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Background: Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by cognitive impairment, movement abnormalities, and behavioral disturbances. The Stroop Color Word Test (SCWT) is a widely used tool to detect cognitive decline in HD. Variations in SCWT formats—horizontal (original) and vertical (Golden)—may influence performance, given HD's impact on cognitive and oculomotor abilities. Objective: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of the horizontal and Golden vertical SCWT formats in detecting cognitive decline in HD, and to determine how performance may have been influenced by eye movement abnormalities. Methods: Forty-five participants with genetically confirmed HD were recruited. Both SCWT formats were administered to each participant in a counterbalanced fashion. Individual performance of all three sections on each format was standardized across 2 different norms. Raw and normed scores on each variation were compared and correlated with eye movement ratings on the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale. Results: The Golden variation elicited significantly slower responses, particularly in the Word Reading section, across two benchmark norms. Statistical analysis revealed significant performance differences between the two formats. Correlations between vertical eye movement ratings and performance on the Golden SCWT were highly significant, highlighting the impact of oculomotor coordination on cognitive assessments in HD. Conclusion: This study underscores the importance of considering test format in cognitive assessments for HD. The Golden vertical SCWT demonstrates increased sensitivity in detecting deficits in HD, possibly linked to vertical saccade abnormalities. These insights are important for improving the sensitivity of cognitive assessments and monitoring disease progression in HD research and clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of computerized cognitive training (CCT) on white matter (WM) neuroplasticity and neuropsychological performance. Methods A total of 128 community older adults (64.36 ± 6.14 years) were recruited and randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. Participants in the intervention group received a home-based, multidomain, and adaptive CCT for 30 minutes, 2 days per week for 1 year. Neuropsychological assessments, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and T1-weighted structural MRI were performed at the pre- and post-intervention visits. Results Eighty-one of 128 participants (41 in the intervention group and 40 in the control group) completed the 1-year intervention, and 61 of them (27 in the intervention group and 34 in the control group) underwent MRI scans twice. After excluding attrition bias, a significant time-by-group interaction on the Stroop Color-Word Test (SCWT; F  = 51.85, p < .001) was found, showing improvement in the intervention group and a decline in the control group. At the brain level, the intervention group exhibited increased axial diffusivity in the left posterior thalamic radiation, and this increase was significantly correlated with reduced SCWT reaction time (r  = ‒0.42, p = .029). No significant time-by-group interactions were found for gray matter volume. Conclusions Our findings suggest that conducting multidomain adaptive CCT is an effective and feasible method to counteract cognitive decline in older adults, with WM neuroplasticity underpinning cognitive improvements. This study contributes to the understanding of the neural basis for the beneficial effect of CCT for older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alcohol Stroop is a widely used task in addiction science to measure the theoretical concept of attentional bias (a selective attention to alcohol-related cues in the environment), which is thought to be associated with clinical outcomes (craving and consumption). However, recent research suggests findings from this task can be equivocal. This may be because the task has many different potential analysis pipelines, which increase researcher degrees of freedom when analysing data and reporting results. These analysis pipelines largely come from how outlying reaction times on the task are identified and handled (e.g. individual reaction times > 3 standard deviations from the mean are removed from the distribution; removal of all participant data if > 25% errors are made). We used specification curve analysis across two alcohol Stroop datasets using alcohol-related stimuli (one published and one novel) to examine the robustness of the alcohol Stroop effect to different analytical decisions. We used a prior review of this research area to identify 27 unique analysis pipelines. Across both data sets, the pattern of results was similar. The alcohol Stroop effect was present and largely robust to different analysis pipelines. Increased variability in the Stroop effect was observed when implementing outlier cut-offs for individual reaction times, rather than the removal of participants. Stricter outlier thresholds tended to reduce the size of the Stroop interference effect. These specification curve analyses are the first to examine the robustness of the alcohol Stroop to different analysis strategies, and we encourage researchers to adopt such analytical methods to increase confidence in their inferences across cognitive and addiction science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural light environment in polar regions is different in that there are midnight sun and polar night rather than a regular year-round alternation of day and night. Existing research has reported that the scientific modulation of interior light parameters can reduce the negative effects on the circadian rhythm and improve brain functions of the staff members at polar stations, from basic physiological mechanisms to higher cognitive functions, such as perception, learning, memory, and thinking. Currently, the appropriate balance of visual and nonvisual aspects that allow lighting conditions to be applied in a manner conducive to human well-being, health and functioning is still to be investigated, and accurate analysis of the influence rules of functional lighting's vertical illuminance at eye level on cognitive performance remains an unresolved and important issue. This study analyses the effects of the vertical illuminance at eye level of functional lighting on the cognitive performance indicators toward the target population through simple reaction time task, cancellation test, and stroop test, and concludes that vertical illuminance levels of 260 ~ 300 lx at eye level contributed to improved cognitive performance. The study also verifies that comfort and satisfaction indices of subjective perceptions are significantly and strongly correlated with cognitive function indicators, and slightly better than the relaxation index. However, the attention index is not significantly correlated with cognitive function indicators. This study can provide data reference for the light design and operational decisions of buildings in Antarctica and the Arctic to promote wider application and impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The objective of this study was to assess whether inhibitory task performance in adolescence could be prospectively related to weight gain in young adulthood. We proposed that this association would differ according to the BMI group in adolescence. Methods: A total of 318 adolescents performed the anti‐saccade task, and 530 completed the Stroop test. Accuracy and reaction time were assessed for each incentive type (neutral, loss, and reward) in the anti‐saccade task and for each trial type (control and incongruent trials) in the Stroop test. Changes in the BMI z score (∆BMI z score) from adolescence to young adulthood were calculated. Results: The relationship between the BMI z score and the anti‐saccade task accuracy showed an effect on the ∆BMI z score (β = −0.002, p < 0.05). The neutral and loss accuracies were related to ∆BMI z score in the groups with overweight (all β = −0.004, p = 0.05) and obesity (β = −0.006 and β = −0.005, p < 0.01). The interaction between adolescents' BMI z score with control (β = −0.312, p < 0.001) and incongruent (β = −0.384, p < 0.001) trial reaction times showed an effect on the ∆BMI z score. Control (β = 0.730, p = 0.036) and incongruent (β = 0.535, p = 0.033) trial reaction times were related to ∆BMI z score in the group with overweight. Conclusions: Our findings support the hypothesis that cognitive vulnerability could predict the BMI gain from adolescence to young adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A pervasive environmental stressor is one that damages mental and physical health as well as cognitive abilities by producing noise at a specific frequency and level. Current noise pollution levels pose a significant threat to public health, potentially leading to impaired cognitive function, increased stress, and other negative health consequences. This study aims to investigate the relationship between noise exposure and human cognitive abilities using a comprehensive analysis of power spectrum density (PSD) derived from EEG signals. Twenty-four participants completed the experiment to identify the effect of exposure to different noise levels (55 dB, 65 dB, 70 dB, 75 dB, 80 dB, and 85 dB) and two types of continuous and intermittent noise. The Stroop Color–Word Test and the Emotive Epoch EEG are cognitive task instruments used during experiments. Behavioral performance (accuracy and response time) and power spectrum electroencephalographic density were collected and analyzed. The methodology involved collecting EEG data from participants exposed to controlled noise stimuli and a subsequent PSD analysis to uncover frequency-specific patterns associated with cognitive processes. Attention levels were measured by examining beta wave activity, while stress responses were evaluated through an alpha wave analysis. Additionally, mental workload was assessed by considering the overall distribution of PSD through the theta-to-alpha ratio. The results revealed a significant relationship between the exposure to noise types and levels and human cognitive ability. The analysis of the power spectrum density on the cognitive aspects of attention and stress yielded results indicating that participants were in the best attention condition and in a relaxed or unstressed state when exposed to noise levels of 65 dB in both continuous and intermittent noise types. For the mental workload aspect, participants exposed to both continuous and intermittent noise types at a noise level of 70 dB began to indicate the presence of mental workload. These findings supported the importance of considering the impact of environmental noise on human cognitive well-being and demonstrated the potential of EEG monitoring as an objective tool for assessing the impact of noise on cognitive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: College students, undergoing crucial cognitive development, face challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic that impact their executive functions. While existing research indicates positive effects of Tai Chi (TC) on college students' cognitive abilities, there is a scarcity of studies investigating its impact on executive functions and frontal brain activity. Objective: This study aimed to compare the effects of 24-form simplified TC training on college students' executive functions and frontal brain electrical activity. The hypothesis posited that the TC group would exhibit superior performance compared to the control group during COVID-19 pandemic. Method: Seventy college students were randomly assigned to either TC group or control group, engaging in 36 sessions (3 sessions per week, 45 min each) over 12 weeks. Executive inhibitory control was assessed using the Stroop Color and Word Test, and resting brain electrical activity in the frontal area was recorded through Electroencephalography. Result: ACC was influenced by group, group-time interaction, and Stroop task-time interaction. RT was affected by time, task condition, task condition-time interaction, and task condition-group interaction. Notably, the TC group showed improved ACC (from 96.54 ± 3.27% to 98.90 ± 1.32%) and decreased RT (from 0.73 ± 0.12 to 0.66 ± 0.07 s), particularly in the inconsistent task. Regarding EEG band power, significant Group and Time interaction effects were found in F3-θ, F3-α, F3-β, F4-θ, and F4-α. Moreover, within the TC group, significant increases in F3-θ band power (from 4.66 ± 3.55 to 7.71 ± 8.44) and F4-θ band power (from 4.41 ± 2.82 to 8.61 ± 9.51) (10-3⋅μV·Hz) were noted pre-and post-tests. In the control group, significant decreases were observed in F3-α band power (from 5.18 ± 4.61 to 2.79 ± 2.11) and F4-α band power (from 5.57 ± 6.58 to 2.48 ± 1.95) (10-3⋅μV⋅Hz). Conclusion: The pandemic-induced panic may impact frontal lobe brain activity in college students. TC training not only improves executive inhibitory control but may also enhance localized brain activity, suggesting its potential as a holistic intervention for cognitive and neurological well-being during stressful periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Task cues that correctly (vs.incorrectly) inform humans about their upcoming tasks, benefit (vs. interfere with) performance because participants can use task cues to retrieve the corresponding task set, so that targets can (vs. cannot) be processed according to the currently applying task set from target onset onwards. Here, we tested if task-associated features of peripheral cues have a similar effect. Typically, peripheral cues with a task-associated, searched-for color (i.e., top-down matching cues) capture attention: Search for targets presented at the cued position (valid condition) is faster than for targets presented away from the cue (invalid condition), even if cues do not predict the likely target location. For example, when searching for red and green targets, a red cue captures attention even if presented prior to a green target, but a blue cue does not. We know that cue-target color congruence—whether the cue has a target-similar color (congruent case) vs. a target-dissimilar color (incongruent case)—additionally expedites vs. delays search times. However, it is unclear if this congruence effect reflects feed-forward color priming of the target only; or if cue-elicited retrieval of color-specific task sets is involved. Crucially, we hypothesized that cue-based task-set retrieval should incur additional costs if the task sets for the two target colors differ more. In contrast, mere feed-forward priming should not be affected by task-set similarity between color-associated task sets. Congruence effects were indeed larger when color-associated task sets were more different. This finding indicates cue-elicited retrieval of color-associated task sets can contribute to effects of cue-target color congruence. Results are discussed in light of recent theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The risk of dementia is increased in subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Despite the plethora of in-person cognitive tests, those that can be administered over the phone are lacking. We hypothesized that a home-based cognitive test (HCT) using phone calls would be feasible and useful in non-demented elderly. We aimed to assess feasibility and validity of a new HCT as an optional cognitive monitoring tool without visiting hospitals. Methods: Our study was conducted in a prospective design during 24 weeks. We developed a new HCT consisting of 20 questions (score range 0–30). Participants with MCI (n = 38) were consecutively enrolled and underwent regular HCTs during 24 weeks. Associations between HCT scores and in-person cognitive scores and Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers were evaluated. In addition, HCT scores in MCI participants were cross-sectionally compared with age-matched cognitively normal (n = 30) and mild AD dementia (n = 17) participants for discriminative ability of the HCT. Results: HCT had good intra-class reliability (test-retest Cronbach's alpha 0.839). HCT scores were correlated with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), verbal memory delayed recall, and Stroop test scores but not associated with AD biomarkers. HCT scores significantly differed among cognitively normal, MCI, and mild dementia participants, indicating its discriminative ability. Finally, 32 MCI participants completed follow-up evaluations, and 8 progressed to dementia. Baseline HCT scores in dementia progressors were lower than those in non-progressors (p = 0.001). Conclusion: The feasibility and usefulness of the HCT were demonstrated in elderly subjects with MCI. HCT could be an alternative option to monitor cognitive decline in early stages without dementia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Dyslexia is among the most common disorders in the childhood period. Various studies show a prevalence of 3-15% for this disorder. The most significant cognitive functions involved in dyslexia are working memory, fluid reasoning, and executive functions. The malfunction of working memory disrupts the processing of information necessary for fluid reasoning, resulting in dyslexia. Through monitoring cognitive information, the executive functions enhance the effectiveness of fluid reasoning. However, due to the high diversity of the executive functions, the contribution of each function has not been clarified. Multiple studies have tried to determine the association between the executive functions of working memory and fluid reasoning; nevertheless, fundamental issues, the nature, the logical basis, and the impact of executive functions on complex cognitive phenomena, such as reading, are not sufficiently clarified. As executive functions are considered to be the significant factors predicting educational success, determining their role in the association between working memory and fluid reasoning of children with dyslexia is important. Clarifying the role of executive functions as the mechanisms to explain the dysfunction of children with dyslexia may help to develop interventions aimed at cognitive rehabilitation. By addressing existing research gaps, this study tried to investigate whether executive functions play a mediating role in the relationship between working memory and fluid reasoning among children with dyslexia. Method: This descriptive and correlational study was ethically approved by the Ethics Committee of the Islamic Azad University, Neyshabur Branch, Neyshabur, Iran (no. IR.IAU.NEYSHABUR.REC.1397.005). The statistical population of this study consisted of 440 third-grade students of elementary schools in Mashhad, Iran in the 2018-2019 Iranian academic year. Among these students, 205 participants were selected using the convenience sampling method. The inclusion criteria were a diagnosis of dyslexic learning disorder, the third grade of elementary school, the age of at least 8 years, and an IQ of 85 or higher. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales (5th edition) was applied to measure working memory and fluid reasoning. Moreover, the electronic version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) were used to evaluate executive functions. The data were analyzed using appropriate statistical methods in SPSS software (version 23) and PLS software (version 2). Results: The results indicated that there was a positive and significant correlation between working memory and fluid reasoning with an intensity of 0.13 (p = 0.049). The coefficient of fluid reasoning was 0.28, indicating that 0.28% of the changes in fluid reasoning were due to executive functions and working memory, and the remaining was due to the factors not considered in the model. The results also showed that the path of working memory to fluid reasoning was significant (p = 0.04), and the coefficient of the path was positive (B = 0.51), indicating that when the working memory improved, the fluid reasoning also enhanced. The path of the independent variable (working memory) to the mediating variable (executive functions) and the path of the mediating variable to the dependent variable were not found significant. Although the hypothesis of the mediating role of executive functions in the association between working memory and fluid reasoning was rejected, the direct correlation between the two variables was found significant. Discussion and Conclusion: The main purpose of this study was to explore the mediating role of executive functions in the relationship between working memory and fluid reasoning among children with dyslexia. The present study showed that there is a significant relationship between working memory and fluid reasoning. The aforementioned finding is in line with the findings of previous studies conducted on the relationship between working memory and fluid reasoning (Johann et al., 2020; Kim & Park, 2018; Orzechowski et al., 2020; Rey-Mermet et al., 2019). Previous studies investigated the conceptual path between working memory and fluid reasoning among the general population in other countries; therefore, the significance of this study lies in examining the assumed paths using a sample of children with dyslexia in Iran. The results showed that only 28% of changes in fluid reasoning could be influenced by executive functions and working memory. The aforementioned finding is in line with the findings of a study by Mermet et al. (2019) (ReyMermet et al., 2019). Moreover, the results did not confirm the mediating role of executive functions in the association between working memory and fluid reasoning among children with dyslexia. Considering the findings of the present study and the findings of Barbosa et al.’s study (2019) (Barbosa et al., 2019), by focusing on dyslexic children, it can be said that only verbal working memory, specifically in phonological manipulation and not mental maintenance, is associated with executive functions. Therefore, the association between working memory and fluid reasoning through the mediating role of executive functions is confirmed only in the verbal working memory domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Depression and cognitive impairment are recognized complications of COVID-19. This study aimed to assess cognitive performance in clinically diagnosed post-COVID depression (PCD, n = 25) patients using neuropsychological testing. Methods: The study involved 71 post-COVID patients with matched control groups: recovered COVID-19 individuals without complications (n = 18) and individuals without prior COVID-19 history (n = 19). A post-COVID depression group (PCD, n = 25) was identified based on psychiatric diagnosis, and a comparison group (noPCD, n = 46) included participants with neurological COVID-19 complications, excluding clinical depression. Results: The PCD patients showed gender-dependent significant cognitive impairment in the MoCA, Word Memory Test (WMT), Stroop task (SCWT), and Trail Making Test (TMT) compared to the controls and noPCD patients. Men with PCD showed worse performances on the SCWT, in MoCA attention score, and on the WMT (immediate and delayed word recall), while women with PCD showed a decline in MoCA total score, an increased processing time with less errors on the TMT, and worse immediate recall. No differences between groups in Sniffin's stick test were found. Conclusions: COVID-related direct (post-COVID symptoms) and depression-mediated (depression itself, male sex, and severity of COVID-19) predictors of decline in memory and information processing speed were identified. Our findings may help to personalize the treatment of depression, taking a patient's gender and severity of previous COVID-19 disease into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nordic walking requires the association of walking and coordination of limbs while orienteering in a natural environment. It has been shown to improve functional capacities more than normal walking. However, its cognitive benefits are less clear. The main hypothesis was that this training improves visuospatial capacities and inhibition functions. A total of 14 healthy older adults were included. The training was performed in three sessions of 75 min a week for 8 weeks. Pre-, intermediate, and post-tests were carried out. Cognitive functions including global cognition (MoCA), executive functions (Color–Word Stroop test), speed of information processing, switching capacities (Trail Making Test A and B), and visuospatial capacities (Rey Complex Figure Copy Task) were assessed. Motor functions including balance control (Unipedal Balance Test), functional mobility (Timed Up and Go), hamstring flexibility (Chair Sit and Reach test), and motor coordination (Four-Square Stepping Test) were evaluated. Physical function, including lower limb strength (Timed Sit-To-Stand) and cardiovascular capacities (Incremental Shuttle Walking Test), was measured. Cardiovascular capacity, strength of lower limbs, and motor coordination were positively affected by training. With respect to cognition, training improved visuospatial capacities, while switching capacities, information processing speed, and executive functions did not improve. A possible explanation is that they needed a longer program duration to show benefits. However, analyses of responders suggested that NW positively affected cognitive functioning in a subset of participants. Eight weeks of NW training produced physical, motor, and cognitive improvements. A longer training duration could be necessary to extend the benefits to executive functions in all participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential tremor (ET) is one of the most common neurological diseases. New evidence suggest that ET is associated with cognitive disorders other than motor symptoms. We aimed to investigate executive dysfunctions, which are comorbid cognitive deficiencies that may accompany ET. The study was conducted as an observational, case-control study in the Neurology Department of Ankara City Hospital in a 3-month period. The "Fahn-Tolosa-Marin Tremor Evaluation Scale" was used to rate tremor severity. Both patients and control group were subjected to the Mini Mental Test, followed by the Stroop TBAG test (TBAG is composed of the first letters of "TUBİTAK Temel Bilimler Araştırma Grubu," which means Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey Basic Sciences Research Group), word fluency (category fluency), phonemic fluency (K), and abstract thinking (binary similarities, proverb interpretation) tests. Both the patient and the control group consisted of 20 women and 20 men, with age, gender, and educational background compatible. Mean age of the patient group was 34.80 ± 13.23 years, while it was 34.95 ± 10.21 years in control group. In the ET group, statistically significant impairment was detected in the Stroop Test section 5 duration and error + correction number, category fluency, binary similarity, and phonemic fluency tests compared to the control group. There was a correlation between the severity of tremor and especially Stroop, category fluency, and binary similarity tests such that, as the severity of tremor increased, these test scores deteriorated. In ET patients, an impairment, accompanying tremor, may be present in executive functions that are a part of frontal lobe functions even in younger patients. This finding may suggest that impairment in the cerebellum–thalamus–frontal lobe connection may play a role in ET pathology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Stroke is a cerebrovascular disease with an impressive potential of disability, (multi)morbidity, and mortality among elderly patients. After stroke, a series of seque-lae represents a dynamic challenge for rehabilitation, especially for improving motor, cognitive and depressive disorders (1,2). Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive, painless, neuromodulations and neurostimulation method, which uses electromagnetic induction to administer repeated trains of pulses, with thera-peutic, diagnostic and research purposes (3-5). Method: We performed a systematic literature review of the related literature using a widely international accepted method - Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)(6), by searching, filtering, and selecting profile documen-tary material. Combinations/syntaxes of keywords were searched in the following interna-tional databases: Elsevier(7), PubMed(8), PMC(9), PEDro(10), in ISI indexed journals by Web of Knowledge/Science(11) during 1/01/2019-31/12/2021. Besides the 9 articles selected to enhance our related knowledge base we have also used some works freely identified in the literature. Results and discussions: 9 articles satisfied all the previous filtering criteria/PRISMA steps and were selected for qualitative and detailed analysis. The benefits of rTMS, aiming to bring further insight into the responsiveness of motor deficit, depression, and cognitive impairment of the treatment, and through the favorable dynamic progress of the scores of the quantification scales used: HAMD-17/HDRS, Hamilton Depression Scale; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assesment; SCWT, Stroop Color-Word Interference Test; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; NIHSS, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale; Barthel Index Score; ADL, Activities of Daily Living; mRS, modified Rankin Scale; FIM, Functional Independence Measures. Conclusions: Through this systematic review, we wish to present the perspective of the successful use of rTMS among elderly patients. We also intend for this work to be the start-ing point in the development of a doctoral study, which will include post-stroke sequelae, such as motor deficits, depressive and cognitive disorders, and through which we will strengthen scientific confidence in the tolerability and effectiveness of this type of stimula-tion for this segment of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Face‐to‐face communication relies on the integration of acoustic speech signals with the corresponding facial articulations. In the McGurk illusion, an auditory /ba/ phoneme presented simultaneously with a facial articulation of a /ga/ (i.e., viseme), is typically fused into an illusory 'da' percept. Despite its widespread use as an index of audiovisual speech integration, critics argue that it arises from perceptual processes that differ categorically from natural speech recognition. Conversely, Bayesian theoretical frameworks suggest that both the illusory McGurk and the veridical audiovisual congruent speech percepts result from probabilistic inference based on noisy sensory signals. According to these models, the inter‐sensory conflict in McGurk stimuli may only increase observers' perceptual uncertainty. This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study presented participants (20 male and 24 female) with audiovisual congruent, McGurk (i.e., auditory /ba/ + visual /ga/), and incongruent (i.e., auditory /ga/ + visual /ba/) stimuli along with their unisensory counterparts in a syllable categorization task. Behaviorally, observers' response entropy was greater for McGurk compared to congruent audiovisual stimuli. At the neural level, McGurk stimuli increased activations in a widespread neural system, extending from the inferior frontal sulci (IFS) to the pre‐supplementary motor area (pre‐SMA) and insulae, typically involved in cognitive control processes. Crucially, in line with Bayesian theories these activation increases were fully accounted for by observers' perceptual uncertainty as measured by their response entropy. Our findings suggest that McGurk and congruent speech processing rely on shared neural mechanisms, thereby supporting the McGurk illusion as a valid measure of natural audiovisual speech perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a spatial Stroop task, eye-gaze targets produce a reversed congruency effect (RCE) with faster responses when gaze direction and location are incongruent than congruent. On the other hand, non-social directional targets (e.g., arrows) elicit a spatial Stroop effect (SSE). The present study examined whether other social stimuli, such as head orientation, trigger the RCE. Participants judged the target direction of the head or the gaze while ignoring its location. While the gaze target replicated the RCE, the head target produced the SSE. Moreover, the head target facilitated the overall responses relative to the gaze target. These results suggest that the head, a salient directional feature, overrides the social significance. The RCE may be specific to gaze stimuli, not to social stimuli in general. The head and gaze information differentially affect our attentional mechanisms and enable us to bring about smooth social interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The multicomponent nature of executive functions (EF) has long been recognized, pushing for a better understanding of both the commonalities and the diversity between EF components. Despite the advances made, the operationalization of performance in EF tasks remains rather heterogeneous, and the structure of EF as modeled by confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) is still a topic of debate (Karr et al., 2018). The present work demonstrates these two issues are related, showing how different operationalizations in task-based performance indicators impact the resulting models of EF structure with CFA. Using bootstrapped data from 294 children (8–12 years old) and nine EF tasks (tapping inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), we first show improved model convergence and acceptance when operationalizing EF through single tasks' scores (e.g., incongruent trials, Flanker task) relative to difference scores (e.g., incongruent minus congruent trials, Flanker task). Furthermore, we show that response times exhibit poor model convergence and acceptance compared not only to accuracy but also drift rate. The latter, a well-known indicator in drift-diffusion models, is found to present the best trade-off between convergence and acceptance to model EF with CFA. Finally, we examine how various operationalizations of performance in EF tasks impact CFA model comparison in the assessment of EF structure and discuss the theoretical foundations for these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In modern versions of the Stroop task, participants view target words presented on a computer screen with pixels that are either congruent (e.g., "Red" in red pixels) or incongruent (e.g., "Red" in blue pixels) with the meaning of the target word. When participants report the target color, the difference in response time between congruent and incongruent targets (i.e., Stroop effect) is typically larger than when they report the target word (i.e., reverse Stroop effect); this is the classic Stroop asymmetry. For decades following Stroop's experiments, the prevailing explanation for the asymmetry asserted that, for most people, word reading but not color naming has become automatic, so the target word should always become mentally accessible before the target color. Recent studies have argued instead that the advantage for the target word results not from automaticity but from a strong association between the identification task and verbal processing. To test the strength-of-association account, we developed Qualtrics scripts to deliver visual and auditory target words in Stroop and reverse Stroop tasks. The visually presented targets replicated the classic Stroop asymmetry, p < .001, ηp² = .27. The auditorily presented targets extended the classic Stroop asymmetry to the auditory domain, p < .001, ηp²= .18. These results support the argument that, for an identification task, the target's semantic features enjoy an advantage over the target's perceptual features regardless of the sensory modality to which the target is presented. In turn, this shows that task demands are more important than automaticity in mental processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) is the mildest form of hepatic encephalopathy. One of the neuropsychological tests that detects MHE is the Stroop test (via EncephalApp). The aim was to evaluate the Stroop test for the screening and diagnosis of MHE. Methods: This prospective case–control study was performed at the Clinic for Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, and included patients with cirrhosis and MHE and healthy controls. In all patients, the presence of MHE was confirmed using the animal naming test. The Stroop test was performed on each participant, and the results were compared between the two groups. The test has two components, the "OFF" and "ON" states. Results: A total of 111 participants were included. The median OFF time did not differ between the two groups, 106.3 and 91.4, p > 0.05. However, in patients with MHE, the median values of ON time and total time were significantly higher, with 122.3 vs. 105.3 and 228.0 vs. 195.6, respectively, p < 0.05. Statistical significance between patients and controls in examined parameters was detected in younger participants and the group with higher educational levels. Conclusions: The Stroop test displayed limited sensitivity in Serbian patients. Age and education affect time measurements and test performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Anaemia not only impairs physical growth but also affects behavioral and cognitive abilities. Past studies have proved that increased haemoglobin levels result in improved Central Nervous System (CNS) functions. However, there is a significant lacuna between cognition and anaemia among young adults, especially females. Aim: To assess the cognitive ability of female undergraduate dental students with and without anaemia. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 100 young female dental students, aged between 18 and 23 years, who presented in the Department of Physiology, Vivekanandha Dental College for Women, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, India, from February to July 2019. Haemoglobin levels were analysed using the colourimetric cyanmethemoglobin method with Drabkin's solution, and based on this, the students were divided into anaemic and non anaemic groups. Cognitive status was assessed using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), letter cancellation test, and Stroop test. The Student's t-test and Pearson's correlation were used to examine the association between haemoglobin levels and cognition. Results: The mean age in the anaemic group and non anaemic group was 19.95±1.80 years and 19.64±1.60 years, and the Body Mass Index (BMI) was 19.54±1.62 kg/m² and 19.32±1.43 kg/m², respectively. Haemoglobin levels were significantly lower in the anaemic subjects at 10.408 gm/dL compared to the non anaemic subjects (p-value<0.001). A statistically significant difference was observed between the two groups on DSST scores (21.10±2.99 versus 32.60±14.69), letter cancellation test (25.80±4.63 versus 35.80±4.56), and Stroop test (132.10±8.15 versus 123.56±10.52). Conclusion: The present study reported a significant association between anaemia and cognitive function. Therefore, early screening and prompt treatment of anaemia are crucial for improving both physical as well as mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patients with psoriasis may have cognitive impairment. However, there is limited information regarding intrinsic brain activity and cognitive function in patients with psoriasis. Objectives: This study aim to assess alterations of intrinsic brain activity and its association with cognitive function in patients with psoriasis. Methods: A total of 222 patients with psoriasis aged 18–70 years and 144 age and gender‐matched healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled into this study. All subjects underwent brain resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs‐fMRI) and neuropsychological testing. The rs‐fMRI data were analysed for both intrinsic brain activity as indicated by amplitude of low‐frequency fluctuation (ALFF) and seed‐based functional connectivity (FC). Correlative analysis of brain activity with cognitive assessment was performed. Results: Compared with the HCs, patients with psoriasis had worse cognitive performance in the Trail Making Test, Digit Span Test and Stroop Color‐Word Test (p < 0.05). Patients with psoriasis showed decreased ALFF in the left superior frontal gyrus, the left medial superior frontal gyrus and the right precuneus gyrus; as well as enhanced ALFF in the left paracentral lobule (pFWE < 0.05). Significant correlations were noted between the altered ALFF in the four brain regions and cognitive assessment (p < 0.05). Moreover, patients with psoriasis had increased FC between the four brain regions with altered ALFF (seeds) and the left prefrontal gyrus, the left anterior cingulate gyrus, left superior parietal lobule and default mode network (DMN) regions such as the right precuneus gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, right angular gyrus and bilateral inferior temporal gyrus (pFWE < 0.05). Conclusions: Patients with psoriasis had altered brain activity and connectivity in the key brain areas within the DMN–prefrontal circuit. These brain changes may be the underlying neural correlates for cognitive functioning in patients with psoriasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classical conditioning states that the systematic co-occurrence of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus can cause the neutral stimulus to, over time, evoke the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. On a neural level, Hebbian learning suggests that this type of learning occurs through changes in synaptic plasticity when two neurons are simultaneously active, resulting in increased connectivity between them. Inspired by associative learning theories, we here investigated whether the mere co-activation of visual stimuli and stimulation of the primary motor cortex using TMS would result in stimulus–response associations that can impact future behavior. During a learning phase, we repeatedly paired the presentation of a specific color (but not other colors) with a TMS pulse over the motor cortex. Next, participants performed a two-alternative forced-choice task where they had to categorize simple shapes and we studied whether the shapes' task-irrelevant color (and its potentially associated involuntary motor activity) affected the required motor response. Participants showed more errors on incongruent trials for stimuli that were previously paired with high intensity TMS pulses, but only when tested on the same day. Using a drift diffusion model for conflict tasks, we further demonstrate that this interference occurred early, and gradually increased as a function of associated TMS intensity. Taken together, our findings show that the human brain can learn stimulus–response associations using externally induced motor cortex stimulation. Although we were inspired by the Hebbian learning literature, future studies should investigate whether Hebbian or other learning processes were also what brought about this effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Garden-path sentences generate processing difficulty due to a more preferred parse conflicting with incoming parsing information. A domain-general cognitive control mechanism has been argued to help identify and resolve these parsing conflicts. This cognitive control mechanism has been argued to underlie adaptation to garden path processing at the trial level (conflict adaptation) and contiguously over the experiment (syntactic adaptation) in independent literature. The strongest evidence for its domain generality comes from garden-path processing being facilitated when preceded by a non-syntactic conflict (e.g., Stroop). This has been reliably observed in the visual world paradigm, which, like Stroop, requires irrelevant visual information to be suppressed. We tested the domain generality of conflict adaptation and its relationship to contiguous syntactic adaptation across four experiments (n = 562). To eliminate the visual object confound, the Stroop task was followed by a sentence-reading task. We observed Stroop and ambiguity effects, but no conflict adaptation in each experiment. Contiguous syntactic adaptation was replicated and most compatible with the parser changing its expectations and/or improving revision. While the data largely fail to support a domain-general cognitive control mechanism, a language-specific one could operate in both trial and contiguous syntactic adaptation and is worth future exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the roles of first language (L1) and meaning knowledge of nodes in the processing and written production of English collocations among Chinese EFL learners. Twenty-four congruent collocations (can be expressed by a literal L1 translation equivalent) and 24 incongruent collocations (cannot be translated into L1 word by word) were examined by a timed phrase acceptability judgment task and a productive test. Based on the method of the Word Associates Test (Read, 1993), a meaning recognition test was developed to examine learners' knowledge of multiple meanings of nodes. Results of pair-sample t-tests revealed that learners had better performance on congruent collocations than on incongruent collocations in both processing and written production, with shorter response times, fewer error rates in processing and higher production scores. A two-tailed Pearson correlation analysis indicated that learners' meaning knowledge of node words had a moderate positive correlation with congruent collocation processing, incongruent collocation processing, congruent collocation production and incongruent collocation production, respectively, and the correlations with incongruent collocations were stronger than that with congruent collocations, especially in processing. The results implied that L1 and learners' meaning knowledge of nodes played positive roles in both the processing and written production of L2 collocations. Some direct implications for L2 collocation teaching practice were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the impact of trait anxiety on reactive control, a cognitive process involving the resolution of cognitive conflicts and behavior modification based on task-related information. While prior research has focused on the influence of anxiety on proactive control, which involves preparatory attention to task-related cues, the investigation of trait anxiety's impact on reactive control is relatively novel. Reactive control relies on immediate and flexible access to task-related information. The study employs Event-Related Potentials (ERP) methodology to observe changes in brain electrical activity in response to different tasks or stimuli. By examining how individuals with varying levels of trait anxiety process task-related information, the research aims to shed light on the effects of anxiety on cognitive control processes and overall performance outcomes. This paper's unique contribution lies in the investigation of the impact of trait anxiety on reactive control, an area that has received limited attention in previous studies, using ERP methodology. The findings indicate that individuals with high trait anxiety exhibit impaired reactive control, which has implications for understanding the cognitive characteristics associated with anxiety. These results have relevance for both the field of psychology and a general psychological audience, as they contribute to our understanding of how anxiety influences cognitive processes and highlight potential areas for intervention and support for individuals with high trait anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive impairment (CI) is a distinctive characteristic of schizophrenia, with evidence suggesting that childhood and adolescence onset schizophrenia (CAOS), representing severe but rare forms of schizophrenia, share continuity with adult-onset conditions. While relationships between altered brain function and CI have been identified in adults with schizophrenia, the extent of brain function abnormalities in CAOS remains largely unknown. In this study, we employed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) to investigate functional alterations in brain areas among patients with CAOS. To assess CI across multiple cognitive domains, we utilized the Stroop Color and Word Tests (SCWT) and MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) tests. Our objective was to explore the associations between functional CI and the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) levels in these patients. Methods: We enrolled 50 patients diagnosed with CAOS and 33 healthy controls (HCs) matched for sex and age. Cognitive functions were assessed using the MCCB and SCWT methods. Rs-fMRI data were acquired using gradient-echo echo-planar imaging sequences. Voxel-based ALFF group maps were compared through two-sample t-tests in SPM8. Subsequently, correlation analyses were conducted to identify associations between ALFF levels and cognitive scores. Results: In comparison to HCs, patients exhibited significantly increased ALFF levels in the right fusiform gyrus, frontal lobe, and caudate, as well as the left frontal lobe and caudate. Conversely, reduced ALFF levels were observed in the temporal and left medial frontal lobes. Significant differences were identified between HCs and patients in terms of total cognitive scores, ALFF levels, and domain scores. All test scores were decreased, except for TMA. Correlation analyses between ALFF levels and cognitive functions in patients with CAOS differed from those in HCs. Pearson correlation analyses revealed positive associations between Brief Visuospatial Memory Test - Revised (BVMT-R) scores and ALFF levels in the left medial frontal gyrus. Digital Span Test (DST) scores were negatively correlated with ALFF levels in the right caudate, and Maze Test values were negatively correlated with levels in the left caudate. However, Pearson correlation analyses in HCs indicated that color and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT-R) scores positively correlated with ALFF levels in the left frontal lobe, while color-word and symbol coding scores negatively correlated with levels in the right caudate. Conclusions: Altered ALFF levels in the brain may be linked to cognitive impairment (CI) in patients with CAOS. We highlighted the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and provide imaging evidence that could potentially aid in the diagnosis of CAOS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has shown the diagnostic potential of optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) in various psychiatric disorders. However, there is few research focusing on changes specific to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), and the diagnostic value of OCT combined with OCTA parameters for MDD remains unclear. In this study, we investigated microvascular and morphology changes in the retina of MDD patients using a combination of OCTA and OCT parameters, and to examine their correlation with MDD mood and cognitive function in order to assess their diagnostic capability. Our findings revealed a significant decline in macular vessel density (MVD) in the superficial retinal capillary plexus (SRCP) across all subfields, except the NO area. We also observed a significant positive correlation between fovea and Stroop-1, as well as between temporal inner (TI) and Stroop-3 in MDD patients. Furthermore, we identified a negative correlation between fovea and Self-Rating Depression Scale, as well as between Superior outer (SO) and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-C in MDD patients. The sample size was small. Anatomical variables in blood flow may contribute to variability between subjects and outcomes. The diagnostic value of OCTA suggests their potential as valuable tools for monitoring and diagnosing MDD. • A significant decrease in macular vessel density in the superficial retinal capillary plexus in MDD compared to healthy controls. • Positive correlation between fovea/ temporal inner and Stroop Color-Word Test in MDD. • Negative correlation between fovea and depressive symptom in MDD • The combined diagnostic potential of OCT and OCTA suggests their utility as valuable tools for diagnosing MDD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a complex chronic condition with core symptoms of fatigue and cognitive dysfunction, suggesting a key role for the central nervous system in the pathophysiology of this disease. Several studies have reported altered functional connectivity (FC) related to motor and cognitive deficits in ME/CFS patients. In this study, we compared functional connectivity differences between 31 ME/CFS and 15 healthy controls (HCs) using 7 Tesla MRI. Functional scans were acquired during a cognitive Stroop color-word task, and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) time series were computed for 27 regions of interest (ROIs) in the cerebellum, brainstem, and salience and default mode networks. A region-based comparison detected reduced FC between the pontine nucleus and cerebellum vermis IX (p = 0.027) for ME/CFS patients compared to HCs. Our ROI-to-voxel analysis found significant impairment of FC within the ponto-cerebellar regions in ME/CFS. Correlation analyses of connectivity with clinical scores in ME/CFS patients detected associations between FC and 'duration of illness' and 'memory scores' in salience network hubs and cerebellum vermis and between FC and 'respiratory rate' within the medulla and the default mode network FC. This novel investigation is the first to report the extensive involvement of aberrant ponto-cerebellar connections consistent with ME/CFS symptomatology. This highlights the involvement of the brainstem and the cerebellum in the pathomechanism of ME/CFS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rehabilitation methods for executive dysfunction were focused on cognitive rehabilitation in patients with stroke and traumatic brain injury. However, no reviews have focused on the various rehabilitation methods and assessment of executive function in patients with only stroke and included various study designs. This study aimed to identify various interventions and assessments in patients with stroke and executive dysfunction via a scoping review. We searched for articles using the PubMed, Web of Science, and CINAHL databases. Two reviewers independently screened the articles based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria using the title, abstract, and full text. We subsequently determined the study design, sample size, time since stroke, intervention, and assessment. We extracted 1131 articles, of which 27 articles were selected. The study designs were randomized controlled trials (81.5%), pilot studies (11.1%), and feasibility studies (7.4%), with a total of 599 participants. Interventions varied from cognitive training (22.2%), virtual reality (22.2%), noninvasive brain stimulation (14.8%), and dual-task training (11.1%), with consistent results. The assessments used were the Trail Making Test Part B (70.4%), Stroop Color and Word Test (44.4%), Digit Symbol Test, Frontal Assessment Battery, and Tower of London test (11.1%). In conclusion, this scoping review provided various interventions and assessments in patients with stroke with executive dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People consistently associate colors with tastes (e.g., pink-sweet, yellow-sour). However, little has been known on the strength of those color-taste correspondences. The current study examined the congruency effect of colortaste correspondence using two Stroop word categorization tasks. The visual stimuli consisted of food names associated with sweet and sour tastes, presented in different shades of pink and yellow font colors. Participants were instructed to categorize the taste (sweet or sour) of the words in the Stroop word-taste categorization task and to discriminate the font color (pink or yellow) of the words in the Stroop word-color discrimination task. Results showed that participants responded faster in congruent conditions (sweet-pink and sour-yellow) than incongruent conditions (sweet-yellow and sour-pink) in both tasks. Specifically, yellow font colors facilitated the categorization of sour taste words compared to pink font colors, whereas sweet taste words facilitated the discrimination of pink font colors compared to sour taste words. These results provide further evidence for the congruency effect of color-taste correspondence in facilitating the processing of taste-related words and colors. Furthermore, the congruency effect was shown to operate bidirectionally, influencing both the conceptual meaning of tastes and perceptual color perception. This study highlights the significant interference effect of color-taste correspondence on cognitive processing as assessed by the Stroop task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children with developmental dyslexia (DD) often struggle with executive function difficulties which can continue into adulthood if not addressed. This double-blinded randomized clinical trial study evaluated the short-term effects of the Verbal Working Memory-Balance (VWM-B) program on reading-related executive functions, reading skills, and reading comprehension in Persian children with DD. The active control group [12 children with DD with a mean age of 9 years (SD = 0.90)] received training using the single-task VWM program, while the experiment group [15 children with DD with a mean age of 8 years (SD = 0.74)] received training with the dual-task VWM-B program. Both groups received fifteen training sessions, and assessments were conducted before and after the intervention. The groups were homogenized for possible confounders of age, gender, IQ level, and attention level. The study employed separate mixed ANOVA analyses to estimate the impact of training programs on various measured functions. Significant improvements were observed in the outcome measures of backward digit span, text comprehension, verbal fluency, Stroop color–word test and interference, and the reading subtests. Additionally, significant correlations were found between reading skills and backward digit span, text comprehension, verbal fluency, and Stroop variables. In conclusion, the dual-task VWM-B program was found to be more effective than the single-task VWM program in improving selective attention, cognitive inhibition, verbal working memory capacity, information processing speed, naming ability, and lexical access speed. These enhanced executive functions were associated with improved reading skills in children with DD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how the brain incorporates sensory and motor information will enable better theory building on human perception and behavior. In this study, we aimed to estimate the influence of predictive mechanisms on the magnitude and variability of sensory attenuation in two online samples. After the presentation of a visual cue stimulus, participants (Experiment 1: N = 224, Experiment 2: N = 84) compared the loudness of two consecutive tones in a two-alternative forced-choice task. In Experiment 1, the first tone was either self-initiated or not; in Experiment 2, the second tone was either self-initiated or not (active and passive condition, respectively). We further manipulated identity prediction (i.e., the congruence of pre-learned cue-sound combinations; congruent vs. incongruent), and the duration of the onset delay (to account for effects of attentional differences between the passive and active condition, 50 ms vs. 0 ms). We critically discuss our results within the framework of both classical (i.e., motor-based forward models) and contemporary approaches (i.e., predictive processing framework). Contrary to our preregistered hypothesis, we observed enhanced perceptual processing, instead of attenuation, for self-initiated auditory sensory input. Further, our results reveal an effect of fixed sound delays on the processing of motor and non-motor-based predictive information, and may point to according shifts in attention, leading to a perceptual bias. These results might best be captured by a hybrid explanatory model, combining predictions based on self-initiated motor action with a global predictive mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In rich visual environments, humans have to adjust their attentional control settings in various ways, depending on the task. Especially if the environment changes dynamically, it remains unclear how observers adapt to these changes. In two experiments (online and lab-based versions of the same task), we investigated how observers adapt their target choices while searching for color singletons among shape distractor contexts that changed over trials. The two equally colored targets had shapes that differed from each other and matched a varying number of distractors. Participants were free to select either target. The results show that participants adjusted target choices to the shape ratio of distractors: even though the task could be finished by focusing on color only, participants showed a tendency to choose targets matching with fewer distractors in shape. The time course of this adaptation showed that the regularities in the changing environment were taken into account. A Bayesian modeling approach was used to provide a fine-grained picture of how observers adapted their behavior to the changing shape ratio with three parameters: the strength of adaptation, its delay relative to the objective distractor shape ratio, and a general bias toward specific shapes. Overall, our findings highlight that systematic changes in shape, even when it is not a target-defining feature, influence how searchers adjust their attentional control settings. Furthermore, our comparison between lab-based and online assessments with this paradigm suggests that shape is a good choice as a feature dimension in adaptive choice online experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reaction times and error rates to a target's identity are impaired when the target is presented in a location that mismatches the response required, relative to situations where the location of the target and required response overlap (the Simon effect) and the same is true when the target's identity conveys spatial information (the spatial Stroop effect). Prior studies have found that visual versions of the spatial Stroop effect are magnified when alerting cues appear before the target and results are consistent with a dual-route framework where alerting cues boost automatic stimulus–response motor associations through the direct processing route. However, the influence of alerting signals on auditory versions of the spatial Stroop effect have not been tested and there are reasons to believe that the alerting–congruency interaction may differ across stimulus modality. In two experiments the effects of alerting cues on auditory (Experiment 1; N = 98) and visual (Experiment 2; N = 97) spatial Stroop effects are examined. Results show that alerting cues boost the spatial Stroop effect with visual stimuli but not auditory stimuli and a distributional analysis provides support for there being modality differences in the decay (or inhibition) of response-code activation. Implications for explanations of the alerting–congruence interaction are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Sympathetic nerve activity towards muscle (MSNA) and skin (SSNA) regulates various physiological parameters. MSNA primarily functions in blood pressure and flow, while SSNA operates in thermoregulation. Physical and cognitive stressors have been shown to have effects on both types of sympathetic activity, but there are inconsistencies as to what these effects are. This article aims to address the discrepancies in the literature and compare MSNA and SSNA responses. Methods: Microelectrode recordings were taken from the common peroneal nerve in 29 participants: MSNA (n = 21), SSNA (n = 16) and both MSNA and SSNA (n = 8). Participants were subjected to four different 2-min stressors: two physical (isometric handgrip task, cold pressor test) and two cognitive (mental arithmetic task, Stroop colour–word conflict test), the latter of which saw participants separated into responders and non-responders to the stressors. It was hypothesised that the physical stressors would have a greater effect on MSNA than SSNA, while the cognitive stressors would operate conversely. Results: Peristimulus time histogram (PSTH) analysis showed the mental arithmetic task to significantly increase both MSNA and SSNA; the isometric handgrip task and cold pressor test to increase MSNA, but not SSNA; and Stroop test to have no significant effects on changing MSNA or SSNA from baseline. Additionally, stress responses did not differ between MSNA and SSNA in participants who had both sets of data recorded. Conclusions: This study has provided evidence to support the literature which claims cognitive stressors increase sympathetic activity, and provides much needed SSNA data in response to stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the typical Stroop task, participants are presented with color words written in different ink colors and are asked to respond to their color. It has been suggested that the Stroop task consists of two main conflicts: information conflict (color vs. word naming) and task conflict (respond to color vs. read the word). In the current study, we developed a novel task that includes both Response trials (i.e., trials in which a response is required) and Rest trials (i.e., trials in which no response is required or available) and investigated the existence of both information and task conflicts in Rest trials. We found evidence for task conflict in Response and also in Rest trials, while evidence for information conflict was only observed in Response trials. These results are in line with a model of task conflict that occurs independently of and prior to information conflict in the Stroop task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recently developed diffusion model for conflict tasks (DMC) Ulrich et al. (Cognitive Psychology, 78, 148–174, 2015) provides a good account of data from all standard conflict tasks (e.g., Stroop, Simon, and flanker tasks) within a common evidence accumulation framework. A central feature of DMC's processing dynamics is that there is an initial phase of rapid accumulation of distractor evidence that is then selectively withdrawn from the decision mechanism as processing continues. We argue that this assumption is potentially troubling because it could be viewed as implying qualitative changes in the representation of distractor information over the time course of processing. These changes suggest more than simple inhibition or suppression of distractor information, as they involve evidence produced by distractor processing "changing sign" over time. In this article, we (a) develop a revised DMC (RDMC) whose dynamics operate strictly within the limits of inhibition/suppression (i.e., evidence strength can change monotonically, but cannot change sign); (b) demonstrate that RDMC can predict the full range of delta plots observed in the literature (i.e., both positive-going and negative-going); and (c) show that the model provides excellent fits to Simon and flanker data used to benchmark the original DMC at both the individual and group level. Our model provides a novel account of processing differences across Simon and flanker tasks. Specifically, that they differ in how distractor information is processed on congruent trials, rather than incongruent trials: congruent trials in the Simon task show relatively slow attention shifting away from distractor information (i.e., location) while complete and rapid attention shifting occurs in the flanker task. Our new model highlights the importance of considering dynamic interactions between top-down goals and bottom-up stimulus effects in conflict processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicts in working memory (WM) can occur when retrieval cues activate competing items, which impairs the efficiency of retrieval. It has recently been shown that WM retrieval adapts similarly to these conflicts as predicted by conflict monitoring theory for selective attention tasks. Here, we utilized event‐related potentials (ERPs) to investigate whether conflict and adaptive control in WM are reflected by the same neural markers that have previously been described for selective attention tasks. In our task, participants encoded two differently colored memory lists that contained four digits each (i.e., 2 5 7 1 and 4 5 9 1), and had to recognize whether a probe item from a specific list and position was correct or incorrect. Conflict during retrieval emerged when digits at corresponding positions (e.g., 2 and 5 at the first position) were different (incongruent), but not when these digits were the same (congruent). In behavioral data, we found a congruency sequence effect, that is, responses to incongruent probe items were slower, and this effect was reduced following trials with incongruent probe items. In ERPs, this behavioral marker of adaptive control was accompanied by two effects. First, congruency affected the amplitude of an N450, and this conflict effect was reduced after incongruent trials. Second, the posterior P3 amplitude varied with the congruency of the current and the previous trial. Both results resemble those found for the Stroop task and thus highlight the similarity between conflict and adaptive control in WM and selective attention tasks. Our study links theoretical ideas from two research fields—working memory (WM) and adaptive cognitive control. Utilizing event‐related potentials, our findings show that adaptive cognitive control in WM is reflected by the same neural markers as adaptive cognitive control of selective attention. Furthermore, our results suggest that adaptive cognitive control plays a critical role in optimizing the use of limited WM storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The number of studies conducted on the role of neuroinflammation in the etiopathogenesis of bipolar disorder has been increasing in recent years. The role of Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40, which are considered to play roles in neuroinflammation and the etiopathogenesis of bipolar disorder, and the relationship of these parameters with cognitive functions were investigated in the present study. Method: Serum Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40 levels were measured with the ELISA Method in 64 bipolar euthymic patients and 64 healthy controls. The Stroop and trail‐making tests were administered to assess cognitive functions in all participants. Results: Serum Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40 levels were statistically and significantly lower in the patient group when compared to the healthy control group. The scores of the Stroop test and trail‐making tests were statistically higher in the patient group than in the healthy control group. There was a weak and positive correlation between serum Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40 levels and cognitive performance in all participants. Discussion and conclusion: Statistically significant low levels of serum Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40 detected in the patient group suggest that these parameters have important roles in neuroinflammation. The statistically higher Stroop and trail‐making test scores of the patient group compared to the control group indicates that the cognitive performance of the patient group was weaker. Also, the positive correlation between Galectin‐1, Galectin‐9, and YKL‐40 levels and cognitive performance suggests that these molecules may have a neuroprotective role. We think that the present study will contribute to this field where there is very limited data in the literature. There are studies reporting that neuroinflammation plays a role in the etiopathogenesis of bipolar disorder. We examined molecules associated with inflammation that have not been studied before in bipolar disorder and their relationship with cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How does cognitive inhibition influence speaking? The Stroop effect is a classic demonstration of the interference between reading and color naming. We used a novel variant of the Stroop task to measure whether this interference impacts not only the response speed, but also the acoustic properties of speech. Speakers named the color of words in three categories: congruent (e.g., red written in red), color-incongruent (e.g., green written in red), and vowel-incongruent — those with partial phonological overlap with their color (e.g., rid written in red, grain in green, and blow in blue). Our primary aim was to identify any effect of the distractor vowel on the acoustics of the target vowel. Participants were no slower to respond on vowel-incongruent trials, but formant trajectories tended to show a bias away from the distractor vowel, consistent with a phenomenon of acoustic inhibition that increases contrast between confusable alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Short sleep is becoming more common in modern society. This study aimed to explore the relationship between accelerometer-measured sleep duration and cognitive performance among young adults as well as the underlying hemodynamic mechanisms. Methods: A total of 58 participants were included in this study. Participants were asked to wear an ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer to identify their sleep duration for 7 consecutive days. Cognitive function was assessed by the Stroop test. Two conditions, including the congruent and incongruent Stroop, were set. In addition, stratified analyses were used to examine sensitivity. 24-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) equipment was applied to measure hemodynamic changes of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during cognitive tasks. Results: Results showed that sleep duration was positively associated with accuracy of the incongruent Stroop test (0.001 (0.000, 0.002), p = 0.042). Compared with the regular sleep (=7 h) group, lower accuracy of the incongruent Stroop test (-0.012 (-0.023, -0.002), p = 0.024) was observed in the severe short sleep (<6 h). Moreover, a stratified analysis was conducted to examining gender, age, BMI, birthplace, and education's impact on sleep duration and the incongruent Stroop test accuracy, confirming a consistent correlation across all demographics. In the severe short sleep group, the activation of left middle frontal gyri and right dorsolateral superior frontal gyri were negatively associated with the cognitive performance. Conclusions: This study emphasized the importance of maintaining enough sleep schedules in young college students from a fNIRS perspective. The findings of this study could potentially be used to guide sleep time in young adults and help them make sleep schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined whether a 3-month mild-exercise intervention could improve executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults in a randomized control trial. Ultimately, a total of 81 middle-aged and older adults were randomly assigned to either an exercise group or a control group. The exercise group received 3 months of mild cycle exercise intervention (3 sessions/week, 30–50 min/session). The control group was asked to behave as usual for the intervention period. Before and after the intervention, participants did color-word matching Stroop tasks (CWST), and Stroop interference (SI)-related reaction time (RT) was assessed as an indicator of executive function. During the CWST, prefrontal activation was monitored using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). SI-related oxy-Hb changes and SI-related neural efficiency (NE) scores were assessed to examine the underlying neural mechanism of the exercise intervention. Although the mild-exercise intervention significantly decreased SI-related RT, there were no significant effects of exercise intervention on SI-related oxy-Hb changes or SI-related NE scores in prefrontal subregions. Lastly, changes in the effects of mild exercise on NE with advancing age were examined. The 81 participants were divided into two subgroups (younger-aged subgroup [YA], older-aged subgroup [OA], based on median age [68 years.]). Interestingly, SI-related RT significantly decreased, and SI-related NE scores in all ROIs of the prefrontal cortex significantly increased only in the OA subgroup. These results reveal that a long-term intervention of very light-intensity exercise has a positive effect on executive function especially in older adults, possibly by increasing neural efficiency in the prefrontal cortex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The prevalence of ischemic stroke (IS) caused by small-artery disease (SAD) is increasing recently. The present study aimed to report the risk factors, clinical presentations and outcome in patients presented with IS due to SAD with follow up for one year. The present study included 100 patients with IS due to SAD diagnosed on the basis of clinical and radiological findings. All patients were submitted to careful history taking, thorough clinical examination and standard laboratory work-up. Assessment of neurological functions was achieved using the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and modified Rankin Scale (mRS). Cognitive functions were evaluated using Trail making test, Stroop color word test, Arithmetic test, Vocabulary test, Wechsler adult intelligence scale IV digit span forward assessment and backward assessment. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was done using a standard 1.5 Tesla unit. According to radiological findings, patients were classified into three groups: GI (n = 40) with IS due to SAD, GII (n = 30) with IS due to SAD plus internal watershed infarcts and GIII (n = 30) with IS due to SAD plus large artery infarctions (n = 30). Results Comparison between the three groups regarding the reported risk factors identified significantly lower frequency of hyperlipidemia in GI patients as compared to GII and GIII patients (35.0% versus 60.0% and 66.7% respectively, p = 0.018). Clinically, it was shown that GI patients had significantly higher frequency of dizziness, dysphasia and tinnitus in comparison to the other two groups. It was also shown that those patients had significantly lower mean cortical thickness at the end of follow up (3.12 ± 0.9 versus 2.22 ± 0.8, p = 0.031). Finally, MRI brain volumetric study showed significantly decreased total cerebral cortical volume (TCCV) (589,456 ± 1689 versus 559,152 ± 1459) and total cerebral white matter volume (TCWMV) (521,546 ± 1785 versus 501,306 ± 1259) at the end of follow up. Conclusions Ischemic stroke caused by small artery disease is related to poor outcome with deterioration of cognitive functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-modal interactions between auditory and haptic perception manifest themselves in language, such as sound symbolic words: crunch, splash, and creak. Several studies have shown strong associations between sound symbolic words, shapes (e.g., Bouba/Kiki effect), and materials. Here, we identified these material associations in Turkish sound symbolic words and then tested for their effect on softness perception. First, we used a rating task in a semantic differentiation method to extract the perceived softness dimensions from words and materials. We then tested whether Turkish onomatopoeic words can be used to manipulate the perceived softness of everyday materials such as honey, silk, or sand across different dimensions of softness. In the first preliminary study, we used 40 material videos and 29 adjectives in a rating task with a semantic differentiation method to extract the main softness dimensions. A principal component analysis revealed seven softness components, including Deformability, Viscosity, Surface Softness, and Granularity, in line with the literature. The second preliminary study used 27 onomatopoeic words and 21 adjectives in the same rating task. Again, the findings aligned with the literature, revealing dimensions such as Viscosity, Granularity, and Surface Softness. However, no factors related to Deformability were found due to the absence of sound symbolic words in this category. Next, we paired the onomatopoeic words and material videos based on their associations with each softness dimension. We conducted a new rating task, synchronously presenting material videos and spoken onomatopoeic words. We hypothesized that congruent word-video pairs would produce significantly higher ratings for dimension-related adjectives, while incongruent word-video pairs would decrease these ratings, and the ratings of unrelated adjectives would remain the same. Our results revealed that onomatopoeic words selectively alter the perceived material qualities, providing evidence and insight into the crossmodality of perceived softness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder known for its significant heterogeneity and varied symptom presentation. Describing the different subtypes as predominantly inattentive (ADHD–I), combined (ADHD–C), and hyperactive–impulsive (ADHD–H) relies primarily on clinical observations, which can be subjective. To address the need for more objective diagnostic methods, this pilot study implemented a Microsoft Kinect-based Stroop Color–Word Test (KSWCT) with the objective of investigating the potential differences in executive function and motor control between different subtypes in a group of children and adolescents with ADHD. A series of linear mixture modeling were used to encompass the performance accuracy, reaction times, and extraneous movements during the tests. Our findings suggested that age plays a critical role, and older subjects showed improvements in KSWCT performance; however, no significant divergence in activity level between the subtypes (ADHD–I and ADHD–H/C) was established. Patients with ADHD–H/C showed tendencies toward deficits in motor planning and executive control, exhibited by shorter reaction times for incorrect responses and more difficulty suppressing erroneous responses. This study provides preliminary evidence of unique executive characteristics among ADHD subtypes, advances our understanding of the heterogeneity of the disorder, and lays the foundation for the development of refined and objective diagnostic tools for ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information conflict refers to a mismatch between strong competing cues for identifying or classifying an object. The response would be slower and less accurate in the incongruent condition (stimulus associated with different reactions) relative to congruent condition (stimuli associated with same reactions). The conflict effects were attribute to response competition activated by conflicting information. By using arrows and Arabic numbers as the stimuli to manipulate the perceptual similarity in two conflict tasks (flanker task and majority function task), the current study tested 1) whether the conflict effects stemmed from perceptual confusion among stimuli; 2) whether the impact of perceptual confusion on conflict effects was less pronounced in conflict task involving more cognitive control. The results showed that the conflict effects (difference between congruent and incongruent trials) were stronger in high perceptual similarity conditions (when stimuli were arrows) relative to low perceptual similarity conditions (when stimuli were numbers). Notably, the conflict effects were not observed in the flanker with low perceptual similarity conditions. However, the interaction between Task and Similarity was not significant. The findings suggested that perceptual confusion made a significant contribution to the conflict effect, while it may particularly interfere with the automatic processing of conflict information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) was initially developed to measure problem solving and abstract reasoning. Currently, it is widely used for the neuropsychological evaluation of those cognitive processes related to frontal lobe functioning, more specifically as a measure of reactive cognitive flexibility. Although its use is widespread both in clinic and research settings, controversies remained regarding the nature of the cognitive processes that underlie WCST performance and the relationships between its diverse scores and other related cognitive measures. To date, studies have been conducted in adolescents and adults, where two- and three-factor solutions predominate, although a one-dimensional structure has also been reported. On the other hand, there are few normative studies in the Spanish-speaking population, and, to our knowledge, there are no normative studies that contemplate the two versions of the WCST. The aim of the present study was to examine the factorial and convergent validity of the WCST in its computerized and manual version in children and to establish normative values for each version indicator according to age and sex. The sample consisted of 359 children aged 7 to 12, divided as follows: (1) manual WCST: 138 children aged 7 to 12 from both sexes and (2) computerized WCST: 221 children 7 to 12 from both sexes and. The inclusion criteria were the following: (1) children with no clinical, neurological, or psychiatric history; (2) who attend their school studies regularly; (3) without school repetition. The WCST in its two versions (computerized vs manual), the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) to assess children intellectual functioning, and the working memory (WM) subtask of the WISC-IV, the Stroop Color and Word test and the semantic and phonological verbal fluency (VF) test were administered to test the WCST convergent validity. Intellectual functioning (IQ) was within the normal range expected for the age of children who completed both versions of the WCST. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Pearson's bivariate correlations and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used. For both the computerized and the manual WCST, the parallel analysis yielded a one-dimensional solution, grouping efficient and inefficient responses, with Complete Categories (CC) being the indicator that obtained the most weight. When comparing the structure found for each version, it is observed that Total Correct (TC) weighed only in the computerized version of the WCST. Regarding the WCST convergent validity, the results with the computerized WCST indicated positive and significant relationships (r = .17 to r = .33) between Total Correct and Complete Categories of the WCST and IQ, MT, FV and Inhibition. In turn, Perseverative Responses, Perseverative Errors, and Non-Perseverative Errors, presented negative and low correlations (r = .17 to r = .29) with IQ, MT, and FV. For the manual WCST, only Complete Categories presented significant positive correlations (r = .20 to r = .39) with CI, FV, Inhibition and MT. The other indicators of the manual WCST presented negative correlations (r = .18 to r = .44) with CI, FV and MT. Regarding the factorial validity of the instrument, our results suggest that the structure of the WCST would be unidimensional in children, regardless of the type of version under analysis (i.e., manual vs. computerized). However, the relationship between WCST performance and the tasks that assess other cognitive processes differs depending on the version. Normative data is established for the first time for Argentine children for both versions. The results emphasize the importance of not considering both versions as interchangeable in child populations and interpreting each version according to its respectively norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, a study by Dignath et al. (2023) reported on the intriguing finding that cognitive control is enhanced by information that primes self-referential processing. Here, we present an independently performed replication as a first step towards building a cumulative body of support for this finding. Specifically, we replicated their reduced Stroop effect for color-words that are presented together with the possessive pronoun 'my', as compared to color-words presented together with a definite or indefinite article. We did so in a Spanish cohort (generalizing from the German cohort in the original study), and while implementing several (theoretically irrelevant) changes to the design in order to showcase that this type of finding is not due to idiosyncratic features of the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are prone to a variety of psychiatric disorders, however, to date, no study has examined cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS) in children with T1D. The present study aimed to evaluate the frequency of CDS symptoms in children with T1D and whether it is related to glycemic control. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 74 children with T1D and 88 healthy (control) children, aged 8–14 years. All children were evaluated through a semi-structured psychiatric interview, the Kent-EGY test, porteus maze test, stroop test TBAG form, Barkley child attention scale, and Conners' parent rating scale-revised-short form. Result: Children with T1D had considerably higher rates of elevated CDS symptoms than control children (35.1% vs. 10.2%, p < 0.001). Children with T1D performed poorly on attention and cognitive tests. High levels of CDS symptomatology were strongly associated with earlier diabetes onset age, longer disease duration, a higher percentage of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis, higher HbA1c levels, and higher daily insulin dosages. Also, T1D patients with elevated CDS symptoms had lower IQ and attention scores and worse cognitive function performance compared to participants with low levels of CDS symptomatology. Conclusions: Elevated CDS symptoms are significantly higher in children with T1D and are associated with poorer diabetes control. The routine psychiatric examination of children with T1D should also include a screening for CDS, particularly in patients with poor glycemic control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]