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Hierarchical linear models (HLM) with random coefficients are more appropriate than ordinary least squares (OLS) methods in the meta-analyses of response time (RT) data and for testing general slowing theories. HLM show significant variance in slowing across tasks and demonstrate a process-specific effect by showing less slowing for memory scanning than for visual-search and mental-rotation tasks. OLS, on the other hand, does not account for the nested nature of multitask RT data, making them unsuitable for testing GS theories.

Objectives The Strength and Vulnerability Integration (SAVI) theory posits boundary conditions, such as chronic stress, which place constraints on positive emotional aging. We examine SAVI's prediction that higher levels of chronic stress will attenuate favorable age gradients for multiple indices of well-being. Methods We used cross-sectional data from a diverse systematic probability sample of adults (n = 260, ages 25–65). Multiple regression analysis was used to examine age gradients and test age × chronic stress interactions on 5 measures of well-being relevant for SAVI's prediction: positive and negative affect, life satisfaction, emotional distress, and rumination. Results Age was unrelated to well-being unless individual differences in health limitations were statistically controlled, in which case older age was associated with more favorable levels of well-being. Chronic stress significantly interacted with age for negative affect, emotional distress, rumination, and life satisfaction; examination of the interactions indicated that age was no longer associated with more favorable levels of well-being at higher levels of chronic stress. Discussion Our findings support a key prediction of SAVI by demonstrating that high levels of chronic stress present a boundary condition for favorable age gradients on well-being. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding the "paradox" of well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Engaging in mentally challenging activities is associated with reduced risk for cognitive impairment and dementia; however, its association with rates of cognitive decline has been inconsistent. The aim of this study is to test whether working in mentally challenging occupations is related to rates of cognitive change at later older adulthood. Method The sample consisted of 1,520 individuals (baseline mean age = 78.6 ± 5.1, range = 64–100) from the Einstein Aging Study. Occupation information of each participant was collected retrospectively and linked with the substantive complexity of work score from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Cognitive changes in memory, speed, and executive function (EF) domains were represented using two time metrics (i.e. time from retirement, time from study enrollment). Results Results from mixed models showed that occupational complexity was associated with significantly faster rates of cognitive decline in speed and EF in the "time from retirement" model but not in the "time from baseline" model. Despite faster cognitive loss, the protective effect of occupational complexity persisted for decades after retirement due to higher initial levels of cognition. Discussion The result suggests that protective factors for cognitive health may be associated with delayed onset but more rapid cognitive decline afterwards at later stages of cognitive aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The current study examined whether self-reported memory problems among cognitively intact older adults changed concurrently with, preceded, or followed depressive symptoms over time.Design: Data were collected annually via in-person comprehensive medical and neuropsychological examinations as part of the Einstein Aging Study.Setting: Community-dwelling older adults in an urban, multi-ethnic area of New York City were interviewed.Participants: The current study included a total of 1,162 older adults (Mage = 77.65, SD = 5.03, 63.39% female; 74.12% White). Data were utilized from up to 11 annual waves per participant.Measurements: Multilevel modeling tested concurrent and lagged associations between three types of memory self-report (frequency of memory problems, perceived one-year decline, and perceived ten-year decline) and depressive symptoms.Results: Results showed that self-reported frequency of memory problems covaried with depressive symptoms only in participants who were older at baseline. Changes in perceived one-year and ten-year memory decline were related to changes in depressive symptoms across all ages. Depressive symptoms increased the likelihood of perceived ten-year memory decline the next year; however, perceived ten-year memory decline did not predict future depressive symptoms. Additionally, no significant temporal relationship was observed between depressive symptoms and self-reported frequency of memory problems or perceived one-year memory decline.Conclusion: Our findings highlight the importance of testing the unique associations of different types of self-reported memory problems with depressive symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Individuals' emotional responses to stressors in everyday life are associated with long-term physical and mental health. Among many possible risk factors, the stressor-related emotional responses may play an important role in future development of depressive symptoms.Purpose: The current study examined how individuals' positive and negative emotional responses to everyday stressors predicted their subsequent changes in depressive symptoms over 18 months.Methods: Using an ecological momentary assessment approach, participants (n = 176) reported stressor exposure, positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) five times a day for 1 week (n = 5,483 observations) and provided longitudinal reports of depressive symptoms over the subsequent 18 months. A multivariate multilevel latent growth curve model was used to directly link the fluctuations in emotions in response to momentary stressors in everyday life with the long-term trajectory of depressive symptoms.Results: Adults who demonstrated a greater difference in stressor-related PA (i.e., relatively lower PA on stressor vs. nonstressor moments) reported larger increases in depressive symptoms over 18 months. Those with greater NA responses to everyday stressors (i.e., relatively higher NA on stressor vs. nonstressor moments), however, did not exhibit differential long-term changes in depressive symptoms.Conclusions: Adults showed a pattern consistent with both PA and NA responses to stressors in everyday life, but only the stressor-related changes in PA (but not in NA) predicted the growth of depressive symptoms over time. These findings highlight the important-but often overlooked-role of positive emotional responses to everyday stressors in long-term mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Response time inconsistency (RTI)—or trial-to-trial variability in speeded performance—is increasingly recognized as an indicator of transient lapses of attention, cognitive health status, and central nervous system integrity, as well as a potential early indicator of normal and pathological cognitive aging. Comparatively, little research has examined personality predictors of RTI across adulthood. Methods We evaluated the association between the personality trait neuroticism and RTI in a community-dwelling sample of 317 adults between the ages of 19–83 and tested for two indirect pathways through negative affect (NA) and cognitive interference (CI). Results The personality trait neuroticism predicted greater RTI independent of mean response time performance and demographic covariates; the results were age-invariant. Furthermore, NA (but not CI) accounted for this association and moderated mediation model results indicated that older adults were more vulnerable to the adverse effects of NA. Discussion Neuroticism predicts greater RTI irrespective of mean performance and this effect is driven largely by heightened negative emotionality that may be particularly detrimental for older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Measurement burst designs, using ambulatory cognitive assessments facilitate the dissociation of retest effects from optimal ("asymptotic") performance. Dissociating these features via cognitive process modeling may reveal indices of subtle cognitive impairment that signal risk for neurocognitive decline. We investigated cross‐sectional associations between plasma NfL (a biomarker of neurodegeneration), retest improvements, and optimal performance on the Symbol Match task, which assesses processing speed by response time (RT), in a racially/ethnically diverse community‐based EAS Study cohort. Method: Analyses included 283 EAS participants free of dementia (Mean age = 77.4 years, SD = 4.8, Range = 70‐91; 67% Female; 46% Non‐Hispanic White, 40% Non‐Hispanic Black). Among them, 82 met the Jak/Bondi criteria of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Participants completed a smartphone cognitive battery, resulting in up to 96 assessment sessions (six times per day for 16 days). Plasma NfL concentration was measured using a Single molecule array assay. A mixed‐effect negative exponential model was used to examine the associations between plasma NfL and indices of subtle cognitive impairment adjusting for covariates including age, gender, education, and race/ethnicity. Retest improvement was measured by the exponential decrease in RT across sessions and optimal performance was measured by asymptotic RT (fastest performance). Result: On average, the RT of the Symbol Match task was 3.4 seconds (SD = 0.9). Mean plasma NfL level was 23.9 pg/mL (SD = 17.5). Higher plasma NfL levels were associated with a reduced retest improvement rate per session (estimate = ‐0.011, 95% confidence interval (‐0.013, ‐0.008) corresponding to one SD increase in plasma NfL, p<0.001). No significant association between plasma NfL and optimal cognitive performance was found. Stratified analyses showed NfL's association with retest improvement was larger in non‐Hispanic Whites than in non‐Hispanic Blacks (‐0.009 vs ‐0.002), although formal testing of the interaction between NfL and race was not significant. Results remained very similar excluding participants with MCI. Conclusion: Higher plasma NfL was associated with a reduced retest improvement rate on a smartphone processing speed task, highlighting its potential value for identifying subtle cognitive impairment. Longitudinal data from larger samples, a broader array of biomarkers and of ambulatory cognitive tests, are required to fully explore these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]