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EFSA was asked by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) to re-evaluate the TDI for phenol of 1.5 mg/kg bw/day, since this value is within the same dose range which was reported to be associated with some haematotoxic and immunotoxic effects in an oral study on phenol. The Panel comprehensively reviewed the available toxicological studies, mainly those using an oral route of exposure. The CEF experts did not consider immunotoxicity as a suitable endpoint on which to base a new TDI for phenol, given the study limitations and the lack of confirmation of phenol-induced immunotoxic effects in other studies. The Panel considered a gavage developmental toxicity study and an oral two-generation reproduction toxicity study as the two most robust toxicity studies, and performed a dose-response analysis of these data using the benchmark dose (BMD) approach. The lower 95 % confidence bound (one-sided) of the BMD, denoted BMDL, was then taken as the reference point. The lowest reference point for deriving a health based guidance value was provided by the BMDL10 of 52 mg/kg bw/day for reduced maternal body weight gain from a developmental toxicity study where rats were exposed to phenol by gavage from gestational day 6 to 16. The CEF Panel set a TDI for phenol to 0.5 mg/kg bw/day, by applying a standard uncertainty factor of 100 (for inter- and intra-species differences) to this BMDL10 value. The Panel did not assess the hazards related to the possible oxidation products of phenol, e.g. quinones/hydroquinones. Therefore, the above TDI only covers phenol. Exposure to phenol may occur via sources other than food contact materials, e.g. flavourings, smoke flavourings, traditionally smoked foods, floor waxes, cosmetics, disinfectants, etc. The European Commission may wish to take note of all these sources of exposure if setting a restriction for phenol in food contact materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fish mycobacteriosis should be considered as one possible means of transmission of mycobacterial infections to humans. In our study, we examined the survival of three field Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis ( MAH) isolates in fish meat during thermal processing technologies using culture and quantitative real-time PCR ( qPCR) methods. Minced carp meat mixture was artificially contaminated with known amount of MAH cells and survival and absolute numbers of MAH was monitored after hot smoking and frying. The viability of MAH was significantly lower after the frying process, whereas in response to hot smoking viable MAH cells could still be cultured even after 10 min at 70 °C. Significant differences in thermal stability were also observed among the three different MAH isolates. The human isolate was the most resistant, whereas the environmental isolate was the least resistant, which is probably due to host adaptability. In this work we confirmed that MAH can survive temperatures of 70 °C and thus can pose a risk to consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smoking is one of the valuation methods of seafood products it is the action of submit ing the fish to the components of wood smoke in order to ensure their preservation and flavoring. The aim of this study is to determine hot smoking impact on flesh compos ition of Anguilla anguilla from the north east of Tunisia: lagoon of Bizerte. Fat content, fatty acids and proximate composition of Anguilla anguilla were analyzed after hot smoking process which was made in a torry and carried out on different stages; the first one consist on brining and the second is about simultaneous heating and smoking. The quality of smoked eels was investigated by analyzing the chemical indices as free fatty acids (FFA), total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) and peroxide value (PV). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concentrations of Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Mn, Zn and Cd in pork, beef, turkey and chicken samples were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The mean concentration ranges in milligrams per 100 g of the studied metals in all samples were 0.6924–1.2154 for Fe, 0.6492–0.9831 for Cu, 0.0012–0.0027 for Pb, 0.041–0.0510 for Ni, 0.1186–0.1481 for Mn, 0.7257–5.2726 for Zn and 0.0042–0.0050 for Cd. The levels of analysed elements were in accordance with European standards for all metals except for manganese in all samples and for nickel in a certain number of samples. Zn level in beef was significantly higher compared to other samples, and Pb and Cd were found in concentrations well below the recommended daily intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tl'azt'en and Lheidli T'enneh First Nation communities have traditionally used smoking, drying, and salting of fish and game as preservation methods to enhance food security. Our results showed that levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were significantly higher in smoked salmon samples compared to moose meats, and further, that PAH contents were also dependent on the duration of smoke processing. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was not detected in fresh or partially smoked foods, but was present in both fully smoked moose (1.4 μg/kg) and fully smoked salmon (3.6 μg/kg) meats, respectively. The total concentrations of PAH present in fully smoked meats using traditional smoke processing methods employed by Tl'azt'en and Lheidli T'enneh nations indicate that a risk assessment is required to determine the safety of these smoke-processed foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An increasing trend in human listeriosis cases over the past five years (2005–2009) in Sweden encouraged the authorities to examine the prevalence and levels of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods in 2010. The combined results of two surveys are presented: the Swedish part of an EU-wide survey and a national survey. A total of 1590 samples covering three categories of RTE food able to support growth of L. monocytogenes: (i) soft and semi-soft cheeses (mould- and smear-ripened); (ii) heat-treated meat products; and (iii) smoked and gravad fish, were collected at retail outlets and analysed at the end of shelf life. L. monocytogenes was detected in 0.4% of 525 cheese samples, 1.2% of 507 meat-product samples and 12% of 558 fish samples. In the latter category, L. monocytogenes was found in 14% of both gravad and cold-smoked fish samples and in approximately 2% of hot-smoked fish samples. The percentage of cold-smoked or gravad fish testing positive for L. monocytogenes was significantly lower in samples processed in Sweden (8%) than in samples processed in other countries (45%). Levels of L. monocytogenes exceeding 100cfu/g were found in one (0.2%) of the cheese samples and in three (0.5%) of the fish samples. The high prevalence of contaminated cold-smoked and gravad fish samples suggests that these products constitute the main problem. This has induced the development of a national strategy plan with the aim to halve the prevalence of L. monocytogenes in cold-smoked and gravad fish at retail in Sweden by the end of year 2015. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing at 250 and 450MPa for 10min combined with the lactoperoxidase system (LPS) on the inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes H66a and the characteristics of cold-smoked salmon during 35d at 5°C were investigated. A synergistic antimicrobial effect of 450MPa and LPS against L. monocytogenes was registered, preventing the pathogen recovery. Biogenic amine formation was avoided. Lightness (L*) values increased by HHP and LPS treatments applied individually or in combination, resulting in a brighter and less transparent appearance of smoked salmon. Redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) were also affected. Hardness and shear strength increased with HHP processing and LPS treatments. HHP at 450MPa for 10min in combination with the LPS added to smoked salmon might be used as a hurdle technology approach against L. monocytogenes, increasing the safety and the shelf-life during refrigerated storage. Industrial relevance: Antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes of high pressure treatments in combination with a biopreservative, the lactoperoxidase system in refrigerated cold-smoked salmon is presented. Color and texture of cold-smoked salmon were affected, whereas the safety and shelf-life of the product were improved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Freshly caught salmon were hot smoked with the traditional smoke processing methods of the Tl'zt'en and Lheidli T'enneh First Nations communities, producing both half-smoked and fully smoked food products. To ascertain the nature of antimicrobial effects related to the smoking process, the residue content of 16 polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and total PAHs of smoked products were determined and correlated with smoking process duration. When compared with fully smoked samples, partially smoked fish had significantly less total PAHs and were composed solely of low-molecular-weight components, with phenanthrene, acenaphthylene, and napthlalene, respectively, being the most abundant. In contrast, fully smoked products possessed significantly higher levels of low- and high-molecular-weight PAHs, including benzo[a]pyrene. Sequential extractions of water, ethyl acetate, and hexane were performed to identify antimicrobial activity imparted by the traditional smoking process. No activity was observed in water or ethyl acetate extractions, whereas hexane extracts were inhibitory to Staphylococcus aureus, with more inhibition observed in fully smoked samples when compared with partially smoked samples. This study provides evidence that traditional smoke processing methods used by First Nations communities can provide value toward producing food products that have extended shelf lives, and protect against a prevalent common pathogen easily transmitted by humans to processed food through direct contact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work was to study the effect of partial sodium replacement by potassium and packaging conditions on the physicochemical properties of smoked sea bass during cold storage. Sea bass fillets were salted with 100% NaCl (Na samples) or with 50% NaCl–50% KCl (Na:K samples), smoked, packaged under three different conditions (air, vacuum and modified atmosphere) and stored at 4 °C for 42 days. Physicochemical parameters, color and texture were periodically determined in the raw material and in smoked samples during cold storage. The smoking process led to a reduction in moisture, pH and aw values, and an increase in water holding capacity, ash and mineral contents. Smoked fish exhibited significant differences in color and texture as compared to fresh fish. The type of packaging had an effect on the pH, water holding capacity and texture. Samples in air exhibited the highest pH values and water holding capacity in these samples gradually decreased during storage. Textural parameters decreased during storage in samples packaged in vacuum and modified atmosphere. The pH of Na samples was initially higher than in Na:K samples, and this difference remained over the rest of the study. The type of salt did not affect the texture or other physicochemical parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Smoking technology is increasingly used nowadays to impart particular organoleptic characteristics to fishes and as a means of maintaining and extending the shelf-life of these perishable products. The antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of smoking have been recently studied in depth, and various methods of smoking are applied worldwide, focusing mainly on species groups such as salmon and other salted fish and seafood. Despite the obvious advantages of the process, there are also a number of hazards related to the consumption of smoked products. One of the most representative examples is the outbreak of various cancers common in countries such as Nigeria and Baltic countries due to the high content of foods in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons produced as a by-product of the process. Furthermore, many studies have demonstrated that smoking with pyrolytic flue gases causes environmental pollution. These facts can have a significant impact on the acceptance of these products by consumers. In this review article, the objective is to describe synoptically the general methods of fish smoking, to report both advantages and disadvantages resulting from these methods, to present safety aspects of smoking both with regard to microbiological and chemical issues and to provide some representative examples of smoked fish applications both in tabular and figural form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhancing Child Nutrition through Animal Source Food Management (ENAM) project provided financial and technical support for caregivers' Income Generation Activities (IGA) with the aim of increasing their access to Animal Source Foods (ASF) for improved child nutrition. Using baseline data from the ENAM project, this study assessed the relationship between the type of caregivers' IGA -whether it is related to ASF [ASF-R] or unrelated [ASF-U] - and the quantity and diversity of ASF consumed by their children. Structured questionnaire was used to obtain data on household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics and children's ASF consumption in the past week from 530 caregivers of children 2-to 5 years old in 12 communities in three agro-ecological zones of Ghana. A weighed food record of children's dietary intakes was also completed during two 12-hour home observations on a randomly selected sample of 117 children. Approximately 6% (n=32) of caregivers were not engaged in any IGA. Of the caregivers who were involved in an IGA (n=498), approximately one-third of them were engaged in an ASF-R IGA, such as selling smoked fish, selling eggs and the selling cooked food that included ASF. Caregivers (67%) were engaged in ASF-U IGA, such as crop farming, petty trading in non ASF items and artisanal work. The quantity and diversity of ASF consumed by the children did not differ (p=0.988 and p=0.593, respectively) by the type of caregiver IGA. However, after accounting for agro-ecological zone, being involved in an ASF-R IGA positively predicted children's ASF diversity (p<0.001). The number of children in the household negatively predicted children's ASF diversity (p=0.011) whereas high/medium household wealth status tended to be positively associated with ASF diversity (p=0.064).The study suggested that there is need to promote ASF-R IGA among caregivers to increase the ability to purchase more varied and nutritious food items for improving children's growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A previously characterized rice hull smoke extract (RHSE) was tested for bactericidal activity against Salmonella Typhimurium using the disc-diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of RHSE was 0.822% (v/v). The in vivo antibacterial activity of RHSE (1.0%, v/v) was also examined in a Salmonella-infected Balb/c mouse model. Mice infected with a sublethal dose of the pathogens were administered intraperitoneally a 1.0% solution of RHSE at four 12-h intervals during the 48-h experimental period. The results showed that RHSE inhibited bacterial growth by 59.4%, 51.4%, 39.6%, and 28.3% compared to 78.7%, 64.6%, 59.2%, and 43.2% inhibition with the medicinal antibiotic vancomycin (20 mg/mL). By contrast, 4 consecutive administrations at 12-h intervals elicited the most effective antibacterial effect of 75.0% and 85.5% growth reduction of the bacteria by RHSE and vancomycin, respectively. The combination of RHSE and vancomycin acted synergistically against the pathogen. The inclusion of RHSE (1.0% v/w) as part of a standard mouse diet fed for 2 wk decreased mortality of 10 mice infected with lethal doses of the Salmonella. Photomicrographs of histological changes in liver tissues show that RHSE also protected the liver against Salmonella-induced pathological necrosis lesions. These beneficial results suggest that the RHSE has the potential to complement wood-derived smokes as antimicrobial flavor formulations for application to human foods and animal feeds. Practical Application: The new antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory rice hull derived liquid smoke has the potential to complement widely used wood-derived liquid smokes as an antimicrobial flavor and health-promoting formulation for application to foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We investigated the concentrations and profiles of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in various grilled and smoked foods and estimated the dietary exposure of Kuwaiti children, adolescent and adult populations. Results indicated that non-carcinogenic PAHs were present at high proportions (60–100%) with phenanthrene showing the highest mean concentration (54.9 μg kg−1, 37.1% of the total PAH concentrations). Among the genotoxic PAHs (PAH8), chrysene (4.88 μg kg−1, 3.29%) and benz[a]anthracene (2.27 μg kg−1, 1.53%) showed the highest mean values. Meat tikka contained the highest mean concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (2.48 μg kg−1), total genotoxic PAHs (42.9 μg kg−1), total PAHs (ΣPAHs) (648 μg kg−1) and total benzo[a]pyrene equivalents (ΣBaPeq) (6.02 μg kg−1). High levels of genotoxic PAHs were detected in grilled vegetables (21.1 μg kg−1), shish tauk (20.5 μg kg−1) and whole grilled chicken (20.3 μg kg−1) samples. However, meat and chicken shawerma samples had low levels of PAH8. Meat tikka (437 ng/day, 641 ng/day), whole grilled chicken (160 ng/day, 241 ng/day), grilled vegetables (120 ng/day, 166 ng/day), meat burger (114 ng/day, 92.7 ng/day) were the major contributors to the daily intake of PAH8 in children/adolescent and adult populations, respectively. The total mean dietary intakes for children/adolescents and adults for BaP (8.09 ng/day, 9.20 ng/day), PAH8 (84.2 ng/day, 95.7 ng/day), ∑PAHs (974 ng/day, 1108 ng/day) and ∑BaPeq (14.8 ng/day, 16.8 ng/day) were comparable. Cancer risks for Kuwaiti children/adolescents and adults from dietary intake of ΣBaPeq from the animal-origin foods were determined to be 2.63/107 and 9.3/107, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Linguiça, a smoked sausage originally from Portugal, is often made in small quantities in California, without inspection. Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica serotype Newport, and Yersinia enterocolitica were added individually to batter representing California linguiça. Batter (≤1 mm thick), heated at 50, 55, and 60 °C, showed decimal reduction times ranging from >10 min for most trials at 50 °C to <2 min at 60 °C. Pork casings, stuffed with the batters to a diameter ≤3 cm, length 10 cm, and weight 75–80 g, were hot smoked; sausage centers were at ≥60 °C for ≥90 min. Contaminant levels in the batters (three experiments/pathogen) ranged from 2.3 × 106 to 3.0 × 1010 CFU/g in various runs; reductions were ≥5 log10 in all cases. These experiments indicate a reasonable margin of safety for products processed in this way. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the physicochemical, textural and sensory properties of smoked pork loins (PL) containing various levels of NaCl (0.0-2.0%) alone or in combination with soy protein isolates (SPI; 1.0%). The pH values, moisture, fat, and protein contents (%) of smoked PL were 5.97-6.17, 63.3-69.1%, 2.64-4.26%, and 20.2-26.6%, respectively. Increased NaCl levels increased moisture contents (%) and sensory scores, as well as reduced Hunter redness and yellowness and cooking loss (CL, %) ( P < 0.05). A NaCl level of 1.0% had resulted in a CL (%) level similar to those at regular-salt levels (1.5% and 2.0% NaCl). When 1.0% SPI was incorporated with smoked PL, the NaCl level of 0.5% was also similar to the CL (%) at higher NaCl levels and improved sensory scores. Thus, a NaCl level of at least 1.0% was required for the manufacture of smoked PL; however, smoked PL could be manufactured with 0.5% salt when 1.0% SPI was included as part of the manufacture of smoked PL to effect quality characteristics similar to those achieved with regular-salt (1.5% and 2.0% NaCl) smoked PL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of liquid smoke on the sensory characteristics of giant river prawn ( Macrobrachium rosenbergii). The sensorial profile was plotted using quantitative descriptive analysis and assessment of the acceptability of samples of beheaded and peeled and only beheaded freshwater prawns smoked using the traditional method or liquid smoke (LS). The prawns subjected to LS were characterised by their aroma, artificial flavour and bitter flavour. The beheaded, peeled prawns were found to be more acceptable, confirming that the presence of the shell is a limiting factor in the acceptability of smoked prawns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contamination patterns of Listeria monocytogenes were studied in a cold-smoked pork processing plant to identify the sources and possible reasons for the contamination. Environmental sampling combined with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) subtyping and serotyping were applied to investigate the genetic diversity of L. monocytogenes in the plant environment and ready-to-eat (RTE) cold-smoked pork products. A total of 183 samples were collected for contamination analyses, including samples of the product at different stages during manufacture (n = 136) and environmental samples (n = 47) in 2009. L. monocytogenes isolates, previously recovered from 73 RTE cold-smoked pork samples and collected from the same meat processing plant in 2004, were included in this study. The brining machine and personnel working with brining procedures were the most contaminated places with L. monocytogenes. The overall prevalence of L. monocytogenes in raw pork (18%) increased to 60% after the brining injections. The brining machine harbored six different PFGE types belonging to serotypes 1/2a, 1/2c, 4b, and 4d, which were found on the feeding teeth, smooth surfaces, and spaces of the machine, thus potentially facilitating dissemination of L. monocytogenes contamination. Two PFGE types (2 and 8) belonging to serotypes 1/2a and 1/2c were recovered from RTE cold-smoked pork collected in 2004, and from surfaces of the brining machine sampled in 2009, and may indicate the presence of persistent L. monocytogenes strains in the plant. Due to poor hygiene design, removal of the brining machine from the production of cold-smoked meat products should be considered to reduce L. monocytogenes contamination in the finished products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to determine the proximate composition and physicochemical parameters of different smoked and marinated fish to provide a database with the typical values of the parameters which best define these products. Three batches corresponding to different purchase dates of 15 commercial products were analyzed. Great variability in all parameters was observed between products and between batches of a same product, e.g., in smoked anchovy, NaCl contents varied from 7.1 to 11.8% (w/w), which led to a wide variation in the aw (from 0.877 to 0.931). These important differences found in moisture, NaCl contents, pH, aw, water holding capacity, and color, between batches would affect product shelf life and its sensory features. This variability implies that the consumer expectations would not be met. For this reason, producers should adjust the processing parameters in order to obtain smoked and marinated fish with homogeneous characteristics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS This study deals with the composition and physicochemical characterization of different smoked and marinated fish products available in the market. For these kinds of products, certain physicochemical parameters are directly related to shelf life and sensory characteristics. In this sense, the aw decrease, the NaCl content increase, and/or the pH reduction are the main responsible for prolonging the shelf life of these products. On the other hand, salt content, water holding capacity and color have an important impact on the sensory attributes, which have direct implications for consumers' acceptability. An accurate knowledge of the typical values of the main characteristics in smoked and marinated fish would allow the parameters which best define these products to be standardized, providing a reference for producers and researchers in the field of new product development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have observed a high incidence of calcium lactate surface crystals on naturally smoked Cheddar cheese in the retail marketplace. The objective of this study was to identify chemical changes that may occur during natural smoking that render Cheddar cheese more susceptible to calcium lactate crystal formation. Nine random-weight (approximately 300 g) retail-packaged samples of smoked Cheddar cheese were obtained from a commercial manufacturer immediately after the samples were smoked for about 6 h at 20°C in a commercial smokehouse. Three similarly sized samples that originated from the same 19.1-kg block of cheese and that were not smoked were also obtained. Within 2 d after smoking, 3 smoked and 3 control (not smoked) samples were sectioned into 5 subsamples at different depths representing 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8, and 8 to 10 mm from the cheese surface. Six additional smoked cheese samples were similarly sectioned at 4 wk and again at 10 wk of storage at 5°C. Sample sections were analyzed for moisture, l(+) and d(-) lactate, pH, and water-soluble calcium. The effects of treatment (smoked, control), depth from cheese surface, and their interactions were analyzed by ANOVA according to a repeated measures design with 2 within-subject variables. Smoked samples contained signficantly lower moisture and lower pH, and higher total lactate-inmoisture (TLIM) and water-soluble calcium-in-moisture (WSCIM) than control cheeses. Smoked samples also contained significant gradients of moisture, pH, TLIM, and WSCIM, with lower moisture and pH, and higher TLIM and WSCIM, occurring at the cheese surface. Gradients of moisture were still present in smoked samples at 4 and 10 wk of storage. In contrast, the pH, TLIM, and WSCIM equilibrated and showed no gradients at 4 and 10 wk. The results indicate that calcium and lactate in the serum phase of the cheese were elevated because of smoking, especially at the cheese surface immediately after smoking treatment, which presumably predisposes the smoked cheeses to increased susceptibility to calcium lactate surface crystallization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of different thermal and chemical pre-treatments on quality and enzyme activities of smoked mushroom was investigated. Mushrooms were blanched (water and steam) and dipped in different concentrations of SO2, H2O2, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and citric acid for 10 min before smoking. Enzyme activities, colour characteristics, microbiological and sensory examinations were carried out every 2 weeks up to 8 weeks of storage at 4 °C. Smoked mushroom pre-treated with sulphites (SO2), H2O2 and steam blanching had the best colour values, better scores for all sensory characteristics and lower non-enzymatic browning compared with the other pre-treatments. Pre-treatment against total aerobic bacteria, yeast and moulds was the most effective when using citric acid, EDTA and steam, followed by smoking of mushroom. The most effective pre-treatments on quality and safety of smoked mushrooms were those using H2O2 and steam. It can be concluded that thermal and chemical treatments followed by smoking of mushroom reduce enzyme activities and are suitable for preserving mushrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effect of pine needle extract from Cedrus deodara (PNE) on the quality and safety of Chinese traditional smoked bacon was observed, and its action mechanism was further investigated. With the treatment of PNE, the quality properties of smoked bacon, including moisture content, pH and titratable acidity values, color, texture and volatile compositions, were all ameliorated. Meanwhile, the peroxide value (POV), thiobarbituric acid value (TBARS) and nitrite content of smoked bacon with PNE decreased. In addition, the content of N -nitrosodimethylamine in smoked bacon gradually decreased with the increased concentration of PNE. Moreover, the heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were not detected in smoked bacon with PNE, while the types and contents of light PAHs in smoked bacon were both reduced by PNE. With the measurement of fluorescence spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy, the secondary and tertiary structures of myofibrillar protein in smoked bacon were both changed though the treatment of PNE. Furthermore, according to the analysis of molecular docking, hydrogen bond was the main molecular force between PNE and meat proteins in smoked bacon. All present results suggested that PNE had the potential value to improve the quality and safety of smoked bacon in food industry. [Display omitted] • PNE had the ability to improve the quality of smoked bacon. • PNE could decrease the POV, TBARS and nitrite content of smoked bacon. • PNE could reduce the formation of N -nitrosodimethylamine in smoked bacon. • PNE could inhibit the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked bacon. • PNE changed the structure and property of meat proteins by noncovalent interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of our previously conducted studies demonstrated that high hydrostatic pressure can be effective in elimination of pathogenic and spoilage microflora from food products and may extend their shelf-life. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of ultra high pressure treatment on sensory properties of selected smoked fish. It was found that high hydrostatic pressure (300 i 400 MPa applied for 5, 10 i 15 min) did not exert statistically significant influence on the color, smell, taste and texture of vacuum-packaged, cold-smoked salmon and hot-smoked mackerel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processing of fish is generally conducted postrigor, but prerigor processing is associated with some potential advantages. The aim of this study was to study how 5 processing regimes of cold-smoked cod and salmon conducted at different stages of rigor influenced yield, fillet shrinkage, and gaping. Farmed cod and salmon was filleted, salted by brine injection of 25% NaCl, and smoked for 2 h at different stages of rigor. Filleting and salting prerigor resulted in increased fillet shrinkage and less increase in weight during brine injection, which in turn was correlated to the salt content of the fillet. These effects were more pronounced in cod fillets when compared to salmon. Early processing reduced fillet gaping and fillets were evaluated as having a firmer texture. In a follow-up trial with cod, shrinkage and weight gain during injection was studied as an effect of processing time postmortem. No changes in weight gain were observed for fillets salted the first 24 h postmortem; however, by delaying the processing 12 h postmortem, the high and rapid shrinking of cod fillets during brine injection was halved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residual levels of Cd, Pb and As in "provola" cheese from Calabria, nonsmoked, smoked with natural methods and commercial buffered smoke, were evaluated. The highest concentrations of Cd and As were found in naturally smoked "provola" cheese, while the highest levels of Pb were recorded in buffered smoked samples. These results, also expressed according to provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) by FAO/WHO, have showed that nonsmoked, naturally smoked and buffered smoked "provola" cheeses do not contribute significantly to heavy metal intake in the human diet. The use of controlled commercial buffered smoke, however, is a safer technique for the smoking process of "provola" cheese as far as the amounts of toxic metals, except for Pb, is concerned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two different protocols for the production of cold smoked salmon were investigated. All fillets were dry salted (18 h, 4 °C) before being allotted to a smoke condensate/liquid smoke protocol (SCP), which included drenching (1 min) in smoke condensate [1:3 (v/v) smoke:water] and drying (150 min, 28.4 ± 2.2 °C) or a wood chips protocol (WCP) that included drying and smoking in a regular smoking chamber (23 °C, 480 min) using wood chips for smoke production. Quality assessments were performed on the smoked fillets at day 0 and after 7, 14, and 31 d of storage (3.4 ± 0.7 °C). Application of the SCP resulted in a significantly higher ( P < 0.01) processing yield (89.6%± 0.7%) as compared to the WCP (88.6%± 0.5%). On day 0, the SCP fillets were significantly ( P < 0.01) less light ( L*) and yellow ( b*) and had a lower chroma ( C*) and hue ( h*) compared to the fillets processed with WCP. From 7 d until the end of storage time, small differences in color were observed. After 31 d of storage, the SCP fillets had a significantly higher ( P < 0.05) intensity of oily texture and lower intensity of salty and smoke taste. Texture profile analysis (TPA) showed few significant differences between the processing protocols, although the WCP fillets were significantly harder than the SCP fillets when recording the force at 60% compression of the fillet height. The use of smoke condensate and drenching technology is a way of producing cold smoked salmon with quality characteristics quite similar to those found in commercial “traditional” products, although processors who want to use this technology have to optimize the drying step and the smoke condensate formulation to their specifications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Levels of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and benzo[a]anthracene (BaA) in “Provola” cheese samples from Calabria, smoked naturally and using commercial smoke-flavouring, have been determined. A comparative study of BaP and BaA concentrations was carried out on rind, exterior zone, core and slice of these samples. Quantitative determination of BaP and BaA was ascertained by HPLC using fluorescence detection. Levels of BaP and BaA were found in all smoked “Provola” cheese samples, but higher in cheese smoked with natural methods (0.46-1.13 µg kg-1 for BaP and 1.38-9.29 µg kg-1 for BaA) compared to samples smoked using commercial flavouring (0.085-0.32 µg kg-1 for BaP and 1.20-2.98 µg kg-1 for BaA). The smoking process contributes to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination; however, for improved food safety, the use of commercial buffered smoke is preferable to traditional smoking procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was developed for the analysis of 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) highlighted as carcinogenic by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) plus benzo[c]fluorine (recommended to be analysed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)) in fat-containing foods such as edible oils and smoked meat products. This method includes accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and the highly automated clean-up steps gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and solid-phase extraction (SPE). Using a VF-17ms GC column, a good separation of benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[j]fluoranthene and benzo[k]fluoranthene was achieved. Furthermore, the six methylchrysene isomers and the PAH compounds with a molecular weight of 302 Daltons in fat-containing foods attained a better chromatographic separation in comparison with a 5-ms column. The reliability of the analytical method for edible oils was demonstrated by the results from a proficiency test. Measurements with GC-high-resolution mass spectroscopy (HRMS) and gas chromatography-mass selective detection (GC-MSD) led to comparable results. A survey of the 16 PAHs in 22 smoked meat products showed concentrations in the range kg-1. The median concentration for benzo[a]pyrene was below 0.15 µg kg-1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are generated during smoke curing and other heating treatments of food and represent a large class of chemical pollutants including a number of carcinogens. At present, PAHs are frequently detected by costly and time-consuming chemical analysis. Effect-directed in vitro cell-based bioassays of contaminants can offer a rapid, sensitive, and relatively inexpensive alternative for screening of contaminants in comparison to instrumental analysis. They enable estimation of total biological activity of all compounds acting through the same mode of binding. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor as a binding site plays an important role in PAH-induced carcinogenesis. The in vitro chemical-activated luciferase expression assay (using conditions to detect PAH) was investigated for its applicability for effect-directed analysis of PAH levels in smoked meat. There was an intra-assay variability of 0 to 15% and a mean coefficient of variation of 25% (3 to 50%) for the cleanup and bioassay analysis of the smoked pork samples. There was a correlation between the total responses of the bioassay and the individual amounts of the PAHs with a high molecular weight. The comparison of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and benzo[k]fluoranthene used as standard in the in vitro chemical-activated luciferase expression assay resulted in benzo[k]fluoranthene being able to be used as an alternative, nontoxic standard in the bioassay. This bioassay is an applicable effect-directed functional prescreening method for the analysis of PAHs in smoked meat and appears to have potential in being used for food control in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine the shelf life, as well as chemical and microbiological quality of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L., 1758) prepared by 2 different methods of smoking (hot smoking and cold smoking). The effects of hot and cold smoking on the chemical composition and microbial load of gilthead seabream, as well as organoleptic analysis of the smoked product were investigated. Significant (P < 0.05) differences were found in the chemical composition of fresh and smoked seabream. The panelists liked the hot smoked fish more than the cold smoked fish, according to sensory analysis results. Changes in pH, thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) values were significant (P < 0.05) during storage at 4 °C. Microbiological analysis results demonstrated that the smoking techniques reduced the microbial content of the fish, whereas microbial content increased during storage. The smoking methods tested had a small effect on the level of vitamin D3 in gilthead seabream. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fillets were processed using five different methods (smoking, canning, freezing, acidifying, and salting) to evaluate the effect of preservation choice on the quality of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Salmon preserved by smoking, canning, or freezing retained higher values of total fatty acids, including n-3 PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Salting and acidifying (pickling) treatments resulted in a significant decrease in PUFAs. The results of this study are intended to provide direction for handling and storage of salmon to retain the maximum levels of high-value n-3 PUFAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analytical method based on gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) (triple quadrupole device) has been developed for quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked salmon. This method was applied to determine PAH concentrations in smoked fish and assess the impact of four industrial smoking processes on their profiles. Two smokehouse temperatures and three smoke-exposure times were applied. All the smoking techniques used lead to acceptable PAH levels: the quantities recovered are 100 times lower than the legal limit (5 µg kg-1) concerning the principal PAH, i.e. benzo[a]pyrene. To compare different smoking processes, the toxic equivalent quantity (TEQ) approach was chosen. Smouldering leads to the highest TEQ, while liquid smoke leads to the lowest TEQ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An alternative technique to traditional smoking of swordfish was evaluated. Fillets were dry salted and/or brine salted in 30% NaCl, and smoked by dipping in smoke condensate solution at different concentrations. Chemical (water-phase salt, pH, total volatile basic nitrogen, lipid oxidation), microbiological (total mesophilic count and fecal coliforms count) and sensory analyses were carried out in order to establish which technique gave the best results in terms of sensory quality. The different salting techniques gave different water-phase salt contents, which influenced the microbial growth and the production of volatile bases. The smoke condensate concentration was ineffective toward microbial growth, but it was a differentiating factor for sensory panel. The dry-salted product smoked with 5% smoke condensate was preferred because it maintained the natural taste of fish, coupled with a pleasant flavor of smoke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some subtypes of Listeria monocytogenes can persist in the food-processing industry, but the reasons for such persistence are not known. In the present study, 10 strains of L. monocytogenes representing known persistent randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) types from fish processing plants were compared to eight strains of different RAPD type and origin (clinical, food, and animal). All 18 strains of L. monocytogenes had similar growth patterns at different temperatures (5 or 37°C) or different salinities (0.5 or 5% NaCl), and all strains formed a thin layer of adhered cells on a plastic surface when cultured in tryptone soya broth (TSB) with a total of 1% glucose. Many ready-to-eat foods, such as cold-smoked fish, contain NaCl at concentrations of 2 to 5%, and NaCl is present in the processing environment. Adding NaCl to TSB changed the adhesion patterns of all strains, and all adhered better when NaCl was added. Also, the addition of NaCl caused a marked aggregation of 13 of the strains; however, 5 of the 18 strains did not aggregate in the presence of up to 5% NaCl. The aggregates stuck to the plastic surface, and this occurred in all but one of the persistent RAPD types. Four strains represented one particular RAPD type that has been isolated as a persistent RAPD type in several fish processing plants for up to 10 years. Because this RAPD type often can contaminate fish products, it is important to address its potential virulence. The 18 strains differed markedly in their ability to invade Caco-2 cells, and the four strains representing the universal persistent RAPD type were the least invasive (10² to 10³ CFU/ml), whereas other strains invaded Caco-2 cells at levels of 104 to 105 CFU/ml. Five of the 18 strains belonged to the genetic lineage 1 and were the most invasive. Although the most commonly isolated persistent RAPD type was low invasive, it is important to understand why moderate salinity facilitates aggregation and biofilm formation, for this understanding can be beneficial in developing procedures to reduce processing plant contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) standards in model systems was carried out by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled to a direct extraction device (DED) and subsequent gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). PAHs standard was added to gelatine systems at different concentrations. Extraction process was carried out by SPME-DED at 25°C for 60min. Polydimethylsiloxane 100μm (PDMS 100μm), divinylbenzene/polydimethylsiloxane 65μm (DVB/PDMS 65μm) and polyacrilate 85μm (PA 85μm) SPME fibres were tested. SPME-DED satisfactorily extracted PAHs with a molecular weight (MW) lower than 206 from the gelatine system. All fibres showed a good reproducibility (residual standard deviation (RSD) between 5.24% and 18.25%), linearity (regression coefficients between 0.8959 and 0.9983) and limit of detection (LOD) (between 0.008 and 0.138ngmL−1). Presence of PAHs in different smoked meat products was also tested by SPME-DED. Different low MW PAHs were satisfactorily detected from all the foodstuffs studied. SPME-DED appears as a rapid, non-destructive technique for primary screening of low MW PAHs in solid matrixes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A sampling and analysis method for the determination of 21 phenolic compounds in smoke samples from biomass combustion has been developed. The smoke is used to make smoked foods, following an artisanal procedure used in some parts of the Canary Islands. The sampling system consists of a Bravo H air sampler, two impingers, each one containing an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide 0.1 mol L−1, followed by a silica gel trap. The variables optimized to reach the best sampling conditions were volume of absorbent solution and sampling flow. Under the optimum conditions, 100 mL of absorbent solution of NaOH 0.10 mol L−1 and 2 L min−1 for the sampling flow, sampling efficiencies are higher than 80%. Analysis of phenolic compounds was carried out by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Five different fiber coatings were employed in this study. By means of a central composite design, extraction time, salt concentration, and pH of the solution were optimized: 65-μm carbowax–divinylbenzene, extraction time 90 min, concentration in NaCl of 35% (m/v), and pH 2 yielded the highest response. Detection limits of phenol and their alkyl derivatives, guaiacol and eugenol, are between 1.13 and 4.60 ng mL−1. 3-Methoxyphenol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, and vanillin have detection limits considerably higher. Good linearity ( R 2≥0.98) was observed for all calibration curves in the established ranges. The reproducibility of the method (RSD, relative standard deviation) was found to oscillate between 7 and 18% (generally close or lower than 10%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An existing method was adapted to the purpose and validated in-house according to the IUPAC harmonised guideline for the determination of 15 EU priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in primary smoke condensates (PSCs) that are used to produce smoke flavourings for human consumption. Limits of detection (LOD) varied between 0.1 and 1.3μg/kg, limits of quantitation (LOQ) between 0.5 and 4μg/kg for the various PAHs in PSCs. The coefficient of variance of the repeatability was between 0.7% (benzo[a]pyrene) and 30% (dibenzo[a,h]pyrene) relative standard deviation, depending on the analyte. The recoveries varied between 100 and 102% (dibenzo[a,l]pyrene) and 69–83% (dibenzo[a,h]pyrene) over the analytical range of 5–35μg/kg. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The effects of whey protein isolate (WPI) films and coatings incorporating lysozyme (LZ) on the inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes both in and on microbial media, as well as on cold-smoked salmon, were studied. The antimicrobial effects of LZ were examined using various growth media by turbidity and plate counting tests. Disc-covering and disc-surface- spreading tests were also used to evaluate the effects of WPI films incorporating LZ. Smoked salmon was used as a model food to test the antimicrobial effects of WPI coatings incorporating LZ, both initially and during storage at 4 and 10°C for 35 days. Tensile properties (elastic modulus, tensile strength, and percentage of elongation), oxygen permeability, and color (Hunter L, a, and b) of WPI films with and without LZ were also compared. LZ inhibited L. monocytogenes in broth and on agar media. The number of cells surviving after LZ treatments depended on the type of media. WPI films incorporating 204 mg of LZ per g of film (dry basis) inhibited the growth of a preparation of 4.4 log CFU/cm² L. monocytogenes. WPI coatings prepared with 25 mg of LZ per g of coating solution initially inactivated more than 2.4, 4.5, and 3.0 log CFU/g of L. monocytogenes, total aerobes, and yeasts and molds in smoked salmon samples, respectively. The WPI coatings incorporating LZ efficiently retarded the growth of L. monocytogenes at both 4 and 10°C. The anti-L. monocytogenes effect of LZ-WPI coating was more noticeable when the coating was applied before inoculation than when the coating was applied after inoculation. Significantly higher elastic modulus values and lower percentage of elongation and oxygen permeability values were measured with the WPI films incorporating LZ than with the plain WPI films. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of temperature (4 and 10–12 °C) and time (6, 12 and 24 h) on colorimetric parameters (Commission International de l'Eclairage (CIE) L* a* b*), carotenoid concentration, salt content and yield were investigated in brine (saturated or 50% saturation) and dry salted fillets of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar). Lightness ( L*), yellowness ( b*), hue ( H ab) and chroma ( C*) values were lower at 10 than 4 °C ( P < 0.01), whereas redness ( a*) was unaffected. L* increased ( P < 0.05) and a*, b*, H ab and C* values dropped when salting time was increased ( P < 0.001). Astaxanthin concentration of brine-salted fillets decreased with increasing salting time ( P < 0.05), but was unaffected by salting temperature. Increasing salting time affected colour negatively. The salt content of dry salted fillets increased with temperature and salting time. The process yield was unaffected by temperature and decreased with salting time. In conclusion, the cold smoking process is more important for variation in quality parameters than the salting process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: There has been recent interest in developing hot smoking kilns avoiding benzo(a)pyrene deposition on meat. An experimental kiln limiting this deposition phenomenon has been designed, built and tested. This kiln is used to dry, smoke and cook pork meat in order to obtain boucané, a traditional smoked product from La Réunion Island. Smoking is performed by using cooled pyrolysis smoke, while heating is obtained by means of radiant metal plates heated by combustion smoke. The dimensioning of the drying–cooking chamber has been performed by developing and solving a dynamic model that takes into account the heat and mass transfer phenomena on a local scale. This paper is mainly devoted to the presentation of this model and to the comparison of the first experimental results—concerning temperature variations in the chamber, and the product temperature and mass loss—to numerical simulation results. Some results obtained from dynamic simulations are discussed. The relative influences of the system dimensions, of the radiative transfers and of the drying phenomena on the performances of the system are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The spread and persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in smoked fish products and seafood processing factories are big concerns. Thus, the corresponding quality assurance programs must include adequate microbiological control measures. We evaluated eight different pre-PCR sample processing strategies to be coupled with a previously developed real-time PCR assay for the quantitative detection of L. monocytogenes in salmon products. The optimal pre-PCR procedure involved filtration and DNA purification with the use of a commercial kit. This strategy could detect 10 CFU of L. monocytogenes per g of smoked salmon and could quantify 1,000 CFU/g with excellent accuracy compared with the standard plate count method. Thus, this method could be a promising alternative for the quantitative detection of L. monocytogenes in smoked fish products and processing factories. This method could also detect the bacterium in raw salmon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports the water activity, moisture, sodium chloride, pH, acidity, vinegar, total plate count, fecal coliform, coliform and Clostridium botulinum of canned mussels processed by 2 different smoking techniques. The results indicated that the average measured water activity was 0.971 ± 0.001 for liquid smoked canned mussel with curry sauce and 0.982 ± 0.001 for traditional smoked mussel. The moisture of samples varied between 69.440% for traditional smoked mussel and 76.35% for salting before traditional smoking. The moisture, salt, pH, acidity and vinegar were significantly different in some of the groups (P < 0.05). Mussels smoked using liquid and oak wood sawdust, in tomato puree sauce, curry sauce and sunflower oil sauce, were sterilized at 120 ± 1 °C and 5.2 ± 0.1 F0. In none of the products was swelling or C. botulinum detected at 37 °C or 55 °C. Prior to canning, the mussels were investigated for fecal coliform, coliform and total plate count and found to carry no risk in terms of these parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Listeria monocytogenes contamination of ready-to-eat seafood products commercially available in Osaka was examined between 1999 and 2000. L. monocytogenes was isolated from 12 (13%) of the 95 products tested. All positive samples were from cold-smoked fish with 9 being obtained during the summer. Thirteen isolates of L. monocytogenes were typed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based typing methods. Isolates of the same serotype originating from the same manufacturer gave similar DNA profiles, irrespective of the type of sample or date of isolation. The finding suggest that persistent strains in each manufacturing facility proliferate during the summer and contaminate products during manufacturing processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

m. lebois, n. connil, b. onno, h. prévost and x. dousset. 2004. To investigate the main effects and interactions of different factors : divercin V41 (0–4 ng ml−1), NaCl content (0·5–5·5% w v−1), phenol (liquid smoke) concentration (0–8 ppm), and pH (5·5–7·5) on Listeria monocytogenes ScottA growth. Experiments were carried out in BHI broth using a central composite design. Divercin V41 (div41), NaCl content and pH were found to be the most influential factors whereas phenol concentration in liquid smoke had no effect on L. monocytogenes ScottA growth in our experimental domain. The combined effects of div41, NaCl content and pH decreased L. monocytogenes ScottA maximum specific growth rate ( μmax) from 0·34 to 0·01 h−1 and led to a significant increase in lag time (tlag) from 5·5 to 25 h. In this study, NaCl, pH and phenol conditions were similar to those currently observed in smoked salmon production. This shows that L. monocytogenes ScottA growth could be efficiently delayed by the use of div41 in addition to the usual technological hurdles. In conclusion, the technological hurdles of cold smoked salmon production could be further optimized and combined with the use of div41 or the div41 producer strain to improve the food safety of the product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]