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Reasons for performing study Infrared imaging is becoming popular as an aid to traditional diagnostic tools, its repeatability under practically relevant conditions is still discussed. Objectives We hypothesise that time of day, ambient temperature and relative humidity affect thermography readings, and that there is no difference between values from left and right side. Study design Repeated thermography in a convenience sample. Methods Fifteen sound horses were thermographically imaged at 3 time points in the same day (08.00, 12.00 and 16.00 h). Images were taken of the following regions: neck, carpus, distolateral thoracic limbs (cranial and tendon areas), thoracolumbar, pelvis, hock and pelvic limb tendons. Relative humidity and ambient temperature were recorded for each session. Results There was a significant difference between the temperature readings during the 3 imaging sessions in all areas (Friedman and Kruskal–Wallis; all P 0.057). Conclusions Time of day, ambient temperature and relative humidity must be considered when using infrared imaging. Variations between the left and right sides of the horse can occur and should be considered during the analysis of pathological asymmetry. Ethical animal research: Ethical approval was granted from the Royal Veterinary College Ethics and Welfare committee as part of the first and second author's final year research project. Source of funding: Funding was provided by the Royal Veterinary College as part of the first and second authors' final year research project. Competing interests: None declared.

Clinical interventions can cause changes in tissue perfusion, oxygenation or temperature. Real-time imaging of these phenomena could be useful for surgical strategy or understanding of physiological regulation mechanisms. Two noncontact imaging techniques were applied for imaging of large tissue areas: LED based multispectral imaging (MSI, 17 different wavelengths 370 nm-880 nm) and thermal imaging (7.5 to 13.5 μm). Oxygenation concentration changes were calculated using different analyzing methods. The advantages of these methods are presented for stationary and dynamic applications. Concentration calculations of chromophores in tissue require right choices of wavelengths The effects of different wavelength choices for hemoglobin concentration calculations were studied in laboratory conditions and consequently applied in clinical studies. Corrections for interferences during the clinical registrations (ambient light fluctuations, tissue movements) were performed. The wavelength dependency of the algorithms were studied and wavelength sets with the best results will be presented. The multispectral and thermal imaging systems were applied during clinical intervention studies: reperfusion of tissue flap transplantation (ENT), effectiveness of local anesthetic block and during open brain surgery in patients with epileptic seizures. The LED multispectral imaging system successfully imaged the perfusion and oxygenation changes during clinical interventions. The thermal images show local heat distributions over tissue areas as a result of changes in tissue perfusion. Multispectral imaging and thermal imaging provide complementary information and are promising techniques for real-time diagnostics of physiological processes in medicine.

Background Microcirculatory impairment in patients with Raynaud9s phenomenon (RP) may be assessed by different techniques, but real-life data concerning their roles and current usage are not available. Objectives To obtain an overview of the specific techniques which may be used for the assessment of adult patients with RP in clinical and research settings: nailfold videocapillaroscopy (NVC), dermoscopy, stereomicroscopy, and digital USB microscopy, laser Doppler flowmetry, imaging, and anemometry/velocimetry, laser Speckle Contrast Analysis (LASCA), thermographic imaging, upper limb arterial Doppler ultrasound. Methods This survey was conducted online between October and December 2015 on behalf of EULAR study group on Microcirculation in Rheumatic Diseases (SG_MC/RD). Emails with a link to the survey were sent to physicians from the European Scleroderma Trials and Research group (EUSTAR) and SG_MC/RD mailing lists. Of those e-mailed, 418 were physicians looking after adult patients, and this group was considered in the following descriptive analysis. Results Of the 418 eligible physicians, 107 completed the survey, giving an overall response rate of 25.6%. Among the respondents 89 (83.2%) were rheumatologists, 74 (69.2%) European; 87 (81.3%) were practising for more than 10 years and 50% looked after between 31 and 60 patients per year with primary and/or secondary RP. The most routinely performed technique was NVC (63/107, 58.9%) both by rheumatologists and non-rheumatologists (54/89, 60.7% and 9/18, 50.0%). NVC was reported as the most available technique (93/107, 86.9%), and available in the place of work in 78/107 (72.9%) among both rheumatologists and non-rheumatologists. Nailfold capillaroscopy was the most frequently performed by the physician him/herself by using different types of equipment relating to availability: NVC 64/94 (68.0%), dermoscopy 38/63 (60.3%), stereomicroscopy 31/42 (73.8%), and digital USB microscopy 34/39 (87.1%). Most rheumatologists reported high levels of “appropriateness” for NVC in both clinical and research settings for global assessment (86/88, 97.7% clinical setting, 87/88, 98.9% research setting), and differential diagnosis of primary and secondary RP (clinical and research setting both 84/87 96.5%). In clinical setting NVC showed the highest percentage of appropriateness for monitoring primary RP (84/88, 95.4%), RP secondary to connective tissue diseases other than systemic sclerosis (82/87, 94.2%) and to systemic sclerosis (87/87, 100%). All techniques other than capillaroscopy reached a consensus lower than 2/3 of respondents based on their knowledge/experience. In research setting, all techniques were judged as potentially useful with a consensus more than 2/3 of respondents. Conclusions Of all the different techniques upon which opinion was sought, nailfold capillaroscopy was the one most used by physicians looking after adult patients in both clinical and research settings, the majority of whom use NVC in their everyday practice. The low proportion of clinicians using other techniques suggests that these are currently confined to specialist centres. Disclosure of Interest None declared

The objective of this study was to compare the method of thermography by using three different resolution thermal cameras and basic software for thermographic images, separating the two persons taking the thermographic images (thermographers) from the three persons interpreting the thermographic images (interpreters). This was accomplished by studying the repeatability between thermographers and interpreters. Forty-nine client-owned dogs of 26 breeds were enrolled in the study. The thermal cameras used were of different resolutions-80 × 80, 180 × 180 and 320 × 240 pixels. Two trained thermographers took thermographic images of the hip area in all dogs using all three cameras. A total of six thermographic images per dog were taken. The thermographic images were analyzed using appropriate computer software, FLIR QuickReport 2.1. Three trained interpreters independently evaluated the mean temperatures of hip joint areas of the six thermographic images for each dog. The repeatability between thermographers was >0.975 with the two higher-resolution cameras and 0.927 with the lowest resolution camera. The repeatability between interpreters was >0.97 with each camera. Thus, the between-interpreter variation was small. The repeatability between thermographers and interpreters was considered high enough to encourage further studies with thermographic imaging in dogs.

Friction blisters on the foot are a debilitating pathology that have an impact on activities of daily living and can severely impair function. The purpose of this study was to test the hypotheses that digital infrared thermographic imaging will reveal: 1) a correlation between load application to the skin and the creation of blisters, and 2) a correlation between thermographic readings and contact thermometric temperatures.Apparatus was developed to cause the formation of heel blisters through controlled load application (70 kPa). One foot of each of the 30 healthy volunteers (21 men and 9 women), with an age range of 31 ± 8 years, was subjected to load until a blister formed, after which load application ceased and temperature measurements were taken at set times during the following 5.5 h. Temperature measurements were also taken using a contact thermometer.The majority of the participants (77%) blistered within 18 min of load application. All the blisters created showed significant increases in local temperature compared to baseline during blister creation (P0.001) and 30 min post-blister creation (P0.001). There was a strong correlation between contact thermometry and thermographic temperature data (r8).These results suggest that thermographic images may prove useful for the remote assessment of traumatically damaged foot skin.

Digital infrared thermographic imaging (DITI) may be useful as a remote diagnostic tool for assessment of hemorrhagic injury. Under normal ambient temperatures DITI tracks reductions in central blo...

Purpose – This paper proposes a new procedure for measuring affective responses during social interaction using facial thermographic imaging. Methodology – We first describe the results of several small pilot experiments designed to develop and refine this new measure that reveal some of the methodological advantages and challenges offered by this measurement approach. We then demonstrate the potential utility of this measure using data from a laboratory experiment (N=114) in which we used performance feedback to manipulate identity deflection and measured several types of affective responses – including self-impressions and emotions. Findings – We find warming of the brow (near the corrugator muscle) and cheek (near the zygomatic major muscle) related most strongly to emotion valence and self-potency, with those whose brows and cheeks warmed the most feeling less positive emotion and less potent self-impressions. Warming in the eye area (near the orbicularis oculi) related most closely to undirected identity deflection and to positive self-sentiments. Positive self-views and strong identity disruptions both contributed to warming of the eyes. Implications – The rigor of contemporary sociological theories of emotion exceeds our current ability to empirically test these theories. Facial thermographic imaging may offer sociologists new assessments of affect and emotion that are ecologically valid, socially unreactive, temporally sensitive, and accurate. This could dramatically improve our ability to test and develop affect based theories of social interaction.

To assess changes in facial skin temperature over time, to identify sources of variation related to skin temperature and to evaluate interobserver reproducibility in measurements of the thermograms.62 volunteers (32 females, 30 males, mean age 23.4, range 19.5-29.5 years) underwent thermography of the face (left and right side lateral images) on four occasions with approximately 2 months between each session. Three observers recorded the images and marked regions of interest (ROIs) in each image using dedicated software. Smoking, exercise habits and use of oral contraceptives were recorded.A significant difference between sessions (≤1 °C, p0.001) and between observers (≤0.11 °C, p0.001) was identified. The difference between sides was not significant (≤0.07 °C, p=0.7). None of the interactions between side, session and observer were significant. Smoking, exercise habits and oral contraceptive intake were not significant impact factors when included as covariates in the analysis (p0.1). ROI temperature was significantly higher in males than in females (0.7 °C, p0.001). A mixed model analysis of variance showed that observer had little impact on the expected standard deviation, whereas session and subject had a greater impact.Face temperature is symmetrical and varies over time. The non-significant difference between sides is highly reproducible, even between observers.

A total of 47 racing greyhounds were enrolled in this study on two race days (in July and September, resp.) at a racetrack. Twelve of the dogs participated in the study on both days. Thermographic images were taken before and after each race. From the images, superficial temperature points of selected sites (tendo calcaneus, musculus gastrocnemius, musculus gracilis,andmusculus biceps femoris portio caudalis) were taken and used to investigate the differences in superficial temperatures before and after the race. The thermographic images were compared between the right and left legs of a dog, between the raced distances, and between the two race days. The theoretical heat capacity of a racing greyhound was calculated. With regard to all distances raced, the superficial temperatures measured from themusculus gastrocnemiuswere significantly higher after the race than at baseline. No significant differences were found between the left and right legs of a dog after completing any of the distances. Significant difference was found between the two race days. The heat loss mechanisms of racing greyhounds during the race through forced conduction, radiation, evaporation, and panting can be considered adequate when observing the calculated heat capacity of the dogs.

Background Double-blinded challenges are widely used for diagnosing food allergy but are time-consuming and cause severe reactions. Outcome relies on subjective interpretation of symptoms, which leads to variations in outcome between observers. Facial thermography combined with nasal peanut challenge was evaluated as a novel objective indicator of clinical allergy. Methods Sixteen children with positive blinded peanut challenge underwent nasal challenge with 10 μg peanut protein or placebo. Mean skin temperatures were recorded from the mouth and nose using infrared thermography over 18 min. Results The area under curve of nasal skin temperature was significantly elevated after peanut vs placebo (18.2 vs 4.8°Cmin). The maximum increase in temperature was also significantly greater after peanut: mean difference +0.9°C. Conclusion This feasibility study shows thermography can detect inflammation caused by nasal challenges whilst employing one thousand-fold less peanut than an oral challenge. This novel technique could be developed to provide a rapid, safe and objective clinical allergy test.

Background and Purpose: Breast cancer is the leading cause of death among women aged 20–59 years in developed countries, with similar mortality trends, observed among women in Croatia. Breast cancer detection usually relies on mammography, ultrasound (US) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), however, thermography is a noninvasive, reliable and applicable diagnostic procedure for early detection of breast disease that has attracted interest in this field. The aim of this study was to establish the frequency and characteristics of pathological thermographic signs in female patients, who were operated on malignant breast lesions. In addition, the authors offered a simplified description and interpretation of pathological thermographic signs, based on published literature. Matherial and Methods: The seventy four female patients with histopathologically confirmed breast cancer were included in the study. In all patients breast cancer was diagnosed using standard protocol which have included clinical examination, mammography, ultrasound and for selected patients MRI and/or fine needle aspiration (FNA). Thermographic imaging has been conducted 1 to 14 days before scheduled surgical procedures. Results: Mean tumor size positively correlated with number of pathological thermographic signs (IR 3 vs. IR 5, p < 0.05). Mean number of pathological thermographic signs per patient was 3.5±1, 72 (range 1 to 8). The most frequently noted singular signs were heat in area of finding and vascular signs, as well. Conclusion: The simplified description could offer a suitable clinical tool for standardization of pathological thermography signs in malignant breast lesions, taking into account the learning curve of medical teams involved and ethical aspects, as well.

With the dramatic advances in IR imaging technology, the IR imaging technique has the potential to become a promising non-contact in-vivo diagnostic tool for the early detection of melanoma [1] as well as other conditions in which the temperature of the body deviates from normal temperature. Active or dynamic IR (thermal) imaging, which involves introducing external cooling, can induce or enhance relevant thermal contrast observed on the skin surface, leading to temperature differences that can be accurately measured with a properly designed IR imaging system. When the skin surface is cooled down in active IR imaging, the variation in the thermal properties of the lesion located underneath the surface result in identifiable temperature differences from the surrounding healthy tissue in the recovery phase, and therefore the dynamic thermal response of the structure acquired using active imaging provides critical information to distinguish the diseased and healthy tissues. Regarding the effectiveness of the active IR imaging, in this study, the performance of varied cooling parameters, including cooling method, cooling temperature, cooling duration, and cooling depth are discussed. Toward the objective of minimizing the discomfort of patient, by evaluating the transient temperature difference in the recovery phase for varied cooling conditions, our goal is to find out the optimized cooling conditions, which can provide effective thermal response contrast in the recovery phase, while applying appropriate cooling temperature and duration to facilitate the clinical feasibility of this technique. The optimized cooling condition concluded from the simulation will be verified by the in-vivo dynamic thermal imaging experiments.Copyright © 2011 by ASME

Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) is a condition that affects both humans and canines. This disease is painful and degrades the quality of life for those that suffer from it. The current diagnostic methods for this disease are Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and/or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT scan). Both of these diagnostic methods are expensive and time consuming and involve patients being exposed to radiation and strong magnetic fields. In canines in particular, the amount of time it takes to perform one of these scans makes it necessary to sedate the animal as the patient needs to be still during the diagnostic procedure. Use of thermographic imaging for diagnosis, or at least prescreening, patients for IVDD will save money, time and possibly prevent needless radiation exposure. This paper attempts to show that thermal imaging of patients that are candidates for IVDD may be used diagnostically or as a prescreening method.

A new method in medicine for detecting and investigating the illness like breast cancer is the Infrared Thermographic Imaging. An infrared thermal camera takes a temperature map of human body. The exact localization of specific areas from 2-dimensions thermal map is difficult and implies an invasive intervention of medicine doctors. In order to automate this process a special scanner for acquire a 4-dimensions map is used and consist of the 3-D scanner and the temperature sensor. In present paper an example of acquisitions the 4-D temperature map in the breast region is presented.

Bonded repair offers significant advantages over mechanically fastened repair schemes as it eliminates local stress concentrations and seals the interface between the mother structure and the patch. However, it is particularly difficult to assess the efficiency of the bonded repair as well as its performance during service loads. Thermography is a particularly attractive technique for the particular application as it is a non-contact, wide field non destructive method. Phase thermography is also offering the advantage of depth discrimination in layered structures such as in typical patch repairs particularly in the case where composites are used. Lock-in thermography offers the additional advantage of on line monitoring of the loaded structure and subsequently the real time evolution of any progressive debonding which may lead to critical failure of the patched repair. In this study composite systems (CFRP plates) with artificially introduced defects (PTFE) were manufactured. The aforementioned methods were employed in order to assess the efficiency of the thermographic technique. The obtained results were compared with typical C-scans.

Thermographic imaging is a noninvasive diagnostic tool used to document the inflammatory process in many species and may be useful in the detection of subclinical bumblefoot and other inflammatory diseases. Bumblefoot is a chronic inflammation of the plantar metatarsal or digital pads of the foot (pododermatitis), or both. It is one of the major health problems in birds including chickens and is responsible for significant economic losses in commercial poultry operations. Early diagnosis of bumblefoot is essential for the prevention of economical loss and the improvement of animal well-being. The object of this study was to determine the suitability of thermography for the identification of subclinical bumblefoot in chickens. Experiment 1 was designed to validate thermography as a tool for screening avian populations for bumblefoot. The plantar surface of the feet of 150 randomly selected hens was imaged using a thermal camera. The thermal images were identified as suspect, positive, or negative for bumblefoot based on thermal patterns of the plantar surface. Visual inspection of the feet identified as suspect followed 14 d later. A visual score of clinical, mildly clinical, or negative for bumblefoot was assigned, based on gross pathological changes in the plantar surface. A correlation between initial thermal images identified as suspect for bumblefoot and a visual score of positive 14 d later was 83% (P < 0.01). In experiment 2, hens whose feet were free of lesions were inoculated in the metatarsal foot pad with Staphylococcus aureus. Thermal images and visual clinical scores were taken, prechallenge and 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 d postchallenge. The correlation between thermal images classified as clinical and a visual score of clinical for bumblefoot was 86.7% (P < 0.001). However, the correlation between the thermal images classified as mild (subclinical) and a visual score of mild was only 26.7%, suggesting that thermography is a more sensitive indicator of subclinical infection than visual appraisal. Thermography may thus provide a useful tool for screening avian populations for signs of bumblefoot, early in the course of the disease, which will improve recovery percentages and bird well-being.

The detection of subsurface defects in concrete using infrared cameras relies on thermal variations in the ambient environment to provide heat flow. Solar loading can provide significant thermal energy that enables the imaging of subsurface defects. This paper presents results of a study to determine the optimum environmental conditions for conducting thermal inspection of concrete bridges. This study has included continuous monitoring of a large concrete specimen under ambient environmental condition in central Missouri. The thermal contrast of subsurface targets in the specimen has been analyzed to determine the optimum conditions and time for detection of subsurface features as a function of depth. Environmental conditions that result in the largest contrast in surface temperature are discussed.

Objective—To describe a thermographic imaging protocol, identify normal thermographic patterns (ie, color map reflecting the skin temperature distribution) for various regions of interest (ROIs) of dog limbs, and evaluate effects of clipping the coat on thermographic patterns and limb temperature in healthy dogs. Animals—10 healthy dogs. Procedures—Each dog was thermographically evaluated in the same room (ambient temperature, 21°C) via ROIs that included cranial and caudal views of the body, full lateral body views, full views of the limbs, and views of various limb regions. After initial imaging, the coat was clipped on the forelimbs and hind limbs only. Each dog was then evaluated 15 and 60 minutes and 24 hours after clipping by use of the same protocol. Results—For each ROI within a category (intact coat and each time point after clipping), mean temperatures were similar among the 10 dogs. Pairwise comparisons for 15 and 60 minutes and 24 hours established patterns of temperature stabilization among the 3 time points. Temperatures did not differ significantly between the left and right limbs. There was a mean success rate of 75% for use of image pattern analysis for recognition of similar thermographic patterns in the forelimbs and hind limbs. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Thermography can be a viable, noninvasive imaging modality that provides consistent images with reproducible thermal patterns in ROIs examined in healthy dogs. Although the coat had a predictable influence to decrease the mean temperature, thermal patterns remained fairly consistent after the coat was clipped.

The medical infrared thermographic imaging method can quantify the disorders of nervous system, vascular disease, musculo-skeletal disorders and personal pain which could not confirm with anatomical and structural examination such as magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) and computerized tomography(CT) etc.. And this method is non-invasive and non-toxic. Moreover in Chinese medical science, many kinds of study is progressing such as quantifying the changing between hyperthermia and hypothermia, the correlation between trigger point and spots on the body suitable for acupuncture and a blood vessel.

The medical infrared thermographic imaging method, which is rapidly grown with growth of study for pain, physiological electric of metabolism and cancer, has diagnostic meaning as non-invasive measurement for physiological function. Thermographic imaging is useful diagnostic method, because it gives early diagnosis, objective presentations of pain and functional diseases (such as feedback disorder of nervous system, peripheral nerve injury etc.). However, the infrared thermographic imaging system has a weak point such as requirement of large place, high cost, troubles of maintenance etc. Therefore, in this study, a small sized thermographic imaging system using single infrared sensor is suggested, and the thermal data acquisition system is developed. The developed thermographic imaging system with single infrared sensor shows superior performance. Thermal resolution is 0.1 degree and repeatability is 0.2 degree. The acquired data from single sensor is preprocessed and transmitted to PC by serial communication. Finally it is stored to DB for constructing of thermaographic image.

Objective—To determine the amount of time required for surface temperatures of thoracic and pelvic limbs in horses to return to pre-exercise temperatures after high-speed treadmill exercise, as detected via infrared thermographic imaging. Design—Prospective study. Animals—6 Thoroughbreds. Procedures—All horses had been trained on and conditioned to use of a high-speed treadmill. Baseline thermographic images were obtained 3 days prior to exercise (baseline). Horses were exercised on a treadmill at a walk for 5 minutes, a slow trot (3 m/s) for 5 minutes, a trot (5 to 6 m/s) for 5 minutes, and a slow gallop (6 to 8 m/s) for 5 minutes, then back to a trot for 3 minutes, a slow trot for 3 minutes, and a walk for 3 minutes prior to stopping. Thermal images were obtained immediately after stopping exercise (0 minutes) and 5, 15, 45, and 60 minutes and 6 hours after stopping exercise. Ambient temperature surrounding each horse was recorded. Results—In all regions, significant differences in surface temperatures were detected between thermograms obtained before exercise and those obtained immediately after, 5 minutes after, and 15 minutes after exercise was stopped. There were no significant differences in surface temperatures between thermograms obtained before exercise and those obtained ≥ 45 minutes after exercise was stopped. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In horses, images generated via infrared thermography are not influenced by exercise-generated heat ≥ 45 minutes after exercise is stopped.

Annually 133.000 people world-wide get sick on malign melanoma, tendency increasing. The purpose of this study is the early diagnosis of malignant skin cancer. At the moment the dermatologists are screening for anomalies at the relevant lesion by examining the skin area with a microscope. To determine changes, another scan has to be taken in a follow- up session after a time period of about 15-20 weeks. Today's visual diagnostic decision is based on the pragmatic ABCD- approach (Asymmetry, Border, Colour, and Diameter). However, there is no adequate and sound non-invasive way to find out, if a skin spot is either malign or benign. If the visual approach corroborates a suspicion of skin cancer, histology is needed to make explicit diagnosis. To avoid unnecessary surgeries (on false positive alarm) and to initiate necessary surgeries in early stages a new diagnostic screening approach is presented here. Based on the fact that malign melanoma have higher metabolism as well as increased blood flow, it has been conjectured that malign melanoma have slightly higher temperature compared to the healthy skin that can be measured by high resolution functional infrared imaging. an invasive histological examination. To avoid redundant excise of tissue and to detect malignant melanoma in an early stage, a new method is proposed here. Thanks to the facts that malignant melanoma have higher consumption of glucose caused by a higher level of metabolism and an augmented branching of blood vessels, the so called angiogenesis, the temperature should be different to its environment, e.g. the surrounding healthy tissue. Associated with the increased demand of energy, it is conjectured that malignant melanoma shows a higher temperature (2-4 K) than its surrounding skin (4). Infrared imaging has a high potential to detect the beginnings of angiogenesis, when cancer cells first try to develop their own blood supply, which is a necessary step before they can grow rapidly and metastasize. To substantiate the conjecture an infrared imaging devices of the latest generation is used. II. PHYSICS AND INSTRUMENTATION Thermographic imaging makes use of the infrared spectral band. The physical formulas describing this topic are Planck's law, Wien's displacement law and the Stefan- Boltzmann law.

Performing infrared imaging and analysis on buildings or structures is challenging on a good day. More often than not, scanning an entire multi-story building will take several days. It requires patience from the thermographer because he has to let the sun to do its job solar loading the building, or, he may have to wait for the building to radiate its solar load in the cool of the evening. Usually this takes a "whatever the study requires" state of mind and the days are long. An experienced eye is also required to understand the nuances of construction and subtle temperature variations as they appear in an infrared image. Even with optimal conditions and a good uniform solar load, a strong thermographic indication can trip you up when it travels around a corner or into shadows. This condition can frustrate the thermographer, and also make the job longer because he has to wait for the sun to load into the next area of interest to chase out the indication. How do you get around this? This paper presents thermographic techniques to help image indications that run from uniform solar load around corners or through shadows.

Structural sandwich materials composed of triaxially braided polymer matrix composite material face sheets sandwiching a foam core are being utilized for applications including aerospace components and recreational equipment. Since full scale components are being made from these sandwich materials, it is necessary to develop proper inspection practices for their manufacture and in field use. Specifically, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques need to be investigated for analysis of components made from these materials. Hockey blades made from sandwich materials were examined with multiple NDE techniques including thermographic, radiographic, and laser based methods to investigate the manufactured condition of blades and damage induced from play. Hockey blades in an as received condition and damaged blades used in play were investigated with each technique. NDE images from the blades were presented and discussed. Structural elements within each blade were observed with radiographic imaging. Damaged regions and some structural elements of the hockey blades were identified with thermographic imaging. With shearography, structural elements, damaged regions, and other material variations were detected in the hockey blades. Each technique's advantages and disadvantages were considered in making recommendations for inspection of components made from these types of materials.

This study examined the net changes in temperature at various regions of the lower extremities in an attempt to identify the regions demonstrating the most significant temperature changes following a lumbar sympathetic ganglion block (LSGB). Thermography was performed before and after the LSGB in 26 sympathetic nerve system disorder cases. The inspection points were the anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh, the knee and leg, and the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the feet. The net increases in skin temperature following the LSGB (deltaT(net)) at the plantar and dorsal surfaces of the feet, were 6.2 +/- 2.68 degrees C (mean +/- SD) and 3.9 +/- 1.89 degrees C, respectively, which were higher than those observed in the other regions of the lower extremities (p < 0.05). The areas, in order of decreasing deltaT(net), are as follows: the plantar surface of the foot, the dorsal surface of the foot, the shin, the anterior surface of the knee, the calf, the posterior surface of the knee, the anterior surface of the thigh, and the posterior surface of the thigh. There was one case of orthostatic hypotension during the thermography procedure. In conclusion, thermographic imaging is a useful method for demonstrating the success of a LSGB in various diseases. An evaluation of the deltaT(net) on the plantar surface of the feet using thermographic imaging is the most effective, simple, and safe method for assessing a successful LSGB.

A series of laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the ability of acoustic and thermographic methods to evaluate the quality of individual spot welds and the structural integrity of spot-welded joints with andwithout adhesive. Test specimens consisted of spot-welded, adhesive-bonded, and weld-bonded lap joints in steel plates. The quality of the spot welds was altered by varying welding parameters. After nondestructive evaluation, the samples were peeled or subjected to mechanical tests to determine the strength of the welds. Results demonstrate that it is possible to detect defective spot welds in both the thermographic and acoustic images. Techniques are presented that allow identification of "stick" welds characterized by solid but weak contact. Methods to quantify the imaging results are being developed by comparing the acoustic and thermographic images to the data obtained from mechanical strength tests and modeling results.

The use of the image restoration technique of iterative inverse filtering to enhance recorded thermal images is discussed. Potential problems encountered in thermographic imaging are discussed. It is shown how the camera point spread function and slit response functions can be determined. Evaluation of the technique using a calibrated aluminum target is described. >

Photothermographic and thermographic imaging technology based on silver carboxylates have evolved into high quality black and white imaging materials suitable for extremely demanding applications such as medical X-ray and graphic arts films. the unique ability of generating a high quality image that requires only dry processing, without any of the hazards and environmental problems of conventional, wet-processed films for these applications, has provided significant new commercial opportunities for this technology. Major advances in the state of the art have occurred in this field since photothermography of this type was first introduced as Dry Silver in 1964. This article describes the components and their function in these types of imaging systems, their development over the last 40 years, the advances in basic understanding of the current status of the science behind the technology, and prospects for the future. Keywords: photothermography; thermography; silver carboxylates; imaging; dry process; metallic silver

Thermographic analysis is a cost-effective addition to the maintenance engineer's toolbox. Modern infrared imaging systems are capable of determining the temperature of surfaces which cannot easily be touched because they are carrying lethal voltages. Additionally, they are so much faster than a thermometer, that they lend themselves to the study of low voltage equipment also. The author covers some of the ways in which thermographic imaging was used by Bell Atlantic Corporation in eastern Pennsylvania. It is used effectively to uncover potential problems, as well as to reduce maintenance costs. >

Acupuncture treatment is performed using the acupuncture, a needle made of various metals. These acupunctures are injected to the meridian acupuncture points according to the meridian theory and give an adequate stimulus to the body. This makes the control of the movements of the Qi, so that it induces the purpose of the treatment, and prevention of diseases. Cold hypersensitivity is feeling cold when one should not feel cold. This is a disease causing many difficulties in normal life to the patients, but until now the cause of the cold hypersensitivity has not been known. The object of this study is the evaluation of the thermal differences on the meridian points in cold hypersensitivity. When the patients had a cold feeling the authors diagnosed cold hypersensitivity by digital infra-red thermographic imaging (DITI). After the authors acupunctured the patients, they again performed DITI, then they observed the differences between them. Thereafter the authors acupunctured the patients 3 times for a week, and before and after the 3rd treatment, they performed DITI. To evaluate the differences of the meridian points, the authors used the thermal deviation of the DITI. According to this study, 56% of all the cases showed a thermal increase on average. The gradual decreases of thermal deviation may result from the increase of the average body temperature. Concerning the difference of the thermal distributions between extremities, further study may be required.

Medical infrared thermographic imaging has been applied in the past to areas such as detection of breast tumours, deep vein thrombosis and lower limb amputation level assessment. In almost all instances problems were encountered which meant that the technique could not be used alone diagnostically without the support of other tests, and has consequently only found a limited number of applications. In the present study, thermographic images were recorded dynamically during the reheating of skin following cooling to 25°C. Pixel-by-pixel component analysis ofthe images was carried out offline in order to construct the functional parametric images. Normal volunteers were investigated using dynamic thermographic imaging ofthe left volar forearm skin under different experimental conditions. In a further pilot study 6 patients with known tumours were studied in order to investigate whether the lesions could be characterised by abnormalities in the parametric images. The resultant parametric images display information on the heterogeneity of skin blood flow in the areas examined. The heterogeneities observed are very much greater than those obtained with static thermographic images and characteristic patterns appear to emerge under the different experimental conditions. in particular, the early parametric images of breast tumours indicate clear characteristic patterns.

About 5% of British males over 50 years develop peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Of these about 2% ultimately require lower limb amputation. In 1995 we proposed a new technique using lightguide spectrophotometry to measure the oxygen saturation level of haemoglobin (SO2) in the skin as a method for predicting tissue viability. This technique, in combination with thermographic imaging, was compared with skin blood flow measurements using the I125)4- Iodoantipyrine (IAP) clearance technique. The optical techniques gave a sensitivity and selectivity of 1.0 for the prediction of successful outcome of a below knee amputation compared with a specificity of 93% using the traditional IAP technique at a below knee to above knee amputation ratio (BKA:AKA) of 75%. The present study assesses the routine clinical application of these optical techniques. The study is ongoing, but the data to date comprises 22 patients. 4 patients were recommended for above knee amputation (AKA) and 18 patients for below knee amputation on the basis of thermographic and tissue SO2 measurements. All but one of the predicted BKA amputations healed. The study to date produces evidence of 94% healing rate (specificity) for a BKA:AKA ratio of 82%. This compares favorably with the previous figures given above.© (2002) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Emissivity can be defined as an expression that describes the optical properties of a material in sense of the extent of energy emitted with regard to an ideal black body. Since there is no infrared camera that can read temperature directly, correct emissivity values ought to be measured with the intention of interpreting thermal images obtained from thermographic surveys. In the present work, the emissivity values of numerous building and structural materials, such as stones, plasters, mortars, marbles and mosaics' tesserae, were calculated in accordance with the relevant ASTM standard approach or by the use of an empirical laboratory developed approach. The obtained emissivity values were discussed and explained in terms of the approach used, the wavelength effect, as well as the materials surface condition.© (2002) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

A range of acute skin reactions, ranging from mild erythema to moist desquamation, can be seen in patients receiving standard fractionated radiotherapy to the breast for conservation therapy of breast carcinoma. In a number of cases these reactions can cause considerable discomfort and seriously affect the patient's quality of life. In previous studies we have used the techniques of laser Doppler imaging, digital thermographic imaging and lightguide spectrophotometry to study oxygen supply and blood flow in inflammatory reactions induced experimentally in forearm skin. The present study is an attempt to use the same techniques to investigate whether any or all of them can detect changes in breast skin very early on in the course of radiotherapy treatment. A further aim of the longer term study is to investigate to what extent these early changes may be able to predict the occurrence later of severe acute or delayed reactions.

We performed a thermographic study to observe any possible interaction between the esophageal acid perfusion and the temperature changes of skin surface in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Twenty-seven patients with GERD were categorized as group I(globus symptoms with posterior laryngitis) and group II (heartburn and/or regurgitation symptoms). Patients and 6 healthy volunteers underwent Bernstein test (BT) and digital infrared thermographic imaging (DITI) simultaneously. The positive rate for BT in group I and group II was 22.2% and 55.6%, respectively, and the DITI positive rate was 55.6% for group I and 50.0% for group II. None of healthy control were positive in BT or DITI. All subjects with DITI positive were hypothermic. The overall accordance rate between DITI and BT was 69.7%. All group I patients showed a diffuse type, while in group 11, 4 patients showed diffuse type and 5 patients showed localized type (p

Thermographic imaging is increasingly being utilized for inspection and characterization of materials and structures. Thermal diffusivity imaging provides a means for quantitative characterization of a materials which is independent of apparatus and measurement configuration. This enables more precise imaging of variations in the material or structure needed to track changes resulting from fatigue or aging processes.

Objective To clarify the relationship of skin temperature changes to clinical, radiologic, and electrophysiological findings in unilateral lumbosacral radiculopathy and to delineate the possible temperature-change mechanisms involved. Methods One hundred and one patients who had clinical symptoms and for whom there were physical findings suggestive or indicative of unilateral lumbosacral radiculopathy, along with 27 normal controls, were selected for the study, and the thermal-pattern results of digital infrared thermographic imaging (DITI) performed on the back and lower extremities were analyzed. Local temperatures were assessed by comparing the mean temperature differences (ΔT) in 30 regions of interest (ROIs), and abnormal thermal patterns were divided into seven regions. To aid the diagnosis of radiculopathy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electrophysiological tests were also carried out. Results The incidence of disc herniation on MRI was 86%; 43% of patients showed electrophysiological abnormalities. On DITI, 97% of the patients showed abnormal ΔT in at least one of the 30 ROIs, and 79% showed hypothermia on the involved side. Seventy-eight percent of the patients also showed abnormal thermal patterns in at least one of the seven regions. Patients who had motor weakness or lateral-type disc herniation showed some correlations with abnormal DITI findings. However, neither pain severity nor other physical or electrophysiological findings were related to the DITI findings. Conclusion Skin temperature change following lumbosacral radiculopathy was related to some clinical and MRI findings, suggesting muscle atrophy. DITI, despite its limitations, might be useful as a complementary tool in the diagnosis of unilateral lumbosacral radiculopathy.

Every year around 2.5-3 million skin lesions are biopsied in the US, and a fraction of these - between 50,000 and 100,000 - are diagnosed as melanoma. Diagnostic instruments that allow early detection of melanoma are the key to improving survival rates and reducing the number of unnecessary biopsies, the associated morbidity, and the costs of care. Advances in technology over the past 2 decades have enabled the development of new, sophisticated test methods, which are currently undergoing laboratory and small-scale clinical testing. This review highlights and compares some of the emerging technologies that hold the promise of melanoma diagnosis at an early stage of the disease. The needs for detection at different levels (patient, primary care, specialized care) are discussed, and three broad classes of instruments are identified that are capable of satisfying these needs. Technical and clinical requirements on the diagnostic instruments are introduced to aid the comparison and evaluation of new technologies. White- and polarized-light imaging, spatial and spectroscopic multispectral methods, quantitative thermographic imaging, confocal microscopy, Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), and Terahertz (THZ) imaging methods are highlighted in light of the criteria identified in the review. Based on the properties, possibilities, and limitations of individual methods, those best suited for a particular setting are identified. Challenges faced in development and wide-scale application of novel technologies are addressed.

Dear Sirs, We read the paper of Kontos et al. with interest, especially in regard to the fact that one of the authors of this letter is one of the cited authors1. Digital Infrared Thermal Imaging (DITI) represents rather available and biologically harmless method with raising scientific and clinical interest for its use in diagnosing various inflammatory and malignant conditions, using standardized protocols and techniques. After careful reading of the mentioned article, we found the conclusions inconsistent and drawn after applying non–standardized protocols for use of DITI in such clinical setting (3 thermographic imaging positions instead of 5 imaging positions)2. Furthermore, the authors of the article used a non–standardized protocol for evaluation of obtained thermographic images2. Surprisingly, by the means of applying non–standardized methods the results of the study point to low sensitivity and higher specificity of DITI in diagnosing breast lesions, which is in contrast to cited literature. According to our preliminary data, it seems that DITI is a promising tool in evaluation of breast lesions, complementary to standard clinical protocols.

In the recent times no other field has shown so much growth in Endodontics as much as that of diagnosis. The human element in diagnosis is enriched by newer technologies available as adjuncts to the process of endodontic diagnosis. The trend of this development has been toward increasing objectivity sensitivity and reproducibility of the pulp tests while decreasing the patient discomfort. Methods like Pulse Oximetry, Laser Doppler Flowmetry, Ultrasound Doppler, Dual Wavelength Spectroscopy, Photoplethysmography besides the thermographic imaging and calorimetric pulp tests are being developed and evolved to suit the current clinical setting for the modern endodontist. A necessity arises here to keep abreast of all the new methods in order to be able to choose the best tools for the successful diagnostician. The aim of this review therefore was to assess the usefulness of some devices and techniques used in endodontic therapy to make the correct pulpal diagnosis.

It is well known that the SSR (sympathetic skin response) is to evaluate the function of sudomotor activity and Digital infrared thermal imaging (DITI) is to evaluate the function of vasomotor activity of the sympathetic nerve. To assess the sympathetic nerve impairment in the patients with peripheral neuropathy, the SSRs and DITIs were tested in 35 cases. Twenty-four (68.6%) patients were abnormal on SSR test and twenty-nine (82.9%) patients were abnormal on DITI test. In the relationship between DITI and SSR, 19 (54.3%) cases were abnormal and 1 case was normal finding in both of these two tests. And the remaining 25 (42.9%) patients were abnormal on only either one of both tests. Frequency of abnormal SSR and DITI findings were correlated with severity of axonal involvement in peripheral nerve lesion. The results of this study revealed DITI to be more sensitive test in assessing sympathetic dysfunction in peripheral neuropathy than the SSR. However DITI has very limited values in the patients with symmetrically involved peripheral neuropathy because thermal asymmetry is considered as abnormal on DITI. Therefore, in assessing the function of sympathetic nerve in peripheral neuropathy, combined tests of SSR and DITI are useful.

In this study we compared three non-invasive methods of measuring skin perfusion, thermographic imaging (TI), laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) and the new technique of laser Doppler imaging (LDI). Seven normal volunteers were studied in a temperature-controlled room with an ambient temperature of 22 +/- 1 degree C. Images of the left hand were recorded using LDI followed by TI. LDF was then used on two standard locations on the fingers and back of the hand. The measurements were then repeated for a hot (37 degrees C) and then a cold (10 degrees C) challenge. A significant linear correlation (r = 0.960, p0.01, with 95% confidence limit of 0.35-0.77, n = 38) was found between LDF and LDI. However, LDF and LDI did not correlate well with TI (r = 0.577, p0.01, with 95% confidence limit of 0.32-0.76, n = 38). The LDI method was found to be highly reproducible (mean +/- 1 SD; 625 +/- 30, with coefficient of variation 5%). The blood flow and temperature distribution of skin of the hand was then recorded using TI and LDI in 10 patients (mean age +/- SD, 41.7 +/- 9.9) with scleroderma and eight normal volunteers (mean age +/- SD, 30.6 +/- 6.5). The overall mean blood flow and temperature in the hands of patients with scleroderma (mean +/- SD 444 +/- 265 flux, 29.3 +/- 3.3 degrees C) was significantly (p0.0001) lower compared with the normal volunteers (mean +/- SD, 912 +/- 390 flux, 34.0 +/- 3.2 degrees).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)