa’s Western Cape Province. The associations between EqHV infection state and farm of origin, foal gender and foal age were subsequently described. Furthermore, nested PCRs were performed on parts of the 5′UTR, NS3 and NS5B genes of 17 samples. Samples were sequenced and phylogenetic analyses were conducted. The population’s seroprevalence was 83.70% and RNA was detected in 7.93% of samples. Increasing foal age was associated with decreasing ab prevalence and increasing prevalence of EqHV RNA. Sequences from South African EqHV strains did not show in-depth clustering with published sequences of EqHV isolates from particular continents. In conclusion, EqHV is present in the South African Thoroughbred population and appears more prevalent than reported in other horse populations worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that Thoroughbred (TB) ancestors blood percentage in a pedigree is a potential factor differentiating the level of fearfulness (based on behavior and heart rate (HR)) and performance scores in warmblood stallions. A total of 267 three-year-old warmblood stallions were subjected to the novel-object based test during their participation in the performance tests' program. The effect of ancestors percentage contribution in the pedigree was analyzed by taking into account horses of four TB (<25.01, 25.01-50.00, 50.01-75.00, >75.00%) ancestor groups. It was found that the stallions with a higher proportion (>75.00%) of TB blood revealed higher values of HR measured at the riding hall just before the start of the fearfulness test. The results showed that the higher proportions of TB ancestors blood in the stallions' pedigree were correlated with the higher values for total time to pass novel objects when led by a handler during the fearfulness test. Negative correlations were found between the TB percentage and the scores for character and trot evaluated by the trainer as well as rideability evaluated by the test rider. The findings imply that a high proportion of Thoroughbreds in the pedigree may negatively influence some performance traits and increase fear reactivity in warmblood stallions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the paper was to present the tactics of a race depending on selected factors. To this end, the tactics were defined with the partial speeds and the average speed of a winning horse in a race. The research material consisted of the race data sheets for the thoroughbreds sourced from the official website of the Polish Jockey Club. The collected data of 347 horses which participated in 1522 races included the total race time for the winner and times for the individual sections of the track (the so-called "quarters"). The database was built considering the following factors: distance and race category, sex and age of horse and period of the racing season. Next, based on the duration and distance of the individual section of the race, the partial speeds and the average race speed were calculated. The race tactics were described with the names taken from the sets of terms used to characterize mathematical curves. Furthermore, the relation between the horses' speed over the individual race quarters was determined taking in consideration the distance of a race as the factors that determine most of the time parameters of horses during races. The data was processed with an analysis of variance for repeatable measurements. t-Tukey's test and Pearson's correlation coefficient were determined. It was found that the race tactics are largely individual, whereas the speed during its individual phases is most often interrelated. However, it is possible to establish common features for different types of tactics and assign specific levels of external factors to them. The distinguished groups can be compared to mathematical curves, e.g. a sinusoid (mainly for the races for the three-year-old and older horses and for the races for mares) or a parabola (mainly for short-distance and classic races and races during the second phase of the racing season). The knowledge of these types may help assess the racing performance in horses which will be especially helpful for trainers, riders and owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Summary: Background: Osteochondral fragmentation of the dorsoproximal margin of the proximal phalanx is commonly recognised in racing Thoroughbreds. Frequency distribution has been documented in racing Thoroughbreds and Quarter Horses in the USA and in European Warmbloods but no data have been published from the UK. Concurrent intra‐articular soft tissue lesions and radiographic accuracy of fragment distribution in racing Thoroughbreds have not previously been reported. Objectives: To document frequency distribution of dorsoproximal fragmentation of the proximal phalanx in a UK population of racing Thoroughbreds and to compare this with published data. To document concurrent intra‐articular lesions identified arthroscopically and radiographic accuracy of fragment distribution. Study design: A retrospective single centre‐based, observational study. Methods: Surgical reports and radiographs of all racing Thoroughbreds that underwent arthroscopic surgery for removal of fragmentation from the dorsoproximal margin of the proximal phalanx at Newmarket Equine Hospital between 2011 and 2015 were reviewed. Results: Two hundred and forty‐two (85.8%) horses were in or being prepared for flat racing. Osteochondral fragmentation of the dorsoproximal aspect of the proximal phalanx was present in 428 fetlock joints of 282 horses, consisting of 194 (45.3%) left and 188 (43.9%) right metacarpophalangeal joints, and 20 (4.7%) left and 26 (6.1%) right metatarsophalangeal joints. Fragmentation was located dorsomedially in 316 (73.8%), dorsolaterally in 32 (7.5%) and biaxially in 80 (18.7%) joints. Concurrent soft tissue lesions were identified in 168 (39.3%) joints. Radiographic evidence of fragmentation was visible in 320 joints (74.8%). Main limitations: Limited numbers preclude conclusions with respect to yearlings and horses in jump race training. Conclusion: Dorsoproximal fragmentation of the proximal phalanx occurred most frequently medially and in the forelimbs. Sidedness was not demonstrated. Although similar to previously reported data, variance in limb distribution is evident. Further research is required to determine whether concurrent intra‐articular soft tissue lesions are aetiopathogenic or an additional result of the pathological changes leading to fragmentation. Fragmentation site was not always accurately identified radiographically. The Summary is available in Spanish ‐ see Supporting information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the consequences credited to locomotor stereotypies in horses is the reduction of sport performance; however, there is a lack of studies on this topic. The objective of this study was to determine if racing performance was negatively affected by weaving and stall walking in thoroughbred racehorses. Three hundred eighty-nine animals were randomly chosen from those residing at the Club Hípico de Santiago, all of which had a handicap and had run at least 5 races. The horses were divided into 2 groups according to their handicap criteria: the low performance group, with handicap from 1 to 29 (n = 333) and the high performance group, with handicap from 30 to 56 (n = 56). Handicap is an index that is assigned to all thoroughbreds that participate in turf events, according to their performance (1 = poor to 56 = excellent performance). The presence or absence of weaving and/or stall walking was observed by visual inspection of each horse. Results were expressed as percentages. Fisher's exact test was used to analyze the data, with a significance level of P < 0.05. The average prevalence of weaving was 0.77%. Weaving was 0.3% in the low-performance group and 3.57% in the high-performance group. The average prevalence of stall walking was 2.83%. Stall walking was 3.3% in the low-performance group, and there were no horses with stall walking in the high-performance group. No relationship was found between the presence of both of the locomotor stereotypies studied here and handicaps. As there is no prior scientific research on this topic, our results preliminarily suggest that weaving and/or stall walking may not have an effect on racing performance in thoroughbred racehorses and thus, no efforts should be made to avoid this display based on this reason. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Racing performance is often used as a measurable outcome variable in research studies investigating clinical diagnoses or interventions. However, the use of many different performance measures largely precludes conduct of meaningful comparative studies and, to date, those being used have not been collated. Objectives: To systematically review the veterinary scientific literature for the use of racing performance as a measurable outcome variable in clinical studies of racehorses, collate and identify those most popular, and identify their advantages and disadvantages. Study design: Systematic literature search. Methods: The search criteria “((racing AND performance) AND (horses OR equidae))” were adapted for both MEDLINE and CAB Abstracts databases. Data were collected in standardised recording forms for binary, categorical and quantitative measures, and the use of performance indices. Results: In total, 217 studies that described racing performance were identified, contributing 117 different performance measures. No one performance measure was used in all studies, despite 90.3% using more than one variable. Data regarding race starts and earnings were used most commonly, with 88.0% and 54.4% of studies including at least one measure of starts and earnings, respectively. Seventeen variables were used 10 times or more, with the top five comprising: ‘return to racing’, ‘number of starts’, ‘days to first start’, ‘earnings per period of time’ and ‘earnings per start’. Main limitations: The search strategies may not have identified all relevant papers, introducing bias to the review. Conclusions: Performance indices have been developed to improve assessment of interventions; however, they are not widely adopted in the scientific literature. Use of the two most commonly identified measures, whether the horse returned to racing and number of starts over a defined period of time, would best facilitate future systematic reviews and meta‐analyses in advance of the development of a gold‐standard measure of race performance outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to analyze the effects of stallion and mare, their ages, and maternal lineage on the gestation length (GL) in Thoroughbreds. In addition, additive genetic effects of the dam, stallion and fetus were analyzed. Data were taken from 1993 through 2009, and included 16,226 pregnancies from 5959 Th oroughbred mares mated with 290 different stallions. All analyses were performed using linear mixed models. The GL ranged from 306 to 390 days, with a mean length of 347.0 ± 14.4 days. Mating of mares with stallions aged 17 years and older resulted in a significantly longer GL compared to younger stallions. Furthermore, the GL significantly increased with the increasing age of the mares, and the GL was longer with male foals. The month and year of breeding, as well as the mare´s breeding history (parity and reproductive status) also affected GL. The mare and stallion themselves explained 18% and 4% of the variance in GL. Coefficients of inbreeding of mares and foals had no significant effect on GL. The heritability for the GL was 0.17 for the dam and 0.006 for the fetus, whereas an additive genetic paternal effect was not estimable. The relative proportions among the additive genetic and permanent environmental contributions of the dam were 76.5% and 23.5%. A maternal lineage effect was not obvious. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horseracing as a high-risk sport can pose a significant risk to equine welfare. To date no epidemiological reviews of fall risk in horseracing have investigated the risks specific to point-to-point (PTP) racing. This study aimed to identify the main race level risk factors associated with horse falls in Irish PTP and to compare these to published findings for hurdle and steeplechase racing. The study used a retrospective case-control design. Relevant variables were identified and information was collated for all PTP races in the 2013/14 and 2014/15 seasons. Race-level variables were analysed through univariable analysis to inform multivariable model building. A final multivariable logistic regression model was refined, using fall/no fall as the dependent variable, through a backward stepwise process with variables retained if likelihood ratio test P-values were <0.05. During the study period 1,358 PTP races were recorded, 727 races (54%) included at least one horse fall. The fall frequency noted during the current study was 88/1000 starts. Race category impacted the odds of a fall occurring with all categories of maiden races having increased odds of falls compared to open races. Maiden races for 6 year olds and 6 and 7 year olds had the greatest chance of falling with 6.9 times increased odds. The chance of a race containing a fall increased 38% for each additional runner and was reduced by 25% for every horse that pulled up during the race. Using a larger data set could enable further sub-models to be developed. In the current study some of the variables had a low number of cases and/or controls which limited the analysis. Retrospective analysis of fall risk exposed some risk factors that have been previously identified in hurdle and steeplechase racing. The variables identified could inform future research and interventions aimed at improving horse and jockey safety whilst racing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using information for 3,562 thoroughbreds listed in Keeneland's 2011 September yearling sale, hedonic pricing models were estimated using both ordinary least squares regression and a Heckman selection model to test the adverse selection hypothesis that vertically integrated sellers whom breed and race are penalised with bid shading relative to sellers whom only breed, ceteris paribus. Though the null hypothesis of no adverse selection was not rejected in the standard regression model, when taking into account censoring due to sellers withdrawing listed yearlings prior to the auction the null hypothesis was rejected. However, the impact of adverse selection was greatly attenuated by bid shading associated with the reputation effect of sellers, both those whom are vertically integrated and those whom just breed horses, willing to accept final bids less than the stud fee further lessening the winner's curse in the auction. This seller type is new to the literature and as such is a key innovation of this research. The models controlled for other observable characteristics of the yearlings as well as those of the seller and the design of the auction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Incomplete ossification of the cuboidal bones of the carpus and tarsus in foals has the potential for significant consequences including chronic lameness and decreased athletic ability. Objectives To determine if the degree of ossification of the cuboidal bones is associated with gestational length and if the diagnosis of incomplete ossification is a predictor of performance in Thoroughbred racehorses. Study design Retrospective cohort study. Methods The medical records of Thoroughbred foals less than 90 days of age from 1994 to 2011 were examined and records containing tarsal radiographs identified. Radiographs of the tarsus were examined for signs of incomplete ossification and those that were incompletely ossified graded on a scale of 1-4 using a modification of a previously reported index, with Grade 1 being the least ossified and Grade 4 being the most. Gestational length was determined by examining breeding records and foaling dates reported to the Jockey Club. Race records for 2- and 3-year-old affected foals and their maternal siblings were obtained and compared. Results Foals with Grades 1 and 2 ossification were usually premature (gestation length <325 days), but Grades 3 and 4 were not. Foals with Grades 2 and 3 ossification were significantly less likely to race than their maternal siblings and Grades 1, 2, 3 and 4 foals earned less money. Main limitations A larger sample size of foals with Grade 1 ossification would increase the power of the study. Foals radiographed at an older age may have had lower ossification scores if radiographed earlier. Conclusions Incomplete ossification, especially Grades 1 and 2, is associated with a short gestation length. Foals with Grades 2 and 3 incomplete ossification were less likely to race and Grades 1, 2 and 3 earned around $30,000 less than their maternal siblings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetics is important for breeding and selection of horses but there is a lack of well-established horse-related browsers or databases. In order to better understand horses, more variants and other integrated information are needed. Thus, we construct a horse genomic variants database including expression and other information. Horse Single Nucleotide Polymorphism and Expression Database (HSDB) (http://snugenome2.snu.ac.kr/HSDB) provides the number of unexplored genomic variants still remaining to be identified in the horse genome including rare variants by using population genome sequences of eighteen horses and RNA-seq of four horses. The identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were confirmed by comparing them with SNP chip data and variants of RNA-seq, which showed a concordance level of 99.02% and 96.6%, respectively. Moreover, the database provides the genomic variants with their corresponding transcriptional profiles from the same individuals to help understand the functional aspects of these variants. The database will contribute to genetic improvement and breeding strategies of Thoroughbreds.

Copy number variations (CNVs), important genetic factors for study of human diseases, may have as large of an effect on phenotype as do single nucleotide polymorphisms. Indeed, it is widely accepted that CNVs are associated with differential disease susceptibility. However, the relationships between CNVs and gene expression have not been characterized in the horse. In this study, we investigated the effects of copy number deletion in the blood and muscle transcriptomes of Thoroughbred racing horses. We identified a total of 1,246 CNVs of deletion polymorphisms using DNA re-sequencing data from 18 Thoroughbred racing horses. To discover the tendencies between CNV status and gene expression levels, we extracted CNVs of four Thoroughbred racing horses of which RNA sequencing was available. We found that 252 pairs of CNVs and genes were associated in the four horse samples. We did not observe a clear and consistent relationship between the deletion status of CNVs and gene expression levels before and after exercise in blood and muscle. However, we found some pairs of CNVs and associated genes that indicated relationships with gene expression levels: a positive relationship with genes responsible for membrane structure or cytoskeleton and a negative relationship with genes involved in disease. This study will lead to conceptual advances in understanding the relationship between CNVs and global gene expression in the horse.

Wearable sensing technologies are increasingly used in human and equine gait research to improve ecological validity of research findings. It is unclear how these tools have penetrated the equine industry or what perspectives industry stakeholders’ hold in relation to these relatively new devices. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with Irish equine industry stakeholders to understand their perception of objective tools for biomechanical analysis in the field. The study participants came from professional/elite backgrounds in both the sport horse (n = 6) and thoroughbred (n = 6) sectors. The interview data were analysed using thematic analysis, resulting in four analytical themes. The first theme conveys the importance of tacit knowledge and experience in the holistic analysis of a horse. Theme two highlights that the perfect horse does not exist therefore, equine athlete management is complex and requires a multi-layered problem-solving approach. Theme three describes an awareness among stakeholders of technologies, however they are sceptical of their value. The final theme identified that one of the key barriers to technology adoption is the economic value of the horse and the cost of implementing technology herd-wide. Our findings highlight the need for a user-centred design in this domain, which requires greater consultation and learning between technology developers and equine stakeholders to develop fit-for-purpose analysis and monitoring tools.

Jumps racing involves a higher risk of accident and fatality than flat racing. The wide accessibility of media, combined with alternate views regarding the place of animals in society, raises the question of the acceptability of the continuation of jumps racing. Racing data and media articles from Newztext and Google news search were collected for the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 jumps racing seasons, during which the fatality rate was 5.8 per 1000 starters. Jumps racing articles comprised 3.4% of all race reporting, and the volume of discussion about jumps racing was minimal (2.9% of jumps race articles related to the continuation of jumps racing), short-lived and related to horse fatalities. Articles were categorised and analysed using rhetorical analysis to determine the main arguments. The inherent risk posed by jumps racing to the horse formed a basis for two argumentative positions. Proponents of jumps racing argued that risks were reasonable, with risk minimisation measures best determined by expertise and care from within the racing industry, labelling opponents as naïve extremists. Opponents of jumps racing used anthropomorphism of the horse to argue that any risk was unacceptable and jumps racing should be banned. Horses were attributed with rights, and from this perspective, the racing industry exploited horses for entertainment. These two different arguments were used to shape claims for and against the continuation of jumps racing, allowing both to be built upon a shared acceptance of inherent risk.

Previous work has demonstrated that 2-year-old horses in race training experience a decrease in inflammatory cytokine production as work at higher speeds progresses. The goal of this study was to determine whether training methods influence inflammatory gene production in 2-year-old horses; as such, two groups of horses trained using different high-speed training regimens (traditional, twice weekly, flat-track training on an all-weather surface vs. once weekly training on a grass track and regular work over undulating hills) were enrolled in this study. Peripheral blood samples were obtained on a weekly basis to measure the in vivo inflammatory mRNA expression of 10 different markers. Relationships between the markers were analyzed, and an Inflammation Score (IS) created from the average of all 10 markers for comparison between the two different training groups. Overall, while there were multiple marker relationships between the groups that were expected based on established inflammatory pathways, there were also relationships seen only in one group instead of the other, including a novel, positively correlated relationship between IL-17 and VEGFA in the traditional training group. Additionally, over time, the traditionally-trained group experienced a significantly increased IS compared with the grass-trained group, demonstrating that some training regimens may induce more inflammation in horses than others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to evaluate whether radiographic abnormalities at yearling sales were associated with the failure to start racing at 2-3 years of age. Radiographic abnormalities in the carpal (n=852), tarsal (n=976), metacarpophalangeal (n=1,055), and metatarsophalangeal joints (n=1,031) from 1,082 horses, recorded at yearling sale, were reviewed. Eighty-two horses (7.6%) failed to start racing. Radiographic abnormalities such as wedged or collapsed tarsal bones, irregular lucency of a sagittal ridge at the distal aspect of the distal third metatarsal bone, and proximal dorsal fragmentation of the first phalanx in metatarsophalangeal joints were associated with failure to start racing in these horses. In the follow-up survey of 12 horses with one or more these radiographic abnormalities, the horses failed to start racing due to reasons unrelated to these radiographic abnormalities such as pelvic fractures (2 horses), fracture of a distal phalanx (1 horse), cervical stenotic myelopathy and proximal sesamoid fracture (1 horse), superficial digital flexor tendonitis (2 horses), laryngeal hemiplegia (1 horse), economic problems (2 horses) and unknown causes (3 horses). Although radiographic abnormalities at yearling sales can be associated with failure to start racing at 2-3 years of age, these radiographically detected abnormalities might not necessarily cause that failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Few studies have described incidences of proximal limb and pelvic fracture ( PLPF) in Thoroughbred racehorses occurring on race day and during training. Information regarding clinical presentations and future racing careers in cases of PLPF is limited. Objectives To describe the incidence, clinical presentation and outcome of PLPF sustained by horses in racing and training at the Hong Kong Jockey Club ( HKJC) between 2003 and 2014. Study design Retrospective cohort study. Methods Horses with PLPF confirmed by nuclear scintigraphy, ultrasonography, radiography or post-mortem examination were identified using veterinary clinical records. Training and racing data for case horses were described. Incidences of fractures were estimated per 1000 horses in training and per 1000 race starts for fractures sustained during racing. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the study population. Results A total of 129 instances of PLPF were sustained by 108 racehorses. The most commonly fractured bone was the humerus (49.6%), followed by the tibia (29.4%). Nine horses sustained fatal fractures, eight of which occurred during racing. The incidence of fracture during racing was 0.30 per 1000 starts. Two-thirds of fractures occurred during training. The majority of horses presented with grade 3 lameness (n = 42 of 119 injury events, 35.3%). All horses presenting with grade 5 lameness sustained fatal injuries. Following noncatastrophic injury, all horses underwent box rest and 81 horses subsequently resumed racing; 45 of these won a race. Horses were retired at a median of 25 months (interquartile range: 15-36 months) after injury. Main limitations Protocols for resting non-training racehorses at the HKJC and for recording rehabilitation regimens post-injury prevented the calculation of horse days at risk. Conclusions The incidence of PLPF at the HKJC is low. Non-fatal PLPF is not necessarily a career-ending injury and many horses resume racing successfully following conservative treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring racehorse fatality and associated jockey falls provides benchmarks for intervention strategies. The aims of this study were to describe the incidence of and reasons for fatalities in Thoroughbred horses during flat races in the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales (NSW), Australia, and to describe reported jockey falls and injuries associated with racehorse fatalities. A cohort study identified all racehorse fatalities reported through Racing NSW for the 2009–2010 to 2013–2014 racing seasons. Risks of racehorse fatality, fatal musculoskeletal injury, spontaneous death (as distinct from euthanasia) and racehorse fatality associated jockey falls and injuries were calculated using Poisson regression. A total of 167 horse fatalities were reported, with an overall incidence of 0.59 deaths/1000 starts. Forty-nine reasons for horse fatality were reported, although post-mortem examinations were conducted on only 52/165 (31.5%) horses. Musculoskeletal injury accounted for 144/167 (86.2%) fatalities, with an incidence of 0.52/1000 starts. Fractures comprised 96/167 (57.5%) fatalities, with the fetlock or proximal sesamoid bones being the most common fracture location, comprising 36/96 (37.5%) fractures. Only 22/166 (13.3%) racehorse fatalities were due to spontaneous death, representing an incidence of 0.08/1000 starts. A total of 50 racehorse fatality associated jockey falls were reported (incidence of 0.18/1000 starts), with 32 reported jockey injuries (incidence of 0.12/1000 starts). Most racehorse fatality associated jockey injuries occurred to the limbs (17/32, 53.1%), particularly the upper limb. The estimates for both horse fatality and associated jockey injury were comparable with previous estimates from other jurisdictions internationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage ( EIPH) is commonly implicated as a cause of poor athletic performance but there is limited and conflicting evidence for this association. Objectives The aim of this study was to determine if EIPH, based on endoscopic examination after racing, is associated with a variety of novel and established performance parameters. Study design Prospective, observational cross-sectional study. Methods Thoroughbred racehorses competing between 2012 and 2015 were examined on-course no earlier than 30 min after racing. Examinations were recorded and graded blindly by experienced veterinarians using a 0-4 scale. Linear mixed effect models were used for analysis of continuous response variables with horse name incorporated as a random effect to account for repeated sampling and horse variability. Generalised estimating equations were used for analysis of binary responses. Performance variables were examined in 2 models, comparing EIPH grade 0 to grades 1-4, and EIPH grade ≤2 compared with EIPH grades ≥3, controlling race factors that could influence performance. Results There were 3794 observations collected from 1567 horses. EIPH was detected in 55.1% of observations. Horses with grade 4 EIPH were significantly more likely to have a lower finishing position and finish further behind the winner, less likely to place in the first 3 positions and collect race earnings, collected less earnings per race start and were slower over the last 600 m of the race than horses without EIPH (grade 0). Similar associations were seen in Model 2, with horses with EIPH grade ≥3 having inferior performance when compared to horses with EIPH ≤2. Main limitations Enrolment was voluntary. Conclusion Mild to moderate haemorrhage was not associated with inferior race day performance in this population of Thoroughbred racehorses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Postmortem lesions and cause of death were evaluated retrospectively for 963 horses examined as part of the Ontario Racing Commission Death Registry over a 13-y period. The Death Registry was established in 2003 to identify factors leading to death or euthanasia of racehorses in this Canadian province. Postmortem examination was carried out on 56% of horses reported to the Death Registry and included Standardbred, Thoroughbred, and American Quarter Horses. Musculoskeletal injury was the most common reason for death associated with racing or training among all racehorses and involved 68% of horses. A history of sudden death during or immediately following exercise was described for 31% of racing- or training-associated deaths, and in 16% of all horses in the study. Sudden death occurred in horses of all breeds, and our report describes lesions associated with sudden death in a series of Standardbreds. The cause of death in these cases was most frequently attributed to cardiopulmonary lesions. The cause of death was undetermined in 20% of sudden death cases, and it is speculated that cardiac arrhythmia may have contributed to these deaths. Injection-associated death was documented in 4% of the study population. Lesions among horses whose death was not associated with exercise were similar to those in other equine populations, and lesions involving the gastrointestinal system were most common. Standardization of pathology reporting of pulmonary and other lesions in racehorse postmortem cases would allow direct comparison of results among racehorse populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine associations between carpal and fetlock conformation and later performance, 292 two-year-old (2YO) Thoroughbred horses were examined at a public auction. Two observers graded carpal and fetlock conformation in the frontal view, and subject weights were estimated (weight tape), and height was measured. Subject age, gender, and workout distance and time were retrieved from sales data. Lifetime racing data was retrieved from the Jockey Club database. Mild to moderate deviations from straight forelimb conformation at the carpus or fetlock occurred in 85% of 2YO Thoroughbreds and had no substantive effect on lifetime racing performance. Carpal and fetlock conformation are associated. Greater age, female gender and faster workout were associated with better short and long-term racing outcomes. The ability to start a race at 2YO was associated with improvements in several measures of racing success. The lack of an association of forelimb conformation with most measures of racing performance will assist producers and consumers of young racing stock in the determination of the need for corrective procedures in young horses and the importance of deviations at purchase. Speed of workout and the ability to start at 2YO were associated with each other and with an improvement in several racing outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Osteochondrosis is considered multifactorial in origin, with factors such as nutrition, conformation, body size, trauma and genetics thought to contribute to its pathogenesis. Few studies have investigated the effects of genetic variability of osteochondrosis in Thoroughbreds. Objectives To describe the prevalence and genetic variability of a subset of osteochondrosis lesions in a group of Thoroughbred yearlings. Study design Retrospective cohort study. Methods Radiographs of 1962 Thoroughbred yearlings were retrieved from clinical records obtained between 2005 and 2013. Pedigree information was obtained from the Australian Stud Book. Osteochondrosis lesions were documented in selected joints and estimates of heritability were obtained by fitting linear mixed models in ASREML software. Results The overall prevalence of osteochondrosis was 23%. Osteochondrosis was identified in 10% of stifle joints, 6% of hock joints and 8% of fetlock joints. The heritability estimates ranged from 0 to 0.21. The largest estimates were 0.10, 0.14, 0.16 and 0.21 for lesions of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia, dorso-proximal proximal phalanx (P1), any stifle osteochondrosis, and lesions of the lateral trochlear ridge of the distal femur, respectively. Although calculated heritability estimates had high standard errors, meta-analyses combining the present results with published estimates were significant at 0.10, 0.17, 0.15 and 0.20 for stifle, tarsal, fetlock and these joints combined, respectively. In addition, there was a permanent environment attributable to the dam effect. Main limitations Inclusion criteria were based on radiographic findings in specific joints at a specific age range in Thoroughbreds. Conclusions The present results indicate that only a proportion of osteochondrosis in Thoroughbreds is heritable. The permanent environment effects of the dam were observed to have effects on some categories of osteochondrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protein encoded by PPARCGla gene is a key regulator of genes involved in energy metabolism. Numerous studies indicate that PPARGCla gene may be a good marker for athletic performance in horses. Therefore the aim of this study was to detect polymorphisms in the promoter region of PPARGCla gene and to evaluate its presence in horses belonging to nine different breeds (n = 268) as well as in elite and non-elite Thoroughbred racehorses with known racing outcomes (n = 276). By sequencing regulatory region of equine PPARGCla gene one novel SNP (g.100.784.525 C>G) was detected which changes transcription factors binding sites. To genotype polymorphism PCR-RFLP method was applied. Frequency of alleles and genotypes showed considerable differentiation in analyzed breeds. GG genotype was found only in Standardbred, Polish Heavy Draft horses and Purebred Arabian (0.04-0.13). The distribution of PPARGC1A genotypes was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium except Polish Heavy Draft horses (P≤0.05). Moreover disproportionate presence of the GC genotype in elite Thoroughbred racehorses over the CC genotype in the non-elite population (OR=1.69) was noticed. Similarly GC genotype was overrepresented in distance runners in relation to sprinters analyzing all Thoroughbreds (OR=2.00) as well as only elite horses (OR=1.31). While there are multiple genes involved in athletic performance, given the association of PPARGC1A to mitochondrial biogenesis and conversion slow-twitch type I muscle fibers, this novel SNP may explain adaption in aerobic metabolism. The relationship between genotypes and gene expression should be performed next to evaluate its functional role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Racehorses in New Zealand predominantly train counter clockwise. This training pattern has been associated with between forelimb differences in bone mineral density profile and asymmetrical limb loading after training. At present, there is limited data on the hoof conformation of these racehorses. Distal forelimb and digital hoof conformation data were collected from 75 Thoroughbred racehorses (2–5 years old) from two training yards. Digital conformation was subjectively graded, and multiple hoof measurements were made with a modified tire gauge (sole and sulci depth) and from digital photographs. All the horses were shod by two registered master farriers within a median of 15 (interquartile range [IQR], 1–25) days before measurement. There were few distal limb conformation abnormalities scored. Most (62/75) horses presented with some deviation from normal hoof parameters, with 2 (IQR, 1–3) abnormalities reported per horse. The most common hoof abnormality was uneven sulci, which was identified in 43 horses and 59 affected hooves, followed by higher medial hoof wall height in 38 horses and 53 affected hooves. Many of the linear and hoof angle measurements and their ratios were within the bounds reported within the literature and indicative of a balanced foot. The length and width measurements increased with horse age. The dorsal hoof wall (DHW) length:heel length ratios were consistently less than 3:1, and the absolute difference between toe and heel angle was generally greater than 5°. Between limb hoof variation was identified for a number of the morphologic measurements including frog length and sole length and the ratio of sole width:sole length. Flat feet (lack of concave solar surface) were identified in 21/75 (28%) horses and in 28/150 (19%) forelimb hoofs. More horses had a flat left foot (10/75) than right foot (4/75), but seven horses had both feet classified as being flat. Flat feet had 2.4 (1.1–5.6, P = .036) greater odds of presenting with uneven sulci. These data indicate that uneven sulci depth and flatter hooves with may be a typical presentation of Thoroughbred feet. Asymmetry in measurements between limb may reflect the greater loading of the left forelimb when race training counter clockwise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the dissection and skeletal examination of 151 horses, a congenital malformation (CM) of the first sternal rib that influenced the aperture of the Thoracic inlet was noted in six horses. The presentation of this CM was variable between horses in gross anatomic appearance; notably, an absent first sternal rib, bifid tuberculum costae, bifid sternochondral articulation onto the sternum, flared shaft, normal first sternal rib inserting onto the cranial branch of a bifid sternochondral articulating second sternal rib, straight costal shaft, and an articulating rudimentary tuberculum costae with a ligamentous extension replacing the bony shaft and attaching to a rudimentary sternochondral articulation onto the sternum. Of the 151 horses examined, the CM of the first sternal rib was restricted to 6/60 Thoroughbred horses, and only in those that were affected by either the unilateral or bilateral transposition of the caudal ventral tubercle from C6 onto the ventral surface of C7. The normal anatomic presentation of the thoracic inlet was altered, along with associative musculature including neurological pathways. These CMs are likely to produce clinical and functional ramifications of the thoracic inlet, thoracic limb, and thoracic viscera, with the probability of altering postural and locomotive function as noted in four horses demonstrating the CM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AIMS: To describe selected periparturient variables in a sample of Thoroughbred mares and their foals on a commercial stud farm in New Zealand. METHODS: Data were collected for 969 foaling records, from 592 mares, by foaling attendants from one Thoroughbred stud farm in the Waikato region of New Zealand for the breeding seasons 2008–2013, inclusive, and collated retrospectively. The associations between mare- and foal-level variables and gestation length, time of birth (expressed as the number of hours after midday), fetal membrane retention time, time for the foal to stand and suckle after birth, and foal mortality were quantified using linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Mean gestation length for mares in this study was 350 (min 296, max 429) days, and was shorter for filly foals (348 (min 296, max 429) days) compared with colt foals (350 (min 310, max 404) days) (p=0.001). Overall, 517/968 (53%) foalings occurred between 19:00 and 01:00 and 212/968 (22%) foalings occurred during daylight. Overall, 815/855 (95%) expelled their fetal membranes within 4 hours of parturition. The mean interval from birth to standing and to suckling was shorter (p<0.001) for filly foals than colts by 13 (95% CI=9–17) and 17 (95% CI=8–26) minutes, respectively. Dystocia was reported for 81/968 (8.4%) foalings with relative fetal oversize being the most common cause (36/81 (44%) cases). Perinatal foal death was recorded for 26/966 (2.7%) foalings. The odds of foal mortality decreased with increasing length of gestation (p=0.027), and were greater for colt than filly foals (p=0.042) and when dystocia was reported (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Gestation length was influenced by the sex of the foal, as was the time taken for the foal to stand and suckle after birth. One fifth of mares foaled during daylight hours. The majority of mares in this study population expelled their fetal membranes within 4 hours of foaling. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Accurate measures for periparturient behaviour can be important in the management of mares and newborn foals. Clinically relevant differences appear to exist between mares and foals in New Zealand and those in the Northern Hemisphere for some key parameters, likely as a result of differences in management and environment. The results of this study suggest that mares should be considered to have retained their membranes if not passed within 4 hours of parturition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thoroughbreds are best known for their careers as racehorses, a career that often concludes between the ages of 3 and 6. After racing, Thoroughbreds can perform successfully in other disciplines like eventing and dressage. However, the owner demand for off-the-track Thoroughbreds (OTTBs) as mounts for second careers is not well characterized. Therefore, the objective of this study is to quantify the buyer demand for OTTBs that have started second riding careers and are being marketed through a virtual auction. Horse and auction characteristics were collected on 170 Thoroughbred horses across 39 online sport horse auctions between 2012 and 2020. Data were analyzed using ANOVA (α = 0.05) and mean separations were assessed using Tukey's HSD when appropriate (STATA 16). Bids ranged from $100 to $20,000 and the average was $2,528.25 ± 3,011.37 (mean ± SD). Horse age impacted (P = 0.001) the bid price, where each additional year increased bid price by $430.50 ± 158.7. However, when the age was squared to model an aging horse, bid price decreased (P = 0.001) with age (-$22.91 ± 6.74). Additionally, geldings brought a premium of $924.08 ± 427.84 over mares, displaying buyer preference for geldings. Horse color, especially chestnuts ($1,071.07 ± 555.28; P = 0.05) and grays or roans ($1,054.05 ± 536.41; P = 0.05), brought premiums over bay or black horses. Horse height did not (P > 0.05) impact bid price, nor did Jockey Club registration (P > 0.05) or previous training in most English riding disciplines (P > 0.05). Horses listed as trail riding mounts, though, received discounts (-$1,599.46 ± 604.58; P = 0.001) compared with other disciplines. Of the auction logistics, only registration in USEF or USHJA or USEA affected (P = 0.01) bid price, where registration increased sale price by $1,967.33 ± 820.24. This interest shows that bidders value horse registration and could suggest a valuable tool for sellers to increase their horse's bid price. By characterizing the discounts and premiums for horse and auction characteristics, equine bidders can better expect what a horse may sell for, and which attributes could lend them more competition when actively bidding. Additionally, sellers can use this information to not only calculate what premiums or discounts their horse may sell with, but sellers can increase their horse's bid by enhancing their profile with registration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Horse racing is a major sport practiced worldwide. The environment to which horses are exposed during race meetings can influence their behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, a method for assessing a horse's response to its surroundings during the pre- and post-race periods has not yet been reported. This study aimed to create a standard list of descriptors for use in a qualitative behavioral assessment (QBA) focused on assessing the emotional expressivity of horses before and after racing events., Materials and Methods: Seventy pre- or post-race 30-second videos of horses were randomly selected from our database of 700 videos. A panel of 8 experienced equine sports medicine specialist veterinarians watched a 60 min presentation on QBA. The panel then watched all videos randomly, simultaneously, individually, continuously, and without any verbal interaction, describing the descriptors related to the emotional expressivity of the horse after each video using a method known as free-choice profiling (FCP)., Results: The initial selection of descriptors was based on those indicated by more than one evaluator in the same video, or descriptors with more than 20 occurrences. The second selection was performed based on the content validity index (CVR) to select the descriptors retained in the previous step. Another panel of six veterinarians scored each of the descriptors retained for content validity on a visual scale. Interobserver reliability was estimated using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and its respective 95% confidence intervals (CI). A natural language processing (NLP) algorithm was used to analyze the behavior (positive or negative polarity) of the descriptors based on the lexicoPT package of R software., Discussion/conclusion: NLP analysis considered the descriptors "agitated," "troubled," "restless" and "irritated" to have a negative polarity, while "focused," "relaxed" and "peaceful" had a positive polarity. In the principal component analysis (PCA), descriptors in a negative state were associated with each other and inversely associated with descriptors in a positive state. We conclude with a fixed list of descriptors to be used in a QBA to assess emotional and welfare expressivity in racehorses' pre- and post-race environments., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Jaramillo, Oliveira, Silva, Trindade and Baccarin.)

Background: Up-to-date estimates of early-life morbidity and mortality in Thoroughbreds are lacking., Methods: A birth cohort was established on Thoroughbred stud farms across the UK and Ireland. All veterinary interventions for disease or injury between birth and 18 months of age or leaving the study were recorded. Multilevel Poisson regression models with farm and foal as random effects were fitted to estimate incidence rates., Results: Data were available for 3328 foal-months at risk for 275 foals on seven farms. The overall rates of disease and injury requiring veterinary intervention and mortality were 11.9 cases/100 foal-months at risk (95% confidence interval [CI] 8.6-16.2) and 0.2 cases/100 foal-months at risk (95% CI 0.1-0.4), respectively. Almost half (n = 133/273, 49%, 95% CI 43-55) of the live-born cohort required veterinary intervention for musculoskeletal disease or injury, equating to 5.8 cases/100 foal-months at risk (95% CI 4.1-8.2), predominantly reported as developmental orthopaedic disease (DOD)., Limitations: Convenience sampling of participants may affect the generalisability of the findings., Conclusions: Rates of musculoskeletal disease and injury, in particular DOD, on Thoroughbred stud farms were high. Further work to identify modifiable risk factors and further understanding of the economic impact of these conditions and long-term consequences for musculoskeletal health and performance is required., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Record published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Veterinary Association.)

Gene doping, which is prohibited in horseracing and equestrian sports, can be performed by introducing exogenous genes, known as transgenes, into the bodies of postnatal animals. To detect exogenous genes, a method utilizing quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) with a hydrolysis probe was developed to test whole blood and plasma samples, thereby protecting the fairness of competition and the rights of stakeholders in horseracing and equestrian sports. Therefore, we aimed to develop sample storage methods suitable for A and B samples in gene doping tests using blood. For sample A, sufficient qPCR detection was demonstrated after refrigeration for 1 to 2 weeks post collection. For sample B, the following procedures were confirmed to be suitable for storage: 1) centrifugation after sample receipt, 2) frozen storage, 3) natural thawing at room temperature, and 4) centrifugation without mixing blood cell components. Our results indicated that long-term cryopreservation yielded good plasma components from frozen blood samples even though it destroyed blood cells, indicating its applicability to the gene doping test using sample B, which can be stored for later use. Sample storage procedures are as important as detection methods in doping tests. Therefore, the series of procedures that we evaluated in this study will contribute to the efficient performance of gene doping tests through qPCR using blood samples., (©2023 The Japanese Society of Equine Science.)

In the genomes of diploid organisms, runs of homozygosity (ROH), consecutive segments of homozygosity, are extended. ROH can be applied to evaluate the inbreeding situation of individuals without pedigree data and to detect selective signatures via ROH islands. We sequenced and analyzed data derived from the whole-genome sequencing of 97 horses, investigated the distribution of genome-wide ROH patterns, and calculated ROH-based inbreeding coefficients for 16 representative horse varieties from around the world. Our findings indicated that both ancient and recent inbreeding occurrences had varying degrees of impact on various horse breeds. However, recent inbreeding events were uncommon, particularly among indigenous horse breeds. Consequently, the ROH-based genomic inbreeding coefficient could aid in monitoring the level of inbreeding. Using the Thoroughbred population as a case study, we discovered 24 ROH islands containing 72 candidate genes associated with artificial selection traits. We found that the candidate genes in Thoroughbreds were involved in neurotransmission ( CHRNA6 , PRKN , and GRM1 ), muscle development ( ADAMTS15 and QKI ), positive regulation of heart rate and heart contraction ( HEY2 and TRDN ), regulation of insulin secretion ( CACNA1S , KCNMB2 , and KCNMB3 ), and spermatogenesis ( JAM3 , PACRG , and SPATA6L ). Our findings provide insight into horse breed characteristics and future breeding strategies.

Live weights and 21 body measurements of 110 adult brood mares from Thoroughbred breed were evaluated in Hungary. Body measurements and some body measure indices were determined. One way ANOVA was used to compare the studs. Regression equations were developed to estimate the live weight from body measurements. Population genetic parameters of the examined traits were estimated. Only few differences among studs, concerning evaluated body measurements, were presented - firstly: body measurements, related to the kilter and nutritional status (hearth girth) - were significant. Between the mentioned traits and the live weight medium positive correlation (r = 0.47 - 0.79; P

Little is known about the types of surfaces used during training of Thoroughbred racehorses or methods of exercise used in addition to ridden track-work. Our aims were to (1) describe the types of surfaces used in the training of Thoroughbred racehorses and to (2) identify alternative approaches used to exercise horses in addition to, or in place of, ridden overground track-work. Information regarding surface and alternative exercise methods was collected as part of an in-person survey of training practices of 66 registered Thoroughbred trainers in Victoria, Australia. Sand and synthetic surfaces were used by 97% and 36% of trainers respectively for slow-workouts, with galloping on turf training tracks used in training regimens by 82% and synthetic by 58% of trainers. Of those trainers utilising turf tracks, only 34% of gallop training was completed on turf despite turf being the predominant racing surface. Almost 90% of trainers used alternatives to ridden exercise. There is substantial variation in training surface used and alternative types of exercise undertaken by Victorian trainers. Future research should focus on how such practices relate to injury risk, particularly as it relates to the importance of musculoskeletal adaptation to specific race-day surfaces.