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Aquatic hypercarbia (elevated environmental CO2) results in a blood acidosis in fish, which is compensated by the exchange of Na+ and/or Cl- for its acid/base counterpart (H+, HCO3-) across the gill epithelium. To date, no studies exist on how a single species, capable of inhabiting both fresh and saltwater, responds to hypercarbia, at rest or during sustained exercise. Rainbow trout was acclimated to soft water (in mmol l- 1: Na+, 0.08; Cl-, 0.05; pH 6.7-6.8), hard water (in mmol l- 1: Na+, 2.4; Cl-, 0.2; pH 7.9-8.0), or 85% saltwater (28 ppt) (in mmol l- 1: Na+, 410; Cl-, 476; pH 7.8-8.0). Acid-base relevant blood parameters were measured during a 1 kPa CO2 hypercarbia exposure, both at rest and during sustained exercise (~ 60% U crit). After 48 h of hypercarbia, resting hard-, and saltwater trout fully restored blood pH, whereas soft-water-acclimated trout was only 60.6 ± 10.5% recovered. In all fish, recovery was associated with an increase in plasma [HCO3-] and an equimolar reduction in plasma [Cl-]. Following 8 h of hypercarbia during sustained exercise, saltwater fish fully restored blood pH, while soft- and hard water fish were 42 ± 18.1 and 64 ± 6.8% recovered, respectively. Results provide intra-specific support demonstrating that saltwater acclimated fish acid-base compensate faster than freshwater fish during hypercarbia. Furthermore, data indicate that recovery during hypercarbia in trout is more rapid during exercise than rest. This not only demonstrates an important link between ambient water ion levels and ability to recover from acid-base disturbances, but also it presents novel data, suggesting that exercise may enhance acid-base regulation.

Hard drinking water seems protective against cardiovascular disease compared to soft water. Published data on calcium and magnesium in bottled water products were evaluated to determine water hardness. Data on water chemistry of thirty-three products were obtained from the internet and hardness, as calcium carbonate, was calculated. Approximately two thirds of the products were soft according to criteria of the US Geological Survey; only one fifth were very hard. Beer and wine also were found to be very hard. Consumers and suppliers should avoid soft water. Some beneficial, cardiovascular effects of beer and wine may be the result of hard water.

This paper reports a study on the tribology of a diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating rubbed against stainless steel and brass in a hard water environment at 20, 50 and 80 °C for water hydraulics applications. Hard water designed to simulate tap water in London containing 95 mg/L Ca2+ was used. DLC containing 30 at% hydrogen was deposited on AISI 630 stainless steel using an unbalanced magnetron sputtering system. The results showed that the wear on the DLC and the counter surfaces, in addition to the amount of friction, in hard water was smaller than that in soft water designed to simulate tap water in Tokyo containing a smaller amount of Ca2+ (23 mg/L). These superior tribological properties in hard water are attributed to a Ca-containing tribolayer formed on the steel and brass surfaces. Overall, the results suggest that attention must be paid to the quality of water used in water hydraulics applications.

Both in the developed and developing countries availability of drinking water is the main priority of human being. Fresh water available in nature 3% on the earth. This research is an attempt to use solar energy for conversion of hard water to soft water using compound parabolic concentrator. Soft water which is useful for drinking is in shortfall. This research is an attempt to haunt solar energy to desalinate hard water into portable water. A solar thermal desalination system has been proposed whereby heat from solar energy is utilised for heating hard (salt) water which is passed through cupper tubes and compound parabolic concentrator placed bottom of the cupper tubes to get maximum temperature in the form of steam. The steam thus formed is passed through a condenser where it condenses to get soft water. This theoretical analysis gives approximately 3-4 litres soft water per hour. It will be considerably higher amount of fresh water and it would be an ideal solution to produce drinkable water for local residents for Pune City which was located in western region in India.

Even essential trace elements are phytotoxic over a certain threshold. In this study, we investigated whether heavy metal concentrations were responsible for the nearly complete lack of submerged macrophytes in an oligotrophic lake in Germany. We cultivated the rootless aquatic model plant Ceratophyllum demersum under environmentally relevant conditions like sinusoidal light and temperature cycles and a low plant biomass to water volume ratio. Experiments lasted for six weeks and were analysed by detailed measurements of photosynthetic biophysics, pigment content and hydrogen peroxide production. We established that individually non-toxic cadmium (3 nM) and slightly toxic nickel (300 nM) concentrations became highly toxic when applied together in soft water, severely inhibiting photosynthetic light reactions. Toxicity was further enhanced by phosphate limitation (75 nM) in soft water as present in many freshwater habitats. In the investigated lake, however, high water hardness limited the toxicity of these metal concentrations, thus the inhibition of macrophytic growth in the lake must have additional reasons. The results showed that synergistic heavy metal toxicity may change ecosystems in many more cases than estimated so far.

High amounts of humic substances (HS) are commonly found in natural acidic waterways and have been suggested to offer some protection against low pH. This study investigated the ability of HS to decrease respiratory stress in eastern rainbowfish (Melanotaenia splendida splendida) exposed to decreases in pH (range of 7-3.5) in soft and hard water. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference in respiration (time taken for ten operculum movements) between pH and HS treatments, with a significant interaction between pH and HS present in 5/6 trials. Respiratory stress was shown to increase with increasing acidity, but significantly decreased in treatments with HS (10 and 20 mg/L) compared to those without. The fish exposed to pH treatments without HS also displayed increased hyperactivity, larger operculum movements and increased mucous production. Increased morbidity was shown in HS treatments at pH 3.5 (soft water) and at pH 4 (hard water) compared to treatment without HS. This indicates that HS is helpful in ameliorating the effects of decreased pH on respiration at sublethal pH levels; however, as pH decreases further, it seems that HS increases the toxicity (morbidity) of the low pH.

Aims Scedosporium apiospermum sometimes causes serious infectious diseases on the skin of immunodeficient subjects. Antifungal effects of fatty acid salts in soap against S. apiospermum were investigated under different water conditions. Methods and Results Ultrapure soft water (UPSW) was generated by the water softener with cation-exchange resin. The calcium and magnesium ions were replaced with sodium ions in UPSW. Scedosporium apiospermum was incubated with different fatty acid salts that constituted soap in distilled water (DW), tap water (TW) and UPSW. After incubation, the number of fungi was counted. Among the fatty acids, palmitic acid salt (C16) reduced the number of S. apiospermum. UPSW enhanced the antifungal effect of C16 on S. apiospermum. The absence of both calcium and magnesium ions and the existence of sodium chloride in UPSW were responsible for its antifungal effect. In addition, repeated short-term treatment with UPSW and C16 decreased the number of S. apiospermum. Conclusions Antifungal effects of C16 on S. apiospermum were demonstrated. Moreover, the use of UPSW promoted the antifungal effect of C16. Significance and Impact of Study This study provides the preventive method for diseases associated with S. apiospermum infection using novel palmitic acid soap in UPSW.

Applications of Point-of-Use Drinking Water Treatment Units (POU-DWTUs) are common in many parts of the world. This paper presents the operational conditions of POU-DWTUs in Iran (Qom province) as a case and discuses the problems and the possible health-related aspects. The devices which were studied consisted of primary filter, carbon filter, Reverse Osmosis membrane, and storage tank. During a cross sectional study, 240 water samples from the input and output of different POU-DWTUs were collected and analyzed. Half of POU-DWTUs users did not have correct information about the operational principles and 35% of them were not satisfied about taste and odor of the treated water. Analysis showed that POU-DWTUs were able to reduce the dissolved solids content more than 90% and produced soft water. However the amount of heavy metals removed by POU-DWTUs varied from 5% for Al to 86% for Cd and their removal average was 43%. High concentration of Pb in both raw and treated water was remarkable. It was fo...

PubMedID: 23566882 Hardness is one of the most important factors in water chemistry as it affects fish physiology and metal toxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate osmoregulatory responses in the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus exposed to copper and cadmium (1.0µg/mL) in soft water (SW) (hardness 80mg CaCO3/L and conductivity 1.77mS/cm) and hard water (HW) (hardness 320mg CaCO3/L and conductivity 5.80mS/cm) for 0, 1, 7 and 14 days. Following the exposures, Na+/K+-ATPase activity, ion and Cu levels in the gill, kidney and intestine were measured. There was no fish mortality within 14 days, except Cu exposure in SW which killed all fish between 8 and 12 days. Generally, Na+/K+-ATPase activity was altered by both metal exposures in the gill and kidney as it increased in HW condition, but decreased in SW condition. There were also alterations in Na+/K+-ATPase activity in the intestine as its activity generally decreased. Data, in general, showed that Cd was more effective on Na+/K+-ATPase activity comparing to Cu. However, ion levels altered mainly in the kidney and intestine. Tissue metal accumulation was higher in fish tissues from SW condition comparing to HW condition. Data represented here showed that the effects of metals differed in differing water hardness. This suggests that special attention should be paid to the water chemistry when natural monitoring studies are carried out. This study also suggests that the response of osmoregulation system of fish may be a sensitive indicator under stressful conditions in different natural waters. © 2013 Elsevier Inc. Çukurova Üniversitesi This study supported by Research Fund ( FEF2010YL6 ) to Dilek SAGLAM from Çukurova University .

Effects of pH, alkalinity and conductivity on the adsorption of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) onto lanthanum (La) modified bentonite clay (Phoslock ®) were investigated in laboratory experiments using eight different types of filtered water representing freshwater with low and normal alkalinity and brackish water with high alkalinity. Different dose ratios (0-200; w/w) of Phoslock ®:P were applied to determine the maximum P binding capacity of Phoslock ® at SRP concentrations typical of those of sediment pore water. The 100:1 Phoslock ®:P dose ratio, recommended by the manufacturer, was tested with 12 days exposure time and generally found to be insufficient at binding whole target SRP pool. The ratio performed best in the soft water from Danish Lake Hampen and less good in the hard water from Danish Lake Langesø and in brackish water. The explanation may be an observed negative relationship between alkalinity and the SRP binding capacity of Phoslock ®. A comparative study of Lake Hampen and Lake Langesø suggested that the recorded differences in P adsorption between the two lakes could be attributed to a more pronounced dispersion of Phoslock ® in the soft water of Lake Hampen, leading to higher fractions of dissolved (® negatively at a pH level above 8.1, the effect being reversible, however. The negative pH effect was most significant in hard water Lake Langesø, most likely because of higher CO 3 2- concentrations.

Complexation of iron by organic matter can potentially compete with toxic metals for binding sites. Iron(III) forms both monomeric and di/trimeric complexes with fulvic and humic acids, but the nat ...

The present study investigated the effects of sodium bicarbonate-induced soft water on the intrinsic qualities of a bioremediated petroleum hydrocarbon-polluted soil. this was also subjected to phytoassessment using African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa). Into already perforated buckets were measured 5kg sun-dried top soil (0-10cm). Waste engine oil (WEO) was added to soil and mixed thoroughly to obtain similar concentrations of 5 % w/w oil in soil. The entire setup was divided into 5 treatment sets, depending on the concentration of NaHCO3 solution used (0, 25, 50, 100 and 200mg/l). Each set was wetted daily with 200ml of different solutions for 3 months. Results showed significant reductions in heavy metal concentrations particularly in the 200mg/l of NaHCO3-wetted soils. Copper reduced to a range of 4.84 - 6.08mg/kg in the NaHCO3-wetted soil, compared to 9.32mg/kg in the control. However, total polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of soil was lowest when the soil was wetted with 25mg/l NaHCO3 (96.43mg/kg), indicating a 90.51% efficiency, compared to the control with an efficiency of 79.15%. There were significant reductions in pollution indices (contamination factor, hazard quotient, toxicity equivalency factors, and probable effect concentration) used in the study; an indication that water softness positively impacted on the intrinsic remediation of the waste engine oil-polluted soil. Results of phytoassessment showed the improved plant growth and yield response in the oil-polluted soils upon addition of lower concentrations of NaHCO3 in soil. Grain yield per plant in the oil-polluted soil was 8.33g, compared to 29.29g in the control and 25.87g when oil-polluted soil was wetted with 25mg/l solution.

Twenty groundwater samples were collected from Enugu metropolis over two seasonal periods in order to characterize the groundwater and to determine its quality for domestic and irrigation purposes. The results show that groundwater of the area is strongly acidic to slightly alkaline in nature and varied from “soft water” to “moderately hard” water type. The major ionic trend is in the order Cl− > Na+ > HCO3 − > K+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > SO4 2−and Mg2+ > Cl− > Na+ > K+ > Ca2+ > HCO 3 − > SO4 2− in abundance for dry and rainy seasons, respectively. The results also reveal that there is an increase in trend of the ionic concentrations during the dry season, which arises from weathering of the host rocks and anthropogenic activities. Two hydrochemical facies were identified, namely, Na+ –K+ –Cl− –SO4 2−and Ca2+ –Mg2+ –Cl− –SO4 2− , with Na+ –K+ –Cl− –SO4 2− as the dominant facies for the two seasons. Groundwater quality ranges from “very poor water” to “good water” and “water unsuitable for drinking purposes” to “good water” for the dry season and rainy season investigations, respectively. The groundwater is suitable for irrigation purposes for the two seasons.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) of the European Union requires the quality of all European water bodies to be examined, and aims to achieve good status by 2015. This study was initiated to assess whether a potential reference lake for identifying lake-type specific reference conditions meets the WFD requirements, of being minimally impacted by human activity during the last centuries. The sediments of Lake Kooraste Kõverjärv were analysed for diatom assemblages and sediment composition; past changes in the lake-water pH and total phosphorus were reconstructed, using quantitative models on sedimentary diatoms. The chronology of sediments was established, using spheroidal fly-ash particles stratigraphy. Palaeolimnological investigations, supported by information from historical maps, revealed that man-made changes around the lake have severely influenced its ecological conditions. The lake, which had been oligotrophic with soft and clear water before the mid-17th century, has been trans­formed into a hard-water lake by modifications to the inflow and outflow. The lake water quality has also been altered by the infiltration of nutrients from a nearby hypertrophic lake that was used for flax retting since the 19th century. Although the ecological status of the lake has remained good despite all these changes, it is still questionable whether to nominate it as a reference lake for stratified hard-water lake types.

Humic substances have a tendency to form complexes with metal ions in aquatic medium, impacting the metal mobility, decreasing bioavailability and toxicity. Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation exposure degrades the humic substance, changes their molecular weight distribution and their metal binding capacity in aquatic medium. In this study, we experimented the effect of UV-B radiation on the uranium complexed with fulvic acids and humic acids in a soft water system at different pH, uranium concentrations and radiant exposure. The concentration and distribution of uranium in a complexed form were investigated by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation coupled to multi detection technique (AsFlFFF-UV-ICP-MS). The major concentration of uranium present in complexes was primarily associated with average and higher molecular weight fulvic and humic acids components. The concentration of uranium in a complexed form increased with increasing fulvic and humic acid concentrations as well as pH of the solution. The higher molecular weight fraction of uranium was degraded due to the UV-B exposure, transforming about 50% of the uranium-dissolved organic carbon complexes into low molecular weight uranium species in complex form with organic ligands and/or free form. The result also suggests AsFlFFF-UV-ICP-MS to be an important separation and detection technique for understanding the interaction of radionuclides with dissolved organic matter, tracking size distribution changes during degradation of organic complexes for understanding mobility, bioavailability and ecosystem transfer of radionuclides as well as metals.

Developing freshwater fish must compensate for the loss of ions, including sodium (Na + ), to the environment. In this study, we used a radiotracer flux approach and pharmacological inhibitors to investigate the role of sodium/hydrogen exchange proteins (Nhe) in Na + uptake in rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) reared from fertilization in soft water (0.1 mM Na + ). For comparison, a second group of embryos/larvae reared in hard water (2.2 mM Na + , higher pH and [Ca 2 + ]) were also included in the experiment but were fluxed in soft water, only. Unidirectional rates of Na + uptake increased throughout development and were significantly higher in embryos/larvae reared in soft water. However, the mechanisms of Na + uptake in both groups of larvae were not significantly different, either in larvae immediately post-hatch or later in development: the broad spectrum Na + channel blocker amiloride inhibited 85–90% of uptake and the Nhe-inhibitor EIPA also caused near maximal inhibitions of Na + uptake. These data indicated Na + uptake was Nhe-mediated in soft water. A role of Nhe3b (but not Nhe2 or Nhe3a) in Na + uptake in soft water was also supported through gene expression analyses: expression of nhe3b increased throughout development in whole embryos/larvae in both groups and was significantly higher in those reared in soft water. This pattern of expression correlated well with measurements of Na + uptake. Together these data indicate that in part, rainbow trout embryos/larvae reared in low Na + soft water maintained Na + homeostasis by an EIPA sensitive component of Na + uptake, and support a primary role for Nhe3b.

Colloidal phosphorus (P) may represent an important fraction of the P in natural waters, but these colloids remain poorly characterized. In this work, we demonstrate the applicability of asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) coupled to high resolution ICP-MS for the characterization of low concentrations of P-bearing colloids. Colloids from five streams draining catchments with contrasting properties were characterized by AF4-ICP-MS and by membrane filtration. All streams contain free humic substances (2-3 nm) and Fe-bearing colloids (3-1200 nm). Two soft water streams contain primary Fe oxyhydroxide-humic nanoparticles (3-6 nm) and aggregates thereof (up to 150 nm). In contrast, three harder water streams contain larger aggregates (40-1200 nm) which consist of diverse associations between Fe oxyhydroxides, humic substances, clay minerals, and possibly ferric phosphate minerals. Despite the diversity of colloids encountered in these contrasting streams, P is in most of the samples predominantly associated with Fe-bearing colloids (mostly Fe oxyhydroxides) at molar P:Fe ratios between 0.02 and 1.5. The molar P:Fe ratio of the waters explains the partitioning of P between colloids and truly dissolved species. Waters with a high P:Fe ratio predominantly contain truly dissolved species because the Fe-rich colloids are saturated with P, whereas waters with a low P:Fe ratio mostly contain colloidal P species. Overall, AF4-ICP-MS is a suitable technique to characterize the diverse P-binding colloids in natural waters. Such colloids may increase the mobility or decrease the bioavailability of P, and they therefore need to be considered when addressing the transport and environmental effects of P in catchments.

In grinding processes, water-soluble working fluid is in heavy usage to maintain and improve a grinding performance. In this paper, effects of the water quality (soft or hard) were studied in a new filter-less purification system using commercially available Polyglutamic acid based flocculants and the microbubble coolant at the same time. As a result of the experiments, it was found that the collection rate of the suspended matters by the magnetic adsorption removal for the hard water became lower compared to the soft water, due to the Ca component contained in rich. It has also been made clear that by removing the suspended matters in the fluid flocked by the flocculant using the magnetic adsorption method and overflowing the residue with the microbubbles after that, the collection rate of the suspended matters in the soft water fluid would become higher than 99%. In the case of the hard water as well, improvement of the collection rate by the microbubbles was confirmed.

The leaching characteristics of cement-fly ash pastes were investigated by MIP, XRD and TG. The results show that the microstructure of hardened cement-fly ash paste deteriorates partly after leaching of soft water. At the leaching duration of 180 days, the hardened paste containing fly ash deteriorated a little more serious than the plain cement paste, but the incorporation of fly ash in a proper ratio was helpful to defer the trend of deterioration of the hardened paste microstructure. The microstructural stability of hardened cement-fly ash paste wasn’t damaged severely during the 180 days leaching duration.

Notophthalmus viridescens (Red-spotted Newt) collected from 3 low-pH ponds (ca. 4.8) and 3 high-pH ponds (ca. 8.1) in Vermont varied in pH tolerance and water preference. While newts from all ponds survived in pH values as low as 4.4, the mean 10- day survival of newts in pH = 3.2 was 69% for newts from the low-pH Green Mountain ponds compared to 33% for newts from the high-pH Taconic Mountain ponds. Taconic Mountain newts selected water from Taconic ponds 73% of the time, while Green Moun- tain newts exhibited no preference for pond water from either mountain range. In order to isolate the effect of pH on water choice, we conducted an experiment in which newts chose between reconstituted soft water (RSW) that had been adjusted to either high pH (8.0) or low pH (4.5). Taconic Mountain newts selected high-pH RSW 72% of the time. Although Green Mountain newts exhibited no preference for pond water having high or low pH, they selected the high-pH RSW 70% of the time. These differences in pH toler- ance and water preference between Green and Taconic Mountain newts may represent local adaptation shaping population distribution and divergence.

Tadpoles of the common freshwater Sunda toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Amphibia, Bufonidae), were exposed for a 4-day period under laboratory conditions to copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and manganese (Mn) at various concentrations. Mortality was assessed and median times of death (LT50) and lethal concentrations (LC50) were calculated. LT50 and LC50 increased with the decrease in mean exposure times and concentrations for all metals. LC50 (96 h) for Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb, Ni, Fe, Al, and Mn were 0.03, 0.3, 4.2, 1.5, 8.8, 0.4, 1.9, and 39 mg L−1, respectively. Cu was the most toxic to D. melanostictus, followed by Cd, Fe, Al, Pb, Zn, Ni, and Mn (Cu > Cd > Fe > Al > Pb > Zn > Ni > Mn). Duttaphrynus melanostictus is similarly sensitive to these metals as other amphibian tadpoles.

Aim To evaluate the effect of hard and soft water on softness of three commercially available soft liners. Material and Methods 8 specimens of 3mm height and 41mm diameter were fabricated from each soft liner on acrylic resin base of 3mm height and 44mm diameter. The specimens were stored in artificial saliva (Wet mouth, ICPA product) for14 hours in a day, at 37°C in an incubator and the rest of the time 4 specimens from each group were stored in hard water and 4 in soft water. Softness of each specimen was recorded using Shore-A durometer at the end of 1st, 7th, 15th, and 30th day. Results When compared between hard and soft water, the autopolymerized acrylic and autopolymerized silicone soft liners had significant reduction in softness on 7th day in hard water. The autopolymerized acrylic soft liner had least softness in both hard and soft water. The heat polymerized acrylic soft-liner showed maximum softness in both hard and soft Water. Conclusion Heat polymerized acrylic soft liner was proven to be softer than the other two materials followed by autopolymerized silicone and autopolymerized acrylic soft liners.

A lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases has been observed in areas with hard water. However, numerous debates and controversies prevailed over time. Some scientists had been trying to correlate cardio-protective factor of hard water while others were working on the toxic factor of soft water with this geo-selective predisposition to cardiovascular events. Now the factor unanimously agreed upon can be concluded as Magnesium. The proofs in favour of Magnesium(Mg) come from studies reporting (i) sudden deaths in areas with Mg deficient drinking water, (ii) low myocardial Mg content in sudden death cases, (iii) cardiac arrhythmias & coronary artery vasospasms being precipitated by Mg deficiency and (iv) intravenous Mg reducing the risks of Arrhythmias & deaths immediately after Acute Myocardial Infarction. Magnesium is a structural component of cardiac muscle and is required by as many as 1300 enzymes for different biochemical reactions. It is an important co-factor for ATPase; hence, is needed in every cell. Mg modulates cellular events involved in inflammation and is important for proteolytic enzymes, which counteract inflammation. The modern processed food, softened drinking water and over reliance on ready to eat food thus avoiding fruits & green leafy vegetables is an important cause of Mg deficiency. The deficiency of Mg has been reported to cause increase in inflammatory cytokines, endothelial damage and dyslipidemia; all of which are the centre stage for the development of Atherosclerosis, the thickening & hardening of arterial walls. Magnesium, which seems to be the wonder ion can be used for supplementation & fortification. This can prove to be an efficient, effective, replicable and cost effective model for preventing many diseases particularly cardiovascular diseases through public health interventions.

Human hair can extract significant levels of calcium and magnesium, water hardness metals, from tap water immediately following chemical treatments and during hygiene practices. We have previously shown that this uptake is primarily a function of the condition of the hair. Depending on the extent of chemical damage, the hair can extract notable amounts of water hardness metals even from soft water. As water hardness metals concentrate primarily in the cuticle layers of the hair fibre, it is hypothesized that their presence will affect the structural properties that are chiefly driven by the cuticle. We examined hair mechanics and styling by technical measures of single-fibre torsional and tensile properties, combability and style retention as a function of the calcium and magnesium content of virgin and bleached hair. Our work has indicated that water hardness can affect hair properties. Fibre stiffening was induced by the presence of water hardness metals inside the fibres of both virgin and bleached hair. A reduction in combing forces was also observed, and this effect is believed to be a result of the stiffening. The style retention of virgin hair was improved by water hardness metals, whereas that of bleached hair was slightly reduced.

Water hardness is a term used to define the number of ions contained in the water, especially quantity sulphate, carbonate salts of calcium and magnesium. This characteristis of water is a important quality in it’s use as drinking water, industrial water and service water. The temporary hardness level of water cames from bicarbonate salts of calcium and magnesium whereas chloride, sulphate, nitrate, phosphate, silicate salts of calcium and magnesium. In order to indicate the hardness level of water samples French Hardness Level is used in our country. There is a larger amounth of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water samples. These minerals have very important functions in the human body. In this study, the importance of hard water in terms of human health has been assessed under light of current information. The studies about the preventive role of hard water in cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, stroke and many types of cancer areviewed. These studies Express that higher levels of calcium and magnesium hard water provide a higher reduction in these disease. Water, which must be consumed as 2 liters per dayis very important for human life. Hard water contains a lot of the minerals that must be taker daily, especially calcium and magnesium. It’s advised that water for consumption to have medium hardness. The hardness level of water is an aesthetic quality. Thus, in populations having a taste for soft water, the effort of individuals to softer the network water provided by municipalities using different equipments, in addition to their preference of soft water in plastic or glass bottles for consumption could imply lack of benefit of hard water for population health and also bring out some risks in terms of water hygiene. [TAF Prev Med Bull 2011; 10(2.000): 187-192]

The infiltration corrosion characteristics of concrete have been studied by determining the seepage coefficient and CaO and SiO2 dissolutions of concrete. The results show that, under the infiltration corrosion of soft water, the infiltration coefficient of concrete decreases gradually with the corrosion time prolonging, but finally goes to a special value. The CaO and SiO2 accumulative dissolutions increase with the time prolonging, and also finally go to a special value. The amount of CaO dissolved by seepage water can be used to evaluate the erosion durability of concrete. The common concrete in this paper is durable at the action of soft water erosion.

Through more than 30 Km field survey in an important project of diversion water, there were many samples been taken from channel concrete lining and sluice pier to study failure mechanism of concrete due to sulfate attack at low value in soft water. The microstructure of concrete and mineral component of separated material was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope-energy dispersion X-ray analysis (SEM-EDAX). Then the processor of chemic action and physics action was analysis. Engineering situation shows that concrete can be failure quickly due to sulfate attack in soft water. Only one winter the strength of concrete reduced to zero. The test shows the failure mechanism is contact dissolution associating sulfate attack. The contact dissolution makes condition for sulfate attack. The concrete expand due to sulfate attack accelerate contact dissolution. So concrete can be failure in a short period.

The aim of this study was to determine by static bioassay whether water hardness affects the toxicity of Zn and Cu to a fish, Gambusia holbrooki Girard, 1859. The acute toxicity of selected heavy metals to G. holbrooki was determined in soft, hard and very hard water (25, 125 and 350 mg L−1 as CaCO3). Results showed that water hardness had a significant effect on Cu and on Zn toxicity on fish. Toxicity of Cu and of Zn increased with decreasing water hardness. The 96 hours LC50 values for G. holbrooki were higher in the hard and very hard water compared with soft water. Water hardness had a much smaller effect upon the acute toxicity of Cu than that of Zn. It was observed that the 96 hours LC50 for Cu at the soft, hard and very hard water was found to be 0.017, 0.17 and 0.65 mg L−1, respectively, while the 96 hours LC50 for Zn at the soft, hard and very hard water was found to be 0.46, 48.1 and 121.6 mg L−1, respectively.

This paper addresses underwater vegetation in soft water lakes which are influenced by the anthropogenic input of allochtonic dissolved organic matter (DOM) from drained bogs. The aim of this work is to test the hypothesis regarding the role of DOM in shaping the diversity of underwater vegetation. Large differences in underwater vegetation habitats, the limitation of their occurrence to increasingly shallower littoral (the depth of the lower limit of their occurrence decreased from 12 m up to 1 m) and the regression of underwater vegetation were observed in lake types ranging from oligohumic (median (Me) of DOC in water = 2.5 mg C dm-3) to polyhumic (Me of DOC = 35.6 mg C dm-3). The gradual simplification of internal plant patch structure occurred and the Shannon-Weaver diversity index decreased (Me 0.04 → 0.00). Fewer species were observed in the lakes (Me 9 → 2), and the underwater vegetation covered increasingly smaller areas. Species replacement did not occur and no invasive species appeared.

This research evaluates the changes in the comfort-related properties of high-density fabric, such as moisture permeability and waterproofness, in order to assess the relative importance of laundry conditions for clothing properties after repeated laundering and suggest the best laundering conditions for high-density fabric through the identification of the most influential factor. A commercial high-density fabric was washed 25 times in a drum-type washer using nine different laundry conditions based on profiles derived from a fractional factorial design. To evaluate the changes in the comfort-related properties of the fabric, pore size, air permeability, water vapor transport, water repellency, and water resistance were measured. The comfort-related properties of the fabric deteriorated after repeated laundering by the damaged surface finish; in addition, the damaged surface also changed the pore size. As a result, the water repellency and water resistance decreased. The detergent was the most responsible factor to change the properties among the four factors of detergent, hardness, temperature, and RPM. The best laundering conditions for the fabric was a neutral detergent, soft water of 70ppm, a temperature of , and 30rpm.

The microstructural variations of hardened cement-fly ash pastes leached by soft water were investigated by MIP, XRD, TG and SEM. The results show that the mass of hardened cement-fly ash paste reduces and its microstructure deteriorates partly after leaching of soft water. At the leaching duration of 180 days, the hardened paste containing fly ash deteriorated a little more serious than the plain cement paste, but the incorporation of fly ash in a proper ratio was helpful to defer the trend of deterioration of the hardened paste microstructure. The microstructural stability of hardened cement-fly ash paste wasn’t damaged severely during the 180 days leaching duration.

Ultrapure soft water (UPSW) is water in which calcium and magnesium ions have been replaced with sodium ions using a cation-exchange resin. We recently demonstrated that washing with soap and UPSW reduced the clinical severity of dermatitis and improved the skin barrier function in NC/NgaTnd mice, a murine model for human atopic dermatitis. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the efficacy of shampoo treatment with UPSW for dogs with pruritus. Eleven dogs with pruritus were randomly assigned to two groups depending on whether they received weekly shampoo treatment with UPSW or tap water for 4 weeks. After a washout period, the treatment protocol was switched such that each dog received both treatments. The pre-treatment and post-treatment values of the following were compared: pruritus scores assessed by the owners; dermatitis scores recorded by an investigator; and transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Shampoo treatment with UPSW significantly decreased pruritus and dermatitis scores in the dogs, whereas shampoo treatment with tap water did not. In addition, shampoo treatment with UPSW, but not with tap water, significantly reduced TEWL in the dogs. Adverse events due to the treatment were not observed in the dogs. Furthermore, we found that topical application of UPSW for barrier-disrupted skin caused by tape stripping in healthy dogs decreased TEWL more rapidly than topical application of tap water. Our findings suggest that shampoo treatment with UPSW promotes skin barrier recovery and thus could be considered as a possible therapeutic option in the management of pruritus and dermatitis in dogs.

This paper summarises the physicochemical and microbiological quality of water from a rainwater harvesting (RWH) system in a UK-based office building. 7 microbiological and 34 physicochemical parameters were analysed during an 8 month period. Physicochemically, harvested rainwater quality posed little health risk; most parameters showed concentrations below widely used guideline levels for drinking water. However, RWH system components (e.g. fittings and down pipes) appear to be affected soft water corrosion, resulting in high concentrations of some metals (copper, zinc and aluminium). This suggests the material selection of such fittings should be considered keeping in view the hardness of rainwater of an area. Microbiologically, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella and Legionella were not present in the samples analysed. However, faecal coliform counts were high at the beginning of the study, but did decrease over time in weak correlation with increasing pH. Enterococcus faecalis displayed counts consistently above UK rainwater harvesting standards. Inappropriate roof and rainwater good design, as well as material selection appear to be responsible for the reduced microbial quality, as they promoted contributions from avian sources and inhibited cleaning activities. Building and RWH system designs require greater consideration of local factors, which are critical for optimising harvested rainwater quality, to prevent both the development of contaminated sediments and health impacts.

BACKGROUND: Conflicting results on the relationship between the hardness of drinking water and mortality related to ischemic heart disease (IHD) or stroke have been reported. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the possible association between tap water calcium or magnesium concentration and total hardness and IHD mortality or stroke mortality. METHODS: In 1986, a cohort of 120,852 men and women aged 55-69 years provided detailed information on dietary and other lifestyle habits. Follow-up for mortality until 1996 was established by linking data from the Central Bureau of Genealogy and Statistics Netherlands. We calculated tap water hardness for each postal code using information obtained from all pumping stations in the Netherlands. Tap water hardness was categorized as soft [ 2.0 mmol/L CaCO(3)). The multivariate case-cohort analysis was based on 1,944 IHD mortality and 779 stroke mortality cases and 4,114 subcohort members. RESULTS: For both men and women, we observed no relationship between tap water hardness and IHD mortality [hard vs. soft water: hazard ratio (HR) = 1.03; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.85-1.28 for men and HR = 0.93; 95% CI, 0.71-1.21 for women) and stroke mortality (hard vs. soft water HR = 0.90; 95% CI, 0.66-1.21 and HR = 0.86; 95% CI, 0.62-1.20, respectively). For men with the 20% lowest dietary magnesium intake, an inverse association was observed between tap water magnesium intake and stroke mortality (HR per 1 mg/L intake = 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61-0.91), whereas for women with the 20% lowest dietary magnesium intake, the opposite was observed. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence for an overall significant association between tap water-hardness, magnesium or calcium concentrations, and IHD mortality or stroke mortality. More research is needed to investigate the effect of tap water magnesium on IHD mortality or stroke mortality in subjects with low dietary magnesium intake.

Bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis is an Asian species that has been introduced to the United States and is regarded as a highly undesirable invader. Soft water has been said to cause the bursting of Asian carp eggs and thus has been suggested as a factor that would limit the spread of this species. To evaluate this, we subjected fertilized eggs of bighead carp to waters with a wide range of hardness and dissolved-solid concentrations. Hatching rate and egg size were not significantly affected by the different water qualities. These results, combined with the low hardness (28–84 mg/L) of the Yangtze River (the primary natal habitat of Hypophthalmichthys spp.), suggest that managers and those performing risk assessments for the establishment of Hypophthalmichthys spp. should be cautious about treating low hardness and dissolved-solid concentrations as limiting factors.