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We examined the external anatomy of the endocast of the Greater Rhea (Rhea americana, Palaeognathae), during 3 main stages of its postnatal life, and compared it with information available on other palaeognathous birds. Series of scans with spiral computed tomographies were obtained from 3 skulls of different ages (chick, juvenile and adult) of R. americana; digital 3-dimensional reconstruction was performed and brain volumes were calculated from the models obtained. Qualitative assessment of the brain anatomy of R. americana indicates a conical and ventrally located bulbus olfactorius, laterally expanded hemispherium telencephali, well-developed eminentia sagittalis, and conspicuous cerebellum and tectum mesencephali. Anatomy of the chick brain was markedly different: less lateral expansion of the hemispherium telencephali, and lesser development of the eminentia sagittalis and auricula cerebelli. Little change between chicks and adults was observed in some brain regions such as the tectum mesencephali, while the eminentia sagittalis showed great increase in size. The large size of the eminentia sagittalis coupled with its increasing development during ontogeny could reflect its importance for visual processing functions and the way these improve during growth. Finally, the brain of R. americana is similar to that of Struthio and Dromaius, but differs from that of the Tinamidae and of Apteryx, allowing recognition of 3 distinct brain morphologies among the Palaeognathae.

In birds, the ability to void urine separate from faeces is unique to ostriches. To further explore this characteristic, the anatomy of the terminal rectum and cloaca of the Ostrich Struthio camelus was studied in four ostriches by gross anatomical dissection and light microscopy. The terminal rectum had an unusual tunica muscularis externa (TME) and was clearly demarcated from the caudal part of the rectum proper by a semilunar fold, an abrupt thickening of the gut wall and an increase in the calibre of the gut. The cloaca had a distinct rectocoprodeal fold at the terminal rectum–cloaca junction with a well-formed sphincter muscle. The cloaca had a proximal coprodeum, a middle urodeum and a caudal proctodeum. The mucosa of the cloaca was folded and lined by simple columnar epithelium except in the urodeum and the floor and ventral walls of the proctodeum. The coprodeal wall had a thick circular muscle layer; however, the other parts of the cloaca mainly had longitudinally/obliquely directed fibres in the TME. This muscle arrangement could contribute to the dynamics of the terminal rectum that allow for separate defecation and micturition. We also propose a schema for this phenomenon that for birds is unique to ostriches. OSTRICH 2009, 80(3): 185–191

In the last decade ostrich farms spread throughout the world as an alternative source of investment. Although previous studies have reported hematology and biochemical values for ostriches from several regions of the world, little information is available regarding leukocyte morphology. This study reports the morphology and ultrastructure of ostrich leukocytes and hematology and biochemical values from birds raised in Brazil. Heterophils presented a lobulated nucleus, and fusiform, and acidophilic and peroxidase-negative granules. Ultrastructurally, 2 kinds of cytoplasmic granules were observed: one was large and fusiform and the other smaller with heterogeneous morphology and electrondensity; granules were peroxidase-negative. Eosinophils had a kidney-shaped eccentrically placed nucleus that was rarely lobulated and eosinophilic, round, and peroxidase-positive granules. At the ultrastructure level, 2 main kinds of granules with the same size and form but different electron density were seen; granules were peroxidase-positive. Lymphocytes and thrombocytes had the same characteristics of other avian species; monocytes presented morphological heterogeneity. Hematological and serum biochemical profiles had no sex influence and were established for ostriches raised in southeastern Brazil. These parameters will help the diagnosis of specific ostrich pathologies and serve as basic knowledge for studies in immunology and comparative avian pathology.

In order to characterize lesions associated with Codiostomum struthionis in ostriches, 10 caeca were examined on both macro- and microscopic levels. Parasites were found in the distal third of the caecum and characterized as C. struthionis. Thickened mucosa was identified macroscopically where parasites were observed in high concentrations. Nodular areas were also observed in the distal third of the infected caeca, as well as hemorrhagic areas abutting small ulcers surrounded by edema. These findings were not observed in healthy controls. The concentration of C. struthionis found in infected animals was directly correlated with the severity of lesions observed in each caecum. These results allowed us to infer that C. struthionis is responsible for lesions in ostrich caeca.

Commercial breeding of ostriches in the northern parts of Europe is still discussed controversially in particular in winter. Here we measured the body temperature of 12 ostriches of two different ages during 12 weeks in winter using temperature loggers implanted subcutaneously and in the abdominal cavity. The mean peritoneal temperature ranged between 37.4 and 38.5 °C in the younger subjects and between 37.2 and 38.1 °C in the older subjects. Climatic conditions significantly affected the body temperature but in comparison with the variations between and within subjects these effects were low. There was no evidence that the young ostriches were not able to adapt towards the climatic conditions prevalent during our study.

Palaeognaths constitute one of the most basal lineages of extant birds, and are also one of the most morphologically diverse avian orders. Their skeletal development is relatively unknown, in spite of their important phylogenetic position. Here, we compare the development of the postcranial skeleton in the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), ostrich (Struthio camelus), greater rhea (Rhea americana) and elegant crested-tinamou (Eudromia elegans), focusing on ossification. All of these taxa are characterized by element loss in the appendicular skeleton, but there are several developmental mechanisms through which this loss occurs, including failure to chondrify, failure to ossify and fusion of cartilages prior to ossification. Further evidence is presented here to support a reduction in size of skeletal elements resulting in a delay in the timing of ossification. This study provides an important first look at the timing and sequence of postcranial ossification in palaeognathous birds, and discusses the influence of changes in the pattern of skeletal development on morphological evolution.

SUMMARY Living archosaurs (crocodiles and birds) represent an intriguing evo-devo model system. Although close in phylogenetic relationship, the two lineages show considerable divergence in trends of phenotypic evolution. The head anatomy of recent crocodilians has changed little in comparison with that of their crocodylomorph ancestors. The head phenotype of the avians (birds), as well as some non-avian theropods, shows numerous evolutionary innovations that differ considerably from the crocodylomorph pattern. Most of the novel head structures, such as features of the craniofacial skeleton, cranial nerves, head muscles, and integument are derived from the same cellular source common to all archosaurs, the cephalic neural crest (CNC). Therefore, other factors must be involved in the developmental disparity of homologous structures in the aforementioned lineages. The present study analyzes the earliest developmental events that are associated with the appearance of the neural crest cells in the two archosaur models: Crocodylus niloticus and Struthio camelus. I found that both models share unique developmental features, the presence of an unpaired, rostrally migrating population of CNC cells, showing that the two are closely related to each other. On the other hand, the crocodile and the ostrich differ substantially in (1) timing, (2) duration, and (3) expression patterns of the CNC. Compared with the crocodile, the CNC cells in the ostrich (1) migrate much later into the embryonic head, (2) but relocate to their terminal positions faster, and (3) take specifically directed migratory routes in the mandibular/oral region and head/trunk-interface regions. I suggest that accelerated relocation of CNC cells combined with delayed head organogenesis may represent important innovative conditions in the developmental evolution of a new archosaur head phenotype.

East Asian ostrich (Struthio anderssoni Lowe) was thought to have become extinct sometime in the Late Pleistocene. Petroglyphs portray ostrich with Pleistocene animals, and ostrich eggshell (OES) fragments and ornaments from Holocene sites were considered to be older fossils. Here we summarize previous radiometric dates for ostrich eggshell (OES) and present 15 new calibrated accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dates, indicating that ostrich survived in Mongolia and northern China until at least 8.9 ka BP. The dates in our sample population suggest a correlation between Struthio and warm steppe environments, with extirpation probably related to essential changes in Holocene steppe ecosystems including human expansion. This study assesses the usefulness of Asian OES for archaeological dating by AMS, constrains the date of Asian ostrich extirpation, and investigates palaeoenvironmental implications of ostrich survival and extinction.

Ostrich breeding behaviour in the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania was investigated for differences in laying dates between low altitude western area (WA) and high altitude eastern area (EA) populations. Ostriches in WA laid eggs significantly earlier than in EA. The differences could be attributed to topography and rainfall pattern. Reliable rains in lower altitudes ensure availability of food that in turn influences the whole process of the reproductive cycle. Clutches were contributed by several females with a nest having up to 38 eggs. We also compared the frequency of observation of predators, ostriches, nests, ‘singletons’ (single eggs laid randomly) and broods between the two areas. There was no significant difference between WA and EA in 1) ostrich/nest ratio, indicating similar breeding densities; 2) ostrich/predator and predator/nest ratios, indicating that predation pressure was equally high; 3) nest/singleton and predator/singleton ratios, indicating that loss of nests did not vary between areas. However, there were significantly more predators, nests and ostriches compared to broods in EA than in WA, indicating a significantly lower reproductive success in EA. Using metapopulation terminology, ostriches in EA could be regarded as a ‘sink’ population and those in WA as a ‘source’ population, but investigations over longer time-periods are needed to further resolve if this is the case. Resume Le comportement reproducteur des autruches dans l’ecosysteme du Serengeti, en Tanzanie, a eteetudie pour voir les differences dans les dates de pontes entre les populations de la zone occidentale (WA) a basse altitude et de la zone orientale (EA) a plus haute altitude. Les autruches de la WA pondent significativement plus tot que celles de l’EA. Les differences peuvent etre attribuees a la topographie et au regime de la pluviosite. Les pluies fiables a plus basse altitude garantissent la disponibilite de la nourriture, ce qui influence des lors tout le processus du cycle reproducteur. Des couvees reunissaient les œufs de plusieurs femelles – un nid a eu jusqu’a 38 œufs. Nous avons aussi compare la frequence d’observations de predateurs, d’autruches, de nids, de «ingletons» (des œufs solitaires pondus au hasard) et de nichees entre les deux zones. Il n’y a pas de difference significative entre WA et EA pour 1) le ratio autruches/nids, ce qui indique des densites de reproduction similaires; 2) le ratio autruches/predateurs et le ratio predateurs/nids, ce qui indique que la pression de la predation est aussi haute des deux cotes; et 3) le ratio nids/singletons et le ratio predateurs/singletons, ce qui indique que la perte des nids ne variait pas entre les zones. Cependant, il y avait significativement plus de predateurs, de nids et d’autruches par rapport aux nichees dans l’EA que dans la WA, ce qui indique une reussite de la reproduction significativement plus faible dans la EA. En utilisant la terminologie de la metapopulation, les autruches de la EA peuvent etre considerees comme une population «puits» et celles de la WA comme une population «source», mais il faudrait faire des recherches de plus longue duree pour montrer si c’est bien le cas.

It has been suggested that secondary sexual ornamentation signals male ability to resist infections, as only high-quality individuals are able to invest both in high immune defence and elaborate ornament expression. Such ornaments could thus serve as indicators of male quality and could be used by females in choosing mates. Ostriches are sexually dimorphic with regard to coloration of their feathers, bill, neck and legs, and have a promiscuous mating system, with a high degree of reproductive skew, particularly in males. We investigated the relationship between the coloration of the feathers, bill, neck and legs of 15 male ostriches, maintained in a breeding flock, and the cell-mediated (measured using a phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) injection) and humoral components of their immune systems, as well as their heterophil:lymphocyte ratio. We found that male responses to PHA injection and humoral responses to tetanus were predicted by leg coloration, humoral responses to diphtheria were predicted by white feather coloration, and the heterophil:lymphocyte ratio was related to bill coloration. These traits, which relate to male immune capacity, are exposed during male–male interactions and courtship display, so we suggest that these visual cues could provide valuable information on male quality to females (as well as rival males), forming the basis of mate choice in this species.

Ratites and tinamous are a morphologically diverse group of flightless and weakly flighted birds. As one of the most basal clades of extant birds, they are frequently used as an outgroup for studies discussing character evolution within other avian orders. Their skeletal development is not well known in spite of their important phylogenetic position, and studies have historically been plagued with small sample sizes and limited anatomical and temporal scope. Here, I describe the ossification of the skull in the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), ostrich (Struthio camelus), greater rhea (Rhea americana), and elegant crested-tinamou (Eudromia elegans). Skeletal development is remarkably consistent within palaeognaths, in spite of large differences in absolute size and incubation period. Adult morphology appears to play a role in interordinal differences in the sequence and timing of ossification of certain bones. Neither the timing of cranial ossification events relative to stage nor the sequence of ossification events provides any evidence in support of a paedomorphic origin of the palaeognathous palate. This study provides an important first look at the timing and sequence of skull development in palaeognathous birds, providing data that can be compared to better-studied avian systems in order to polarize ontogenetic characters. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 156, 184–200.

An orthoreovirus was isolated from an Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and rapidly identified as orthoreovirus by the rapid determination of viral RNA sequences (RDV) system and electron microscopy. Phylogenetic analysis of the sigma A protein indicated that the isolate belonged to avian species and was closely related to chicken orthoreovirus strain 138. The results of the present study indicated that an ostrich orthoreovirus is slight different from other chicken orthoreoviruses and provided evidence of diversity among avian orthoreoviruses. To our knowledge, this is the first genetic report of an orthoreovirus isolated from an ostrich.

The tongue of birds fills the oral cavity and has a beak-like shape. Morphological studies of birds reveal a correlation between the structure of the tongue and the mechanism of food intake and the type of food. However, several studies have shown morphological differences among the tongues of bird species. The aim of this study was to analyze ostrich tongue morphology and ultrastructural features using scanning electron microscopy. Tongues from 12 adult ostriches were examined. Six tongues were sectioned sagittally into lateral and middle portions, fixed in 10% formaldehyde solution, and examined under light microscopy. The other six samples were sectioned longitudinally, and the dorsal and ventral surfaces were separated, immersion-fixed in modified Karnovsky solution, and examined under scanning electron microscopy. The tongue surface of the ostrich was smooth, without lingual papillae, and covered by stratified non-keratinized epithelium. In the submucosal layer, mucous salivary glands were surrounded by connective-tissue capsules, with septa dividing the glands into lobes. Numerous salivary gland ducts of different sizes and connective-tissue laminae dividing each opening could be clearly seen in scanning electron microscope images. The ventral surface had fewer openings than the dorsal surface. In samples treated with NaOH, connective-tissue papillae from the dorsal region were oriented posteriorly.

Two neurohypophysial hormones have been isolated from an avian species, the ostrich, Struthio camelus. Both have been characterized by amino acid analysis and sequence determination. The data obtained suggest that the oxytocin-like hormone is [Ile8-oxytocin] (mesotocin) and the vasopressin-like hormone is [Ile3-vasopressin] (vasotocin). Bioactivity measurements based on urinary conductivity showed vasotocin to be about five times as active as mesotocin.

The annual photoperiodic changes are the most important factor controlling the reproductive activity in birds. A single subcutaneous implant of a slow-release GnRH analogue induced the seasonal reproductive activity in both sex of farmed ostriches. Significant increase in annual egg production and clutch number compared with control group were observed.

To generate clinical biochemical data to aid diagnosis of suboptimal performance in ostriches farmed under pastoral systems in New Zealand.Blood and liver samples were sought from three categories of bird, viz 3-12-week-old chicks, 7-12-month-old growers, and from breeding hens, managed under pastoral conditions on farms in several locations in New Zealand. Concentrations of the minerals Ca, PO4, Mg, Na, K, Cu and Zn, activities of the enzymes gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and concentrations of total protein (TP) and uric acid and vitamin E in plasma and Se in whole blood were determined from four flocks of chicks, two flocks of growing and one flock of breeding birds. Concentrations of Cu, Fe and vitamin B12 were determined from liver samples from chicks and growing birds. Bodyweight was recorded at the times of blood-sampling, where this was feasible.It proved impossible to obtain blood samples by venepuncture of the radial vein from chicks3 months of age. Plasma concentrations of minerals, with the exception of K, which were higher, were within the normal range observed in the literature for ratite species. Activities in plasma of AST and CK were almost double, and those of LDH similar, to those in the literature for ostriches. There was considerable variation in activities of the enzymes between farms, but no association with growth performance. Concentrations of Cu in plasma were lower and in liver were higher than would be expected in farmed ruminants. Though hindgut fermenters, the birds maintained concentrations of vitamin B12 in plasma and liver at least comparable to those observed in ruminants.Collection of blood samples by venepuncture via the wing in ostrich chicks younger than 3 months of age is difficult and unlikely to prove viable for routine diagnostic purposes. Clinical biochemistry data on mineral nutrients in ostriches farmed in New Zealand are similar to those in the literature from South Africa , but AST and CK are higher, and may be normal and a reflection of the high growth rates of the musculoskeletal system.

The epididymal duct unit, comprising the ductus conjugens, ductus epididymidis and ductus deferens, was studied histologically, ultrastructurally and immunohistochemically in five sexually mature and active birds. The main morphological features of the pre-dominant non-ciliated (type III) cell of the epithelial lining of this duct unit include, but are not limited to, a moderately abundant smooth or sparsely granulated endoplasmic reticulum, electron-dense secretory granules and numerous mitochondria in the supranuclear zone of the cytoplasm. A single, large heterogeneous lipid droplet, of unknown function, was characteristically situated immediately proximal to the nucleus. The epithelium is obviously secretory and specifically, of the merocrine, and not apocrine, type of secretion. The epithelium of the epididymal duct unit was only focally and weakly to moderately immunopositive to both actin MF and desmin IF, while the duct unit was immunonegative to cytokeratin and vimentin intermediate filaments. The peritubular muscular layer was moderately to strongly positive to both actin and desmin, and negative to cytokeratins and vimentin.

The gaits of five Ostriches Struthio camelus, seven Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae, two Greater Rheas Rhea americana, two Southern Cassowaries Casuarius casuarius and one Brown kiwi Apteryx australis were filmed at zoological parks. Locomotor parameters were measured using footprints on sandy tracks and video records. Osteological measurements were made on skeletons of the pelvic limbs. All of these terrestrial birds shift from wallking to running at a relative speed below 1. However, they show two different locomotor patterns: the Brown Kiwi increases its speed by increasing its stride length, mainly by increasing the protraction angle. Its hindlimbs make a flexed jointed chain system, its centre of mass is anterior, its femurs are long and the knees act in yield whereas the distal joints act in propulsion. Other ratites, particularly Ostriches, increase their speed by increasing frequency. Their centre of mass is close to the hip, their hindlimbs have an extended jointed chain system with a short erect femur, maximizing a gravity-powered system.

Experiments were carried out on wild and hand-reared Egyptian Vultures to investigate the origins of the stone-throwing this species uses to break into Ostrich eggs. There was no evidence of cultural transmission for stone-throwing through copying experienced birds. A naive captive-reared bird threw stones once an Ostrich egg had been linked with a food reward. The origins of aimed stone-throwing are probably related to the unaimed throwing of small eggs, since the actions are similar, and all tested birds strongly preferred to throw rounded or egg-like stones, rather than jagged ones, at Ostrich eggs.

Summary The egg white proteins of the large ratites (Struthio, Casuarius, Dromaius, Rhea), the kiwis (Apteryx) and several tinamous (Tinamidae) were compared with one another and representatives of several other groups of birds using the technique of isoelectric focusing in acrylamide gel. The tryptic peptides of the ovalbumins of the same groups were compared by thin-layer electrophoresis. The results indicate that the large ratites are more closely related to one another than any one of them is to any other living bird; that the kiwis are not closely related to any of the other groups with which they were compared; and that the tinamous are not closely related to any of the large ratites but may be distantly related to the Galliformes.

Wild Zimbabwe Ostriches Struthio camelus were studied during four successive years. Information on breeding seasons and laying patterns was compared with that of domesticated South African hybrid Ostriches in Bophuthatswana. In wild populations laying occurred mainly from July to December or early January, while domesticated birds continued until at least the end of February. Domesticated birds normally laid about 16 eggs in succession, one every second day. There was marked synchronisation of laying and the middle of each successive peak in egg production was about 6 weeks from the preceding peak. Wild birds laid up to eight eggs in any one nest, and normally clutches were contributed by three females, the average combined clutch being 12 or 13 per nest. Circumstantial evidence suggests that individual females may lay in more than one nest during a single laying sequence. Comparisons between rainfall patterns and laying rhythms proved inconclusive.

Most ground nesters lay pigmented eggs, and egg pigmentation generally matches the environment. Pigmentation of eggs has evolved as a protective device against predation, but dark-pigmented eggs can be susceptible to overheating when exposed to solar radiation. The Ostrich (Struthio camelus) lays white eggs that are unattended for the first few weeks before incubation, and are quite visible to predators. To evaluate the effect of colour on the surface and core temperatures, we painted some Ostrich eggs dark brown or white, and left some unpainted (control), and exposed all of them directly to the sun during the day. The surface and core temperatures of brown eggs were significantly higher than those of the white-painted and control eggs. In addition, the core temperature of brown eggs exceeded 37.5°C, which is the temperature at which embryo mortality starts to increase. In a second experiment, we placed eggs (brown-painted and control) in various types of vegetation to study their visibility to an observer walking towards them. The white eggs were discovered from a significantly longer distance than the brown eggs, indicating that the predation risk may be much higher for white eggs. The results thus suggest that white eggs minimise overheating and allow the Ostrich to leave its eggs unattended before incubation starts, but they are more susceptible to predation.

The testicular capsule and peritubular boundary tissue of the emu and ostrich, as typical representatives of ratite birds, were studied in sexually mature and active birds. The testicular capsule was much thicker (578.1+/-73.4 microm for the free surface of the ostrich testis, and 176.2+/-57.5 microm for the emu) than those of members of the Galloanserae. The cellular composition of both testicular capsule and peritubular tissue was similar generally to that of members of the previously studied Galloanserae and of mammals. The tunica albuginea of the testicular capsule mainly comprised smooth-muscle-like or myoid cells mostly running in one direction and occurring in one main mass. Unlike the Galloanserae, the tunica albuginea contained more collagen fibres than smooth muscle cells, especially in the ostrich. Peritubular tissue was similarly composed of smooth-muscle-like cells distributed in several layers. Actin microfilaments and desmin and vimentin intermediate filaments were variably immunoexpressed in these two tissue types in both birds, with a clear dichotomy in the peritubular tissue. Thus, taken together with studies of some members of the Galloanserae, avian testes clearly contain a morphological mechanism that is represented partly by the smooth muscle cells of the testicular capsule and peritubular tissue for transporting the testicular fluid, which is usually copious in birds, and its cellular content from the testis into the excurrent duct system; this mechanism is similar to that found in mammals.

Molecular genetic maps can provide information for the identification and localization of major genes associated with quantitative traits. However, there are currently no published genetic linkage maps for any ratites. Herein, a preliminary genetic map of ostrich was developed using a two-generation ostrich reference family by linkage analysis of 104 polymorphic microsatellite markers, including 40 novel markers reported in this study. A total of 35 microsatellite markers were placed into 13 linkage groups. Five linkage groups are composed of three or more loci, whereas the remaining eight groups each contained two markers. The sex-averaged map spans 365.4 cM. The marker interval of each linkage group ranges from 5.3 to 25.4 cM, and the average interval distance is 16.61 cM. The male map covers 342.7 cM, with an average intermarker distance of 15.58 cM, whereas the female map is 456.7 cM, with the average intermarker spacing of 20.76 cM. In order to screen the orthologous loci between ostrich and chicken, all of the flanking sequences of the 104 polymorphic loci, nine monomorphic loci and a further 12 reported microsatellite loci for ostrich were screened against the chicken genomic sequence using the BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al., 1990), and corresponding orthologs were found for 13 sequences. The microsatellite loci and genetic map developed in this study will be useful for QTL mapping, population genetics and phylogenetic studies in the ratite. In addition, the 13 orthologous loci identified in this study will be advantageous to the construction of a comparative genetic map between chicken and ostrich.

As the Arabian Ostrich Struthio camelus syriacus, a distinct subspecies, became extinct in the wild during the mid-20th century, the most closely related subspecies, S. c. camelus occurring in north-eastern Africa, has been chosen for reintroduction into Saudi Arabia. A few individuals of this Red-necked Ostrich were obtained from Sudan in 1988–89 from a private collection, and in 1994 a few birds were translocated to Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area into a 25 ha fenced enclosure. So far a total of 96 Red-necked Ostriches has been released into the fenced Mahazat as-Sayd and the estimated population is between 125 and 150 individuals. Since captive flocks of Ostriches were translocated to Mahazat, their survival rate increased by >41% up to the end of 2000. On an average 22–30 chicks are hatched annually. A total of 137 Ostriches was recorded dead over the period of 13 years during the drought period. Both captive-bred and wildborn adults and young died of starvation and thirst, despite being provi...

1. The incidence of spread bow leg syndrome and associated pathology in 15 ostrich chicks aged 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks is reported. Measurements were made of hind limbs: femur plus tibiotarsus; tarsometatarus; phalanx I, digit III; phalanx II, digit III plus phalanx III, digit III; and phalanx IV, digit III. 2. A run was constructed (6 m x 1.7 m) and subdivided into 2 m sections and the time taken to traverse it was recorded. Measurements (cm) were made of the left and right footprints; the number of footprints and average stride length in 0 to 2, 3 to 4 and 5 to 6 m. Speed was calculated using distance run (m) divided by time taken (s). 3. The number of steps was greater in bow leg chicks aged 4 and 8 weeks by comparison with healthy birds. Stride length, however, was smaller in all age groups with bow leg. All speeds in bow leg chicks were lower than those in healthy birds, except for that recorded at 2 m in chicks aged 2 weeks which did not differ markedly. 4. In affected birds, feathers were sparse. Icterus was present. The tarsometatarsus was twisted, with severely inflamed joints, eroded distal ends, thickening of the cartilage and the presence of fibrous material surrounding the ligaments. Muscles in the hind limb were emaciated. 5. The syndrome compromises the ability of chicks to keep up with adults in flocks, and may compromise their ability to escape predation.

Submitted by Guilherme Lemeszenski (guilherme@nead.unesp.br) on 2013-08-22T18:40:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf: 99865 bytes, checksum: 5b9ae5970ec8018d52dd017c40f412bb (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-22T18:40:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf: 99865 bytes, checksum: 5b9ae5970ec8018d52dd017c40f412bb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-12-01 Made available in DSpace on 2013-09-30T19:25:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf: 99865 bytes, checksum: 5b9ae5970ec8018d52dd017c40f412bb (MD5) S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf.txt: 24672 bytes, checksum: e9a3e478c7c5f7e82bf32d8c41154d98 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-12-01 Submitted by Vitor Silverio Rodrigues (vitorsrodrigues@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2014-05-20T13:41:05Z No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf: 99865 bytes, checksum: 5b9ae5970ec8018d52dd017c40f412bb (MD5) S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf.txt: 24672 bytes, checksum: e9a3e478c7c5f7e82bf32d8c41154d98 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-20T13:41:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf: 99865 bytes, checksum: 5b9ae5970ec8018d52dd017c40f412bb (MD5) S1516-635X2007000400002.pdf.txt: 24672 bytes, checksum: e9a3e478c7c5f7e82bf32d8c41154d98 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-12-01 This article aimed at compiling recent studies on the main factors that influence ostrich meat quality and carcass yield. Few articles investigated the effect of subspecies, which generally are not even mentioned. There are important dietary effects, particularly those caused by dietary protein to energy ratio. Rigor mortis follow-up studies showed that there are no losses in meat quality when carcasses are hot-deboned. Age at slaughter influences some meat quality traits, such as tenderness and lipid content. Few effects of gender have been observed, and at the same age at slaughter, both male and female present the same meat quality traits. UNESP School Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science UNESP School Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science Department of Animal Production UNESP School Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science UNESP School Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science Department of Animal Production

Nodular trombiculinosis has been reported in Brazil in chickens [Torres, S., Braga, W., 1939. Apolonia tigipioensis, g. e sp. n. (Trombiculinae) parasito de Gallus gallus dom. Chave para determinacao de generos. Boletim da S.A.I.C. 4, 37–44] and humans [Carneiro, L.S., 1952. Uma nova acariase humana—Contribuicao ao seu estudo. Imprensa Industrial, Recife. Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Recife, Tese Livre Docencia, p. 56]. In this report, a juvenile ostrich and a house sparrow, both originating from a riverside property in the town of Petrolina in the state of Pernambuco, presented 87 and eight nodules, respectively, on various locations of their bodies. Physical expression of the nodules liberated parasites that were morphologically identified as mites from the family Trombiculidae. The mites were further identified as Apolonia tigipioensis by the presence of an elongated body form and transversely striated, three pairs of long legs each with seven segments, primary coxae with a single seta, each tarsus terminating with three claws, and a scutum with an anteromedian projection and paired anteromedian setae. Histopathologic examination of skin biopsies from these birds, stained with hematoxilin–eosin, revealed acute parasitic cystic lymphoplasmacytic dermatitis.

This review discusses the historical, developmental and practices of ostrich farming in Egypt. In the early 20th century, ostrich farming was very important for production of ostrich feathers and documents were produced to perfect the art of procuring the plumes from the birds and subsequently processing them. Pharaohs used ostrich feathers for adornment. Of 43 provinces, 12 were featured in 2003-2004 as farming ostriches: Alexandria, Al-Behera, Al-Dakahlia, Al-Wadi Al-Gadid, Aswan, Cairo, El-Sharkia, Geiza, Ismailia, Kafr-El-Sheikh, Matrouh and Nubaria. Abattoirs and tanneries specialising in ostrich handling are limited to two. Egypt has numerous strengths and opportunities to develop its ostrich sector. Rising meat prices suggest that fresh ostrich meat is unaffordable to many locals. Funds may be allocated to local advertising campaigns to promote ostrich meat; provision of incentives to farmers; and improving the capacity of abattoirs.

In the present work, the very first finding of Libyostrongylus douglasi in farm-reared ostriches in Croatia, was described, not only as the main cause of the death, but also as the cause of persistent infection. The results of histopathological examination of almost all parenchymatous organs in two routinely necropsied ostriches were presented, including atypical histopathological finding in the brain and the result of the L. douglasi scanning electron microscopical (SEM) examination. In order to determine the parasite species to which the larval form found in the brain belonged, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed. Total DNA was isolated from fresh L. douglasi, and from archival formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded brain section. Additionally, the smears of the proventricular mucosal lining were cytologically examined. Virological examination for newcastle disease virus (NDV) was also performed. As there was very limited information concerned ostrich's health status in Croatian farms, a preliminary evaluation of the parasite infestation level in the Croatian ostrich population over the period 2001– 2002 was also done, and an attempt at characterising individual parasite species, was made.

Cold-shortening is the response when muscles are exposed to temperatures below 10 °C with a pH > 6.20. The course of pH within hot-deboned and intact ostrich M. gastrocnemius, pars interna and M. iliofibularis were followed for the first 23-24 h post-mortem to investigate the changes in pH as well as to determine the point of minimum pH for ostrich muscles post-mortem. The hot-deboned muscles took longer to reach the point of minimum pH than the intact muscles. There was no significant (P = 0.4508) difference in the minimum pH (5.91 ± 0.26) between the hot-deboned and the intact muscles. It was concluded that both the M. gastrocnemius, pars interna and the M. iliofibularis reached a pH < 6.20 early post-mortem with muscle temperatures above 10 °C; and therefore showed no risk of cold-shortening if these muscles were to be hot-deboned 2-4 h post-mortem.

Introduction and objetives The columella of birds, often cited in the literature, has yet to be adequately described. We aim to give an account of this transmission element, describing its anchoring systems and detailing the muscle associated to it. Material and method We performed microscopic dissection and obtained images of ostrich specimens ( Struthio camelus ), chosen because it is the bird with the largest head. Results We describe the columella: the osseous tripod formed on its external section (extracolumella), the conic shape of its inner section (stapedial), and links to the tympanic membrane and the oval window. We describe its anchoring system: posterior ligament and annular ligament. We conclude by describing the characteristics of the columella muscle, its insertions and the fibrous vein surrounding it. Conclusions The avian middle ear is a valid model for understanding the mechanical characteristics of the human ear repaired with total ossicular replacement prosthesis, ie replacement of the ossicular chain by a single element. We highlight an apparent contradiction: the existing muscle is inserted into the columella in an area close to the tympanic membrane rather than adjacent to the oval window.

We developed a three-dimensional, biomechanical computer model of the 36 major pelvic limb muscle groups in an ostrich (Struthio camelus) to investigate muscle function in this, the largest of extant birds and model organism for many studies of locomotor mechanics, body size, anatomy and evolution. Combined with experimental data, we use this model to test two main hypotheses. We first query whether ostriches use limb orientations (joint angles) that optimize the moment-generating capacities of their muscles during walking or running. Next, we test whether ostriches use limb orientations at mid-stance that keep their extensor muscles near maximal, and flexor muscles near minimal, moment arms. Our two hypotheses relate to the control priorities that a large bipedal animal might evolve under biomechanical constraints to achieve more effective static weight support. We find that ostriches do not use limb orientations to optimize the moment-generating capacities or moment arms of their muscles. We infer that dynamic properties of muscles or tendons might be better candidates for locomotor optimization. Regardless, general principles explaining why species choose particular joint orientations during locomotion are lacking, raising the question of whether such general principles exist or if clades evolve different patterns (e.g. weighting of muscle force-length or force-velocity properties in selecting postures). This leaves theoretical studies of muscle moment arms estimated for extinct animals at an impasse until studies of extant taxa answer these questions. Finally, we compare our model’s results against those of two prior studies of ostrich limb muscle moment arms, finding general agreement for many muscles. Some flexor and extensor muscles exhibit self-stabilization patterns (posture-dependent switches between flexor/extensor action) that ostriches may use to coordinate their locomotion. However, some conspicuous areas of disagreement in our results illustrate some cautionary principles. Importantly, tendon-travel empirical measurements of muscle moment arms must be carefully designed to preserve 3D muscle geometry lest their accuracy suffer relative to that of anatomically realistic models. The dearth of accurate experimental measurements of 3D moment arms of muscles in birds leaves uncertainty regarding the relative accuracy of different modelling or experimental datasets such as in ostriches. Our model, however, provides a comprehensive set of 3D estimates of muscle actions in ostriches for the first time, emphasizing that avian limb mechanics are highly three-dimensional and complex, and how no muscles act purely in the sagittal plane. A comparative synthesis of experiments and models such as ours could provide powerful synthesis into how anatomy, mechanics and control interact during locomotion and how these interactions evolve. Such a framework could remove obstacles impeding the analysis of muscle function in extinct taxa.

Ratites differ in the anatomy of their digestive organs and their digesta excretion patterns. Ostriches (Struthio camelus) have large fermentation chambers and long digesta retention, emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) have a short gut and short retention times, and rheas (Rhea americana) are intermediate. A recent study showed that ostriches produce as much methane (CH4) as expected for a similar-sized, non-ruminant mammalian herbivore. We hypothesized that emus and rheas produce less CH4 than ostriches. We individually measured, by chamber respirometry, the amount of O2 consumed as well as CO2 and CH4 emitted from six adult rheas (body mass 23.4 ± 8.3 kg) and two adult emus (33.5 and 32.0 kg) during 23-hour periods on a pelleted lucerne diet. In contrast to previous studies, which classified emus as non-producers, we measured CH4 emissions at 7.39 and 6.25 L/day for emus and 2.87 ± 0.82 L/day for rheas, which is close to values expected for similar-sized non-ruminant mammals for both species. O2 consumption was of a similar magnitude as reported previously. Across ratites CH4 yield (L/kg dry matter intake) was positively correlated with mean retention time of food particles in the gut, similar to findings within ruminant species. In ratites, this relationship leads to similar body mass-specific CH4 production for a high intake/short retention and a low intake/long retention strategy. Therefore, when investigating CH4 production in herbivorous birds, it is advisable to consider various CH4 measures, not only yield or absolute daily amount alone.

O grupo das ratitas é composto pelas avestruzes, emas, emús, cassuares e kiwi. São poucas as pesquisas sobre as parasitoses nessas aves. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a distribuição de infecções por nematóides gastrintestinais em avestruzes no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Para tanto, foram coletadas amostras fecais de 192 avestruzes de 13 propriedades. De cada amostra, quatro gramas foram utilizados para a contagem de ovos por grama de fezes (OPG), pela da técnica de McMaster. Parte das fezes foi utilizada para cultivos fecais para identificação de 100 larvas por amostra. Os resultados foram submetidos à análise descritiva de tendência central e de dispersão, utilizando-se o intervalo de confiança ao nível de 5% de probabilidade de erro de acordo com a distribuição t de Student e teste de Tukey com intervalo de confiança de 95%. A média de OPG no Estado foi de 1.557, e o município de Três Rios obteve a menor média (62). A cidade de Campos dos Goytacazes teve a maior média de OPG de todos os municípios analisados. A Região Norte teve a maior média de OPG, seguida das regiões Sul, Metropolitana, Baixada Litorânea e Central. As espécies de Libyostrongylus foram observadas em todas as propriedades, predominando L. douglassii, seguido de L. dentatus e Codiostomum struthionis. The ratite group is composed of ostriches, rheas, emus, cassowaries and kiwis. Little research has been done on parasitism in these birds. The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of infections by gastrointestinal nematodes in ostriches in the state of Rio de Janeiro. For this, fecal samples were collected from 192 on 13 farms. From each sample, four grams of feces were used to determine the eggs per gram of feces (EPG) count, by means of the McMaster technique. Part of the feces sample was used for fecal cultures, to identify 100 larvae per sample. The results were subjected to descriptive central trend and dispersion analysis, using confidence intervals at the 5% error probability level in accordance with the Student t distribution, and Tukey’s test with a 95% confidence interval. The mean EPG in the state was 1,557, and the municipality of Três Rios had the lowest average (62). The city of Campos dos Goytacazes presented the highest mean EPG of all the municipalities analyzed. The northern region presented the highest mean EPG, followed by the southern, metropolitan, coastal lowland and central regions. Libyostrongylus species were observed on all the farms: L. douglassii predominated, followed by L. dentatus and Codiostomum struthionis.

Ratites differ distinctively in the anatomy of their digestive tract. For example Ostriches (Struthio camelus) have a particularly long voluminous colon and long paired caeca Rheas (Rhea spp.) are characterised by a short colon with particularly prominent paired caeca and Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) – have neither very prominent caeca nor a prominent colon. We tested whether digesta excretion patterns corresponded to these differences in anatomy expecting Ostriches to have the longest and Emus the shortest digesta retention times and Rheas possibly showing a selective retention of fluids observed in other birds and mammals with prominent caeca. We used 6 Ostriches (97 123kg) 5 Greater Rheas (R. americana 22 27kg) and 2 Emus (32 34kg) fed a common diet of alfalfa pellets ad libitum in captivity. Intake per unit of metabolic body mass did not differ between Ostriches and Rheas but was significantly higher in Emus which also displayed higher defecation frequencies and lower fiber digestibility. Mean digesta retention time for small fiber particles (2 mm) differed significantly among species (Ostrich: 30 36h; Rhea: 7 19h; Emu: 1.3 1.8h) but there were no differences between the retention of 2 mm or 8 mm particles or a solute marker within species. The shape of the marker excretion curves corresponded to digesta mixing in the digestive tract of Ostriches and Rheas but not Emus. The calculated dry matter gut fill ( of body mass) was significantly higher in Ostriches (1.6 1.8) than Rheas (0.3 1.0) and Emus (0.2). Ostriches had the highest and Emus the lowest fecal dry matter concentration. These physiological findings match the differences in digestive anatomy and support the concept that in ratites herbivory – and hence flightlessness – evolved repeatedly in different ways.

Quality characteristics and storage stability of three types of burgers prepared with ostrich meat (alone or mixed with pork or beef meat) were evaluated. Burger evaluation was based on chemical, microbiological, textural, colour, sensory and oxidation characteristics. All of the assayed formulas showed acceptable general quality scores in the sensory evaluation, but the burgers formulated with 100% ostrich meat or mixing ostrich and beef meat had the highest scores. Only TBA values and redness were influenced by storage time. Burgers formulated with ostrich and pork meat had a faster oxidation rate and became more oxidized than the others. Microbial counts indicated that, at the end of the refrigerated storage (9 days), all of the preparations were spoiled.

Made available in DSpace on 2022-04-28T20:08:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2006-06-01 There are many reports of cryptosporidial infection in ostriches, but none with molecular characterization of the isolates. A study was undertaken for the characterization of a Brazilian Cryptosporidium sp. ostrich isolate by using molecular phylogenetic analysis of fragments of the I8S ribosomal DNA, heatshock protein (hsp) 70 coding gene, and actin coding gene. Biological studies were accomplished by the experimental inoculation of chickens via oral or intrairacheal routes with fresh ostrich Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts. Molecular analysis of nucleotide sequences of the 3 genes by using neighbor-joining and parsimony methods grouped the ostrich isolate as a sister taxon of Cryptosporidium baileyi and showed that the ostrich isolate is genetically distinct from all other known Cryptosporidium species or genotypes. None of the inoculated chickens developed infection as determined by mucosal smears, histology, and fecal screening for oocysts. Although biological and molecular studies indicate that the ostrich Cryptosporidium is a new species, further studies regarding morphological, biological, and molecular characteristics of other oslrich isolates are required to confirm the species status of the ostrich Cryptosporidium. © American Society of Parasitologists 2006. Departamento de Clinica, Cirurgia e Reprodução Animal Universidade Estadual Paulista Campus de Araçatuba, Araçatuba Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia Universidade de São Paulo Departamento de Clinica, Cirurgia e Reprodução Animal Universidade Estadual Paulista Campus de Araçatuba, Araçatuba

The effect of temperature upon the denaturation process of ostrich egg-white protein was studied, and it compared with that of commercial hen eggs. Turbidity and color properties evolution were used to determine this effect. In addition, egg-white gels (from both ostrich and hen egg whites) were obtained by heat treatment at 80C, and these were characterized by means of color, textural properties and water-holding capacity (WHC). Results showed that although 55C was the temperature for the start of coagulation in both types of egg white, only in hen egg white was the process completed at 65C. The gels obtained at 80C (both ostrich and hen egg-white gels) presented a strong structure that would allow ostrich egg white to be used as a gelling agent in the food industry as it happens with hen egg white.

Cold-deboning is currently practiced in South African ostrich abattoirs. However, the advantages of hot-deboning include the reduction of costs and time, but there is always the risk of cold-shortening. The effects of hot-deboning of ostrich M. gastrocnemius, pars interna on meat sensory attributes were investigated. The data showed that the hot-deboned muscles' pH(48) (6.57±0.18) was significantly negatively correlated (r=-0.7813; P0.038) to the mean Warner-Bratzler shear force values (71.28±18.62N, 12.7mm(-1) diameter) and positively correlated (r=0.789; P0.035) to the mean scores for taste panel tenderness (66.39±15.45). After storage for 48h post-mortem, the hot-deboned muscles were found to be less juicy (P0.004) and, according to both sensory tenderness scores and Warner-Bratzler shear force values, tougher (P0.0001) than the cold-deboned muscles.

The three-dimensional anatomy of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) knee (femorotibial, femorofibular, and femoropatellar) joint has scarcely been studied, and could elucidate certain mechanobiological properties of sesamoid bones. The adult ostrich is unique in that it has double patellae, while another similar ratite bird, the emu, has none. Understanding why these patellae form and what purpose they may serve is dually important for future studies on ratites as well as for understanding the mechanobiological characteristics of sesamoid bone development. For this purpose, we present a three-dimensional anatomical study of the ostrich knee joint, detailing osteology, ligaments and menisci, and myology. We have identified seven muscles which connect to the two patellae and compare our findings to past descriptions. These descriptions can be used to further study the biomechanical loading and implications of the double patella in the ostrich.